BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINE

FOR THE
CONSTRUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL NETTING
STRUCTURES

Document Number: J1974-01

Revision: 2.0
01 August 2022
BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL NETTING STRUCTURES Rev. 2.0

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................. ii
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... 1
DISCLAIMER .......................................................................................................................... 2
1 PREFACE ...................................................................................................................... 3
2 OVERVIW OF GUIDE .................................................................................................... 4
3 AGRICULTURAL NETTING SYSTEMS – BEST PRACTICE GUIDELINE .................. 5
3.1 Scope .................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Terms and Definitions ........................................................................................... 5

4 THE ACQUISITION PROCESS ..................................................................................... 7

5 USER REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................... 9
6 DESIGN PARAMETERS ............................................................................................. 10
7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN .............................................................................................. 11
7.1 Structural Layout ................................................................................................. 12
7.2 Cable Diameters and Stressing Forces .............................................................. 13
7.3 Internal Pole Diameter vs Length ....................................................................... 15
7.4 Internal Pole Founding ........................................................................................ 15
7.5 Perimeter Pole Sizing ......................................................................................... 18
7.6 Perimeter Pole Founding .................................................................................... 18
7.7 Anchor size ......................................................................................................... 19
7.8 Connectors ......................................................................................................... 20

8 MATERIAL PROCUREMENT ..................................................................................... 21

9 IMPLEMENTATION ..................................................................................................... 21
10 QUALITY CONTROL................................................................................................... 22
11 MAINTENANCE........................................................................................................... 23
12 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 25
APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 26

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Netting Structure Elements ....................................................................................... 6
Figure 2: Summary of construction process ............................................................................. 8
Figure 3: Generic Structure- Type 1 ....................................................................................... 12
Figure 4: Generic Structure- Type 2 ....................................................................................... 13
Figure 5: Internal pole founding .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 6: Forces acting on Anchor ......................................................................................... 20

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Generic Netting Structures ....................................................................................... 12
Table 2: Type 1 Cable Stressing ............................................................................................ 14
Table 3: Type 2 Cable Stressing ............................................................................................ 14
Table 4: Timber Poles (Pine and Eucalyptus) ........................................................................ 15
Table 5: Internal Pole founding depth .................................................................................... 17
Table 6: Perimeter Pole diameter .......................................................................................... 18
Table 7: Perimeter Pole founding depth ................................................................................ 19
Table 8: Anchor Forces .......................................................................................................... 20

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The South African Institute of Agricultural Engineers wishes to acknowledge the valuable
assistance of the following parties during the compilation of this Best Practice Guideline:
• HORTGRO
• Citrus Research International (CRI)
• Kaap Agri
• MBB Consulting Engineers (South)

Authors:
Koos Bouwer Pr. Eng. (M Eng. MBA)
Wouter Visser Pr. Tech Eng. (B. Tech Civil)
Willem Pretorius Pr. Tech Eng. (B. Tech Structural)
The authors provide consent that this document be made publicly available.
Contact details: info@foreng.co.za

Endorsement
The South African Institute of Agricultural Engineers acts as custodian for this Best Practice
Guideline, and it was endorsed by the SAIAE approved process on 26th May 2022. This Best
Practice Guideline will be revised and updated as necessary to keep abreast of developments
and progress in agricultural netting structures. All updates will be ratified and endorsed by the
SAIAE approved process before updates are issue.

Version Date Activity Details

First Draft 15 Sep 2020 First Draft for Comment

Final Draft 16 Oct 2020 Final Draft for Distribution

First Issue V1 27 Nov 2020 First Issue
Issue 2.0 1 Aug 2022 Endorsed by SAIAE

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DISCLAIMER

This document serves as a guideline for the construction of agricultural netting systems. Due
to the multitude of variables that may exist in the application of these guidelines, it is still the
responsibility of the owner; project engineer or contractor to ensure that acceptable;
professional engineering principles and safety procedures are applied to each specific
application. The South African Institute of Agricultural Engineers or any organization that
contributed to the compilation of these guidelines cannot be held responsible for any
damage(s) that may occur during the lifetime of a netting structure.

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1 PREFACE

The use of netting for agricultural applications has increased significantly in the past few years.
Producers and value chain stakeholders can benefit from, inter alia, increased yields,
improved pack-outs, a faster time to maturity, reduced production costs and better risk
management. Netting structures are used in different geographical areas, across fruit
industries and for specific production reasons, such as hail risk mitigation and sunburn control.
The potential benefits of netting structures in agricultural production have resulted in sizeable
investments in netting solutions being made by producers.

Implementing an on-farm netting solution requires significant capital expenditure. The

producer is required to purchase a basket of goods that makes up the netting solution, which
includes shade netting, stay wire, poles, grips, and anchors. Apart from the components
required, it is common practice for the producer to engage with a either an independent
contractor or to use an internal developed team to erect the netting structure.

Contractors offer a range of internally developed designs and “best practice” erection
methods, which have yet to be verified, certified, and approved. The lack of certification, or at
the very least, industry approved best practice, is resulting in increased risk across the industry
value chain. Potential losses are not limited to the netting structure itself, but may include
consequential losses including crop losses or orchard damages.

Given the above, a few industry organizations have embarked on a collaborative initiative to
establish a Fruit Industry Netting Infrastructure Guidelines and Standards (“FINIGAS”). The
objective of the FINIGAS investigation is to identify specific netting structure considerations
that should be taken into account when designing and erecting a netting structure, i.e.
establishing guidelines and standards towards industry best practice and risk mitigation.

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2 OVERVIEW OF GUIDE

The purpose of this guideline is to assist in the design, construction, and quality control of
agricultural netting systems to ensure that the owner receives the intended product for the
desired purpose whilst reducing the potential risks related to structural failure and/or
consequential damage to the crop and loss of crop yield. This process with activities, outputs
and links to appropriate chapters in this document is detailed in Chapter 4.

The document contains requirements for the design, construction, and quality control of netting
structures. A wide range of variables need to be considered during the design process,
including, amongst others: the intended purpose of the netting structure, adverse weather
conditions, soil conditions, choice of materials, and the life-cycle cost of ownership. This
document cannot provide a solution for each specific set of requirements and therefore an
approach is recommended whereby a guideline is provided for consideration of all relevant
inputs and a flow of decisions that will eventually produce an acceptable result.

The best practices given in the guideline are derived from civil engineering construction
industry standards and norms. These standards and project specific requirements have been
derived from an engineering design process to arrive at the conclusions presented in this
document. Should there be a need to deviate from the presented data and stated norms, a
baseline design can be conducted making use of accepted engineering standards and norms.
Expert judgement should always be used in conjunction with this guideline.

With any engineering application there comes accountability for the structure’s integrity and
safety for its intended environment. Possible levels of accountability for a specific netting
structure are provided in Chapter 11 on Quality Control. A quality control checklist can also
serve as a template for a Certificate of Acceptance once it is approved by the relevant parties.

It is the responsibility of the owner to ensure that the structure conforms to all applicable
regulatory requirements as stipulated by the local authority and/or building regulations, where
applicable. Following these best practice guidelines may assist in demonstrating conformance
to regulatory requirements but should not be accepted as a substitute for any such
requirements.

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3 AGRICULTURAL NETTING SYSTEMS – BEST PRACTICE

GUIDELINE

3.1 Scope
These best practice guidelines cover the provisions for the design, construction, and
quality control of agricultural netting structures that are deemed to satisfy the
requirements of the owner, reduce risk, and increase life-cycle value.

3.2 Terms and Definitions

For this document, the following terms and definitions apply:

Agricultural Netting Structure: A structure of poles, cables, anchors, and connectors

covered by netting, to protect agricultural production systems (e.g. orchards, vineyards)
against various weather and environmental conditions.
Netting: A woven or knitted covering material that serves as the primary barrier, supplied in
varying degrees of protection.
Poles: A structural component made of wood, steel, concrete, or any other suitable material
to support the netting of the structure.
Cables: Coiled and uncoiled wire strings to form cables and net supports to interconnect the
components of the netting structure with one another and with the ground.
Anchors: Underground installations that are buried and immovable when exposed to pulling
forces from the netting structure.
Rational design: Designed according to accepted engineering practice.
Perimeter Pole: A pole located at the perimeter of the structure.
Internal Pole: A pole located internally to the structure, and not on the perimeter.
Perimeter cable: A cable that spans along the perimeter of the structure.

The typical netting structure elements are illustrated in Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Netting Structure Elements

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4 THE ACQUISITION PROCESS

The structure of this document follows the proposed acquisition process for a netting implementation
as summarised below. Various role players may be involved during this process, namely: the owner
(client), product supplier, contractor, and professional engineer. Depending on the application, the
owner may also decide to provide technical input and fulfil the role of a designer/contractor. More
detailed descriptions appear in the paragraphs that follow. The acquisition process steps are:

(i) Obtain user requirement: the purpose for netting, dimensions, netting type, and other
preferences obtained from the future owner.
(ii) Obtain other site-specific inputs: soil conditions, soil constituency and texture, the slope of the
land, weather conditions, orchard mapping, etc.
(iii) Structure design: the design engineer prepares a detailed design of the netting structure to be
included in the quotation. The structure durability and risk of potential failure versus installation
cost should be agreed between the engineer and client.
(iv) Quotation: the contractor prepares a quotation that addresses the user requirements and
includes the detailed design specification of the netting structure, and the quality control
measures to be assessed/tested during implementation.
(v) Contracting: the approved quotation forms the basis of the contract.
(vi) Material procurement: the contractor purchases the material as specified in the detailed design
specification.
(vii) Implementation: the contractor executes the construction according to the design specification
and applies all the specified quality control measures.
(viii) Quality control: the contractor demonstrates conformance with all the quality control
requirements and arranges that the design and construction be inspected and signed off by
the relevant authority.
(ix) Maintenance: the owner performs certain maintenance inspections and repairs during the
product lifecycle to ensure the long-term stability of the structure.

A summary of the process is provided in Figure 2. The execution of the process steps can be
undertaken by a relevant party who also takes responsibility for the process outcome. The roles of
the designer and contractor can be performed by responsible people as negotiated with the client
and can be applied to any of the activities shown in Figure 2.

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ACTIVITIES OUTPUTS

Obtain User Requirements

and other design inputs Input Sheet
Ch. 6

Do Detailed Design Design Specification,

Ch. 7 & 8 Drawings

Quotation
Prepare Quotation Bill of Quantities
Quality Control Plan

Contracting Signed agreement

Material procurement Quality records of material

Ch. 9

Implementation Test and Inspection

Ch. 10 Records

Quality Control Signed Certificate of

Ch. 11 Conformance

Maintenance during netting Inspection records

structure lifecycle Maintenance records
Ch. 12

Figure 2: Summary of acquisition process

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5 USER REQUIREMENTS
User requirements will be defined by the Client and shared with the person responsible for the
design. The netting structure design is based on these requirements and the quotation is based on
the design. The quotation should consider all the requirements that have an impact on the netting
structure design and cost, such as:

(i) Main objective for erecting the structure (crop protection from wind, hail, or accelerated growth,
etc.)
(ii) Type and shape of structure: flat top, closed sides, gables, etc.
(iii) Access points for closed sides.
(iv) Net density % (percentage blocked light) desired for crop.
(v) Opening and closing of netting (apple and plum orchards).
(vi) Size of the orchard.
(vii) Height of netting.
(viii) Special preferences for poles, anchors, and cables (if applicable).
(ix) Expected weather conditions: wind speed, hail, snow.
(x) Soil type and condition.
(xi) Level of quality control required (See Chapter 11: Quality Control).
(xii) Level of accountability required.
(xiii) Time elapsed since the last soil preparation/improvement event and frequency of these events.
(xiv) Other information
Environmental implications / studies and approvals.
Other above ground infrastructures such as Eskom and Telkom poles, pylons, and sub
stations.
Cadastral information and servitudes.
Underground services such as Telkom, Eskom, and irrigation infrastructure.

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6 DESIGN PARAMETERS
The user requirements obtained will be incorporated into design parameters which serve as typical
inputs for consideration when developing a design. Due to the numerous inputs applicable, in
addition to specific user requirements, it is impossible to address all the potential parameters in this
document and examples are used to illustrate typical applications. Example 1 follows below to
illustrate such design parameters. All subsequent examples in this document will be derived from
these inputs. Sound engineering judgement must be always applied.

Typical parameters:
• Spacing of poles:
o Periodic intervals according to plant/tree row spacing.
o Existing orchard arrangement.
• Height of net above ground, dependant on crop and orchard arrangement;
equipment/plant requirements, i.e., tractors, lifts etc.
• Average wind loading.
• Adverse weather risk, i.e., snow, hail etc.
• Allowance for pathways and turning circles.

Notes:
Care should be taken to avoid potential chemical reactions between different types of materials
used that may reduce the quality over time.

Example: Parameters for Generic Structure.

• Pole spacing = 6 m intervals.

• Height of net = 4 m above ground level.
• Net density = 20%.
• Limited snow, hail, and frost.
• Wind: As per non-coastal areas (more than 5 km from the coastline) and more than 5 km
from the nearest mountain (mountain peak 300 m above ground level).
• Nets permanently closed.
• Annual maintenance.
• Timber poles (e.g. Eucalyptus or Pine) which conform to standards set out in the SANS 457
for timber column structures.
• Treatment of timber poles according to SANS1288:
o Creosote (Coal tar).
o CCA (Copper Chrome Arsenate).
• Wires and cables: Manufactured as per SANS 2408 standards.

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• All mild steel components galvanized.

• Thickness of cables given in total diameter and not individual strands.
• The terrain is classified: Category B.
(Category B denotes an area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles (for example, trees and buildings)
with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights. (SANS10160:3, 2011))

• Topography factor, C0 = 1,0

(The topography factor (C0) denotes the influence that average wind speeds have over pertinent hills and escarpments;
and not to undulated or mountainous regions. This factor contributes to a higher realisable wind load, which must be
accounted for. A topography factor of 1,0 is used where the slope is less than 1:20. (SANS10160:3, 2011))

• Maximum wind speed = 44 m/s.

7 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
This chapter provides guidelines for the design of a netting structure and the sizing of components.
Whether a flat top or gable profile, all netting structures use certain main elements in the design. It
is noted that each structure is unique depending on its purpose and a methodical design approach
needs to be followed for each solution.

The purpose of the detailed design outcome is to enable the contractor to provide a sound and
reliable structural system. The nature of the installation makes this type of structure much more
dynamic than conventional building structures. Netting structures are more flexible and have
components under stress as opposed to the rigid structures in conventional building applications.
The design approach needs to be adapted to accompany these unique requirements. Due to the
fact that soil is prepared for agricultural use, the settling of the soil is notable over the lifetime of the
structure and continual adjustments will have to be made over time to assure structural performance
and longevity. For applications where significant deviations from a standard design method are
required, a rational design process must be carried out in line with proven engineering methodology,
standards, and design principles.

The design sequence can be summarised as follows:

Step Description Section Reference

1 Structural layout 8.1
2 Cable diameters and stressing forces 8.2
3 Internal Pole diameter vs pole length 8.3
4 Internal Pole founding 8.4
5 Perimeter Pole sizing 8.5
6 Perimeter Pole founding 8.6
7 Anchor size 8.7
8 Connectors 8.8

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7.1 Structural Layout

Design layout options vary between regions, crop, and orchard selection. It is important to ensure
that the structure is not over-designed for its purpose, leading to excessively high costs to construct.
The structural layout is conveyed as an array of poles connected via primary and secondary cables.
If a generic design is being followed, then the type of netting structure can be determined from Table
1 and the appropriate layout used as shown in Figures 3 and 4. Once the pole interval spacing has
been determined, the design can continue.

Step 1: Design for Generic Structure

Table 1: Generic Netting Structures

Pole Spacing Anchor Spacing Primary Cable Secondary Cable

Type
interval (m) interval (m) Span (m) Span (m)
1 6 x 12 6x6 12 6
2 12 x 12 12 x 6 12 12

Figure 3: Generic Structure- Type 1

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Figure 4: Generic Structure- Type 2

7.2 Cable Diameters and Stressing Forces

Cables and wires used for construction are extremely sensitive to the forces imposed on them. Once
a cable or wire is stressed beyond its capability, it may lose some structural integrity. Installation
should be done with caution to avoid impairing these elements as the damage is not always visible.

The structural code denotes wire strength in terms of its Youngs modulus. Different types of wire
may appear the same but could have completely opposite responses when exposed to the same
force. Therefore, it is imperative to determine the correct choice of wire and cable that meet the
desired structural specifications.

Given the nature of the structure, the wires and cables brace each element to form a structural
network during use. This equilibria will determine whether the structure can sustain the enduring
forces acted upon it. If this balance is disrupted, the resulting forces can strain key elements.
Provided that the structure is regularly inspected and maintained, the strain can be spread across

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all of the elements. This is particularly important when one or more of the elements is compromised
due to failure. An adequately balanced system will be able to absorb the deficit of such a failure,
whilst an unbalanced system would result in overstressing, and lead to failure. Ultimately this leads
to catastrophic failure of the structure.

The cable tension depends on the attributes of the location, i.e., wind speed and topography of the
area. The calculations performed for the Generic Structure examples are based on SANS 10160-
3:2011: Wind Actions. This part gives guidance on the determination of natural wind actions for the
structural design of buildings and industrial structures. The allowable cable stresses for Type 1 and
2 structures are summarised in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively.

The procedure adopted in this document only covers idealized cases of isolated topographical
features. In cases where netting structures are implemented at topographically complex terrain,
expert professional advice and relevant surveying should be obtained.

Step 2: Cable Diameters and Stressing Forces

Table 2: Type 1 Cable Stressing

Type 1:
diameter Stressing force (kN) Youngs modulus
Description Span (m)
(mm) Min Mean Max (GPa)

Primary cable 12 7,95 17,39 18,3 19,22 140

Secondary cable 6 6 11,4 12 12,6 140
Primary Anchor cable - 8 30,78 32,4 34,02 140
Secondary Anchor cable - 8 19 20 21 140

Table 3: Type 2 Cable Stressing

Type 2:
diameter Stressing force (kN) Youngs modulus
Description Span (m)
(mm) Min Mean Max (GPa)

Primary cable 12 8 19 20 21 140

Secondary cable 12 8 15,58 16,4 17,22 140
Primary Anchor cable - 9,8 40,66 42,8 44,94 140
Secondary Anchor cable - 8 30,4 32 33,6 140

Note: Anchor cables must not be tensioned. The force is induced by tensioning main and secondary
cables.

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7.3 Internal Pole Diameter vs Length

The purpose of the netting structure is to shelter crops from adverse weather. This must be done in
such a way to provide the crops freedom to grow unconstrained and to ensure optimal yields whilst
protected from the elements. Netting is typically installed above the crops for this reason, whereby
poles serve to prop up the net above the crop. Poles are located inside the netting structure and are
fastened with cables to other poles or Perimeter Poles. The diameter of the poles varies with length
and can be selected from the Tables 4. The compressive strength of the member is proportional to
the pole diameter; therefore, a larger force can be applied to a pole with larger diameter.

Note that in the case of apples, the dwarfing rootstocks may require additional trellising for support
which is not specifically covered in this document.

Table 4: Timber Poles (Pine and Eucalyptus)

Timber Poles
Nominal
Length (m) Size
diameter
2.1 75/100 100 mm
2.4 75/100 100 mm
2.7 75/100 100 mm
3.0 100/125 125 mm
3.6 100/125 125 mm
4.2 125/150 150 mm
4.8 150/175 175 mm
5.4 150/175 175 mm

7.4 Internal Pole Founding

The main criterion to determine foundation depths for Internal Poles is the soil classification. The
purpose of the Internal Pole foundation is to provide stability, and to keep the poles upright. The
poles bear the cables (primary and secondary) which the netting is fixed to. As shown in Figure 5,
after a pole has been positioned into the excavated hole and aligned with the other poles, the hole
is filled with the excavated soil and compacted by tamping or other means without displacing the
pole.

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Figure 5: Internal pole founding

Penetration tests can be performed to establish the bearing capacity of the soil. Two of the test
methods namely, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and Dynamic Cone Penetration (DCP) can serve
to indicate the suitability of the soil to anchor the poles and limit displacement during loads (Paige-
Green & Du Plesis, 2009).

The founding depth of poles based on soil condition and test result for both the Type 1 and 2 Generic
Structures are summarized in Table 5.

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Step 4: Internal Pole Founding Depth for Generic Structure

Table 5: Internal Pole founding depth

Internal pole founding

Soil Classification (ASTM)
depth (m)
Bearing Value
CBR (%) Type 1 Type 2
(kPa)
Group symbol Group name
Pole: Pole:
Min Max Min Max
100/125 100/125
G-W Well-graded Gravel 60 - 390 - 1,4 1,8
G-P Poorly graded Gravel 25 60 240 390 1,4 1,8
G-M Silty(M) Gravel 20 - 210 - 1,4 1,8
G-C Clayey Gravel 20 40 210 305 1,4 1,8
S-W Well-graded Sand 20 40 210 305 1 1,3
S-M Silty(M) Sand 10 40 140 305 1,2 1,7
S-P Poorly graded Sand 10 25 140 240 1,2 2
S-C Clayey Sand 10 20 140 210 1,5 2,1
M-L Silt(M) 5 15 85 175 not advised not advised
O-H Organic clay/silt - 5 - 85 not advised not advised
C-L Lean Clay 5 15 85 175 1,5 2,1
C-H Fat Clay - 15 - 85 1,6 2,2
O-L Organic clay/silt 4 8 - 120 not advised not advised
M-H Elastic silt(M) 4 8 - 120 not advised not advised

L: Liquid limit = 50 or less

H: Liquid limit = 50 or more

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7.5 Perimeter Pole Sizing

A Perimeter pole is defined as a pole which is anchored (via cable and ties) to an anchor on the
perimeter of the net structure. The integrity of the Perimeter poles and their installation is one of the
primary contributors to the success of the structure. It is therefore important to inspect and verify
each pole for damage, splitting, straightness, and general conformance. Inspection must be done
prior to, during, and after installation according to the maintenance schedule of the structure.
Damaged poles should be removed and replaced immediately. Failure of a Perimeter pole can cause
imbalance which leads to overstressing of the remaining components beyond their limit, causing a
knock-on effect that can result in total collapse the structure.

For a Perimeter Pole that supports a primary- or secondary cable, the pole is classified as a Primary-
or Secondary Perimeter Pole respectively. Table 6 can be used to select the Perimeter pole diameter
selection based on stiffness and ability to resist compressive forces induced by tension in the primary
and secondary cables.

Step 5: Perimeter Pole Selection for Generic Structure

Table 6: Perimeter Pole diameter

Primary Perimeter Secondary Perimeter

Type
pole diameter (mm) pole diameter (mm)
1 150/175 150/175
2 150/175 150/175

7.6 Perimeter Pole Founding

The main selection criterion for Perimeter pole founding is soil condition. The purpose of the
Perimeter pole footing is to securely anchor the pole and to oppose both forces resulting from the
primary/secondary cable and anchor cable, respectively.

The foundation can be one of the following:

• A circular concrete footing, cast in situ around the pole, which must be a certain diameter and
depth below ground level. After the concrete foundation is cast and set, the hole is filled with
excavated material and compacted.
• A certified precast concrete disc with specified diameter.

Founding depth is measured from natural ground level.

Table 7 provides the depth and diameter of foundations for Perimeter poles for given soil conditions
as per the working example.

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Step 1: Perimeter Pole Founding Depth and Footing Diameter

Table 7: Perimeter Pole founding depth

Perimeter pole footing diameter (mm) at

Soil Classification (ASTM)
founding depth (m)
Bearing Value
CBR (%)
(kPa)
Type 1 Type 2
Group
Group name Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
symbol
Min Max Min Max Pole: Pole: Pole: Pole:
125/150 125/150 125/150 125/150
Well-graded
G-W 60 - 390 - 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 1 300 @ 0,8
Gravel
Poorly graded
G-P 25 60 240 390 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 1 300 @ 0,8
Gravel
G-M Silty(M) Gravel 20 - 210 - 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 1 300 @ 0,8
G-C Clayey Gravel 20 40 210 305 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 1 300 @ 0,8
Well-graded
S-W 20 40 210 305 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8
Sand
S-M Silty(M) Sand 10 40 140 305 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8 300 @ 0,8
Poorly graded
S-P 10 25 140 240 300 @ 1 300 @ 1 300 @ 1,4 300 @ 1
Sand
S-C Clayey Sand 10 20 140 210 300 @ 1,6 300 @ 1,2 700 @ 0,8 700 @ 0,8
M-L Silt(M) 5 15 85 175 not advised not advised not advised not advised
Organic
O-H - 5 - 85 not advised not advised not advised not advised
clay/silt
C-L Lean Clay 5 15 85 175 700 @ 1,6 700 @ 1,2 700 @ 2 700 @ 1,6
C-H Fat Clay - 15 - 85 700 @ 1,8 700 @ 1,2 700 @ 2 700 @ 1,8
Organic
O-L 4 8 - 120 not advised not advised not advised not advised
clay/silt
M-H Elastic silt(M) 4 8 - 120 not advised not advised not advised not advised

L: Liquid limit = 50 or less

H: Liquid limit = 50 or more

7.7 Anchor size

The purpose of the anchors is to fix the netting structure to the ground. Only certified anchors with
known breaking force should be installed. The main criterion for selecting the anchors are soil
conditions and expected cable tension.

Care should be taken during installation to ensure that the initial creep of the anchor is minimised,
failing which the anchor will creep with time and create slack (lessening of tension) in the
primary/secondary cables, leading to an imbalance in the overall performance of the structure.

The angle of internal friction is dependent on soil type and is a measure of the ability of a unit of rock
or soil to withstand shear stress, as shown in Figure 6. It is the angle, measured between the normal

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force and resultant force, that is attained when failure occurs in response to shear stress. These
inputs are used to calculate anchor performance.

Figure 6: Forces acting on an anchor

The density of soils must be the dry mass per cubic meter. Table 8 provides for the minimum
allowance (pull-out force) for such an anchor to remain static during use. The primary/secondary
cables will slacken when this anchor force is exceeded.

Step 2: Minimum allowance for anchor force for Generic Structure

Table 8: Anchor Forces

Type Primary Anchor force Secondary Anchor force

1 32,4 kN 3,24 ton 20 kN 2 ton
2 42,8 kN 4,28 ton 32 kN 3,2 ton

7.8 Connectors
Connectors are the components that fix the major elements of the netting structure together, i.e.
Crosby clamps, thimbles, stay-wire grips. It is impossible to list all the various types of connectors
from different suppliers, so the contractor is advised to adhere to the following guidelines:
• The cable and anchor forces listed are the initial tension forces applied during installation.

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• The working forces are much higher than those listed, but generally should be kept well below
60% of the rated tensile force.
• Connectors must be able to withstand more than double that of the rated tensile force.

Some connectors are adjustable if changes to tension must be made. If adjustable connectors are
not used, balancing of the structure becomes difficult and time consuming. For practicality, all anchor
cables can be fitted with turnbuckles to enable easy adjustment during the structure’s life cycle.

8 MATERIAL PROCUREMENT
The contractor procures the materials according to the Bill of Quantities (BoQ) in the agreed
quotation. The following principles apply during the material procurement stage:

• The quantity of each item should be equal to the amount specified in the BoQ.
• The specification of each item must be listed in the BoQ as shown on the drawings.
• The contractor needs to assure that the materials received are in accordance with the required
quantity and specifications.
• The contractor shall demonstrate to the future owner that the above criteria are met.
• The contractor shall obtain the necessary quality assurance information from the suppliers
where applicable.
• In the event of deviations, the contractor shall inform the client and obtain written approval of
the deviation from the engineer/responsible person about the apparent impact on the structure’s
design integrity and/or the impact on installation cost.

9 IMPLEMENTATION
Each site might require a different approach and adjustments should be made accordingly. The
following steps can be used as a guideline:
(i) Setting out all element positions.
(ii) Confirm soil condition and properties – adjust material selection if needed.
(iii) Follow the design plan and use the specified materials.
(iv) Plant poles.
(v) Plant anchors.
(vi) Fix anchor cables.
(vii) Fix top cables.
(viii) Fix cables to poles.
(ix) Tension all cables.
(x) Draw wires through net and fix to cables.
(xi) Make neat.

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The following additional comments should be adhered to:

(i) Keep record of all materials, date delivered, storage conditions etc.
(ii) It is important to note that the materials of which netting structures comprise are sensitive and
easily mishandled. Overhandling causes irreparable damage which might not be visible at
quick glance. Consequently, all materials should be handled with caution.
(iii) Soil preparation differs for each region and is also affected by crop selection. The effect of the
soil preparation influences the performance of the netting structure. A balance should be found
between the installation requirement and the actual installation conditions. When poles and
anchors are installed, make sure that the minimum conditions are achieved.
(iv) Tensioning of cables must be done with caution to prevent over-stressing any cable or wire.
Over-stressing results in weakening and possibly failure of the structure. Take strain
measurements continuously during installation and make use of turnbuckles to provide the
required tension under controlled conditions.
(v) Assure that interaction between components, i.e. chafing, shearing is avoided to prevent wear
and failure.

10 QUALITY CONTROL
A simple definition of Quality is: “To conform to client expectations”. This guideline document is
compiled with this in mind. The first step is to obtain the user requirements. The next step is to
design a netting structure that conform to the user requirements and to draw up a plan with the
accompanying Bill of Quantities. The quotation should refer to all these requirements and once
accepted by the client, the quotation and supporting documentation must form the baseline against
which quality control is measured. Two distinctive milestones are evident in this process: Quality of
Design and Quality of Implementation.

The netting structure design will be of good quality if it meets all the user requirements, and if it
conforms to this best practice guideline. The design is accepted by the owner by accepting the
quotation.

The netting structure implementation will be of good quality if it is installed according to the plan and
specifications as outlined in the quotation and supporting documentation, and according to the best
practice guidelines provided in this document.

As with any engineering application, clear accountability is required for the integrity of the structure
and safe application in its intended environment. Possible accountability levels for a specific netting
structure are defined below:

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• Accountability Level 1: Owner

The owner may erect his own netting structure by using this guideline document. The owner will be
responsible for the design, quality of materials and standard of construction implementation. The
owner is accountable by default if the quality control documentation is not signed off by any other 3rd
party.

• Accountability Level 2: Contractor

The owner may appoint a contractor for the design and construction of a netting structure. The
contractor will be accountable for the design and construction of the netting structure by signing off
the quality control steps as indicated in this guideline.

• Accountability Level 3: Consulting Engineer

The owner or the appointed contractor may appoint a professional consulting engineer for the design
and supervision of construction. The consulting engineer will be accountable for the design and
standards implemented for the netting structure and approve by signing off the quality control steps.

A Certificate of Acceptance can be issued to certify conformance to the design and implementation
requirements. A template for such a certificate is provided in Appendix A.

11 MAINTENANCE
The structure requires continuous maintenance during its lifetime for the following reasons:
• The original structure is constructed in balance with certain conditions during the construction
period.
• Changes in weather conditions (wind, temperature, rain) cause continuous movement of
components which may result in an unbalanced situation.
• In an unbalanced condition, some of the components are overstressed, while others are under
stressed.
• An overstressed component may fail, and this will transfer additional forces to remaining
components. This transfer of forces may overstress the nearby components and may lead to
further component failures.

The purpose of maintenance during the structure’s lifetime is to ensure that overstressed or under
stressed conditions do not occur and that the structure maintains a state of equilibrium.

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The following maintenance procedures are recommended:

A. Inspecting Conditions
Perform periodic inspections during the year and especially after adverse weather conditions. Attend
to any visible defects like torn netting and loose cables or wires. Signs of poles or anchors that are
loose, cracked or bent should be attended to.

B. Stress Inspections
These tests cannot be done by visual inspection and should be done at least once a year. The
components under stress (cables, wires, anchors) should be inspected to identify any over- or under
stressed situations. In-field cable tension is measured with instruments specifically designed for this
purpose. These tests are non-destructive in nature and will not damage the integrity of the wire and
cable. Attend to outliers and re-adjust to bring the total netting structure in balance again. Records
of test results should be kept for identifying potential weak points in the structure.

The life expectancy of a netting structure should be able to outlive the orchard that is protected by
the structure. This can only be achieved through the proper design of a structure that will be able to
last for the expected lifetime of the orchard and provided that regular maintenance of the structure
is carried out at regular intervals during the structure’s lifecycle.

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12 REFERENCES
Paige-Green, P., & Du Plesis, L. (2009). The use and interpretation of the dynamic cone
penetrometer (DCP) test. CSIR. Pretoria: CSIR.
SANS10160:3. (2011). Basis of structural design and actions for buildings, Part 3: Wind
actions. Pretoria: SABS Standards Division.

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APPENDIX A
CERTIFICATE TEMPLATE

CERTIFICATE OF ACCEPTANCE
Item: Agricultural Netting Structure

Name of Farm:
Orchard Number:
Drawing Number:

A. NETTING STRUCTURE DESIGN

I hereby certify that the netting structure design conforms to the

the Best Practice Guideline for Agricultural Netting Structures

----------------------- --------------------- ---/---/----

Signature Name Date

Accountability level: Owner:

Contractor:
Engineer:

B. NETTING STRUCTURE IMPLEMENTATION

I hereby certify that the netting structure implementation conforms to the

the Best Practice Guideline for Agricultural Netting Structures

----------------------- --------------------- ---/---/----

Signature Name Date

Accountability level: Owner:

Contractor:
Engineer:

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