The Fight for Media Independence in Uganda

Written by Mubiazalwa Bonny

Key words: Media freedom, Press freedom, Censorship, Independence, Government, CSOs,
Journalist, Suppression,

Abstract
Media Independence in Uganda has been a long and tumultuous journey. Since the 1980s, Uganda
has been grappling with a history of government censorship and media restrictions, which have
limited the ability of journalists to report freely and impartially. The advent of new media
technologies has opened up new spaces for critical voices and alternative media, but these gains
are threatened by new laws and regulations that seek to silence dissent. The study draws on a range
of sources, including interviews with journalists, media experts, and civil society groups, to
examine the complex web of political, economic, and social factors that have shaped the media
landscape in Uganda. It argues that while there have been significant gains in media freedom in
recent years, the struggle for independence remains an ongoing challenge, requiring ongoing
vigilance and activism from civil society, media professionals, and citizens alike. Since Uganda
gained independence in 1962, media independence has been a key concern for the country's
citizens and the press. In the early years of independence, the media landscape in Uganda was
dominated by government-owned media, which acted as the mouthpiece of the ruling political
party. However, in recent years, the media landscape has changed, and a vibrant private media
sector has emerged, which has challenged the dominance of the state media. This study examines
the historical and contemporary struggles for media independence in Uganda. The study traces the
development of the media landscape in Uganda from the pre-independence era to the present day.
The paper discusses the role of the state in shaping the media landscape, and how government
policies have impacted the development of media independence in Uganda. This article also looks
at the challenges that journalists and media outlets face in Uganda. These challenges include
government censorship, harassment of journalists, and the lack of access to information. The paper
examines the role of the media in promoting democracy and holding government officials
accountable for their actions. The paper also discusses the impact of social media on the media
landscape in Uganda. It argues that media independence is crucial for the development of a
democratic society. It provides a platform for citizens to voice their concerns and hold government
officials accountable. Media censorship in Uganda has been a persistent problem for years, with
the government using various tactics to suppress freedom of expression and the press. Journalists
and media houses that have spoken out against the government have faced intimidation, arrest, and
closure, which has had a chilling effect on the country's media landscape.
The study concludes by calling for a renewed commitment to media independence in Uganda. The
government must create policies that support media freedom and protect journalists from
harassment and censorship. The media, on the other hand, must uphold ethical standards and
professionalism in their reporting. By working together, the government and the media can build
a strong and independent media sector that serves the interests of the people of Uganda.
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Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 3
Literature of media independence in Uganda: ...................................................................................... 4
The current state of media independence in Uganda ....................................................................... 5
The future of media independence in Uganda ...................................................................................... 9
Case studies .............................................................................................................................................. 10
Comparisons with other countries .......................................................................................................... 11
Recommendations ............................................................................................................................... 12
References ................................................................................................................................................ 13
Further Readings .................................................................................................................................. 15

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Introduction
Media independence is a critical component of democratic governance. It is a fundamental right
that ensures that the public receives accurate and impartial information, which is vital for holding
leaders accountable and making informed decisions. In Uganda, the struggle for media
independence has been an ongoing battle, with journalists and media houses facing political
interference, intimidation, and censorship. The government's control over the media's narrative has
led to a distorted representation of events and limited access to information, making it challenging
for the public to make informed decisions.
According to the Agenda Setting Theory, the media plays a significant role in shaping public
opinion by selecting and emphasizing certain issues over others. This theory suggests that the
media's power lies not in what it tells the public, but rather in what it chooses not to tell. The
media's ability to influence public opinion is based on the idea that people tend to place greater
importance on issues that are frequently reported in the news. Therefore, the media has the power
to shape the public's perception of issues by selecting and emphasizing particular topics.
The Agenda Setting Theory has been extensively used to explain the media's role in influencing
public opinion on various issues, including politics, health, and social issues. In the context of
Uganda, the theory is relevant in explaining the media's role in shaping public opinion on the
struggle for media independence. The media's ability to select and emphasize issues related to
media independence has a significant impact on the public's perception of the problem and its
potential solutions.
Political Interference
Political interference is one of the most significant challenges facing media independence in
Uganda. The government has often used its power to control the media's narrative, with journalists
and media houses facing intimidation and harassment for reporting on sensitive issues. The
government's control over the media has led to a distorted representation of events, with some
critical issues being downplayed or ignored altogether. The government's interference in the
media's operations has a significant impact on the public's perception of the problem. The media's
inability to report on sensitive issues limits the public's access to information, making it
challenging to hold leaders accountable for their actions. This limited access to information has
also led to misinformation and propaganda, with some media houses resorting to biased reporting
to maintain their operations.
The Agenda Setting Theory can explain how the media's limited coverage of issues related to
political interference has affected the public's perception of the problem. The media's failure to
report on sensitive issues related to political interference has made it difficult for the public to
understand the extent of the problem, its impact on democratic governance, and potential solutions.
As a result, the public's ability to demand accountability from the government is compromised,
leading to a culture of impunity among leaders.
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Intimidation and Harassment
Journalists and media houses in Uganda face intimidation and harassment for reporting on
sensitive issues. This intimidation and harassment take various forms, including physical attacks,
arrests, and detention. The government has also passed laws that limit freedom of expression and
media operations, including the Anti-Terrorism Act, the Public Order Management Act, and the
Computer Misuse Act. Intimidation and harassment of journalists have a significant impact on
media independence in Uganda. Journalists who report on sensitive issues are often forced to self-
censor or risk facing harassment and intimidation from government officials. This limits the
media's ability to report on critical issues, making it challenging for the public to make informed
decisions.
The Agenda Setting Theory can explain how the media's limited coverage of issues related to
intimidation and harassment affects the public's perception of the problem. The media's failure to
report on incidents of intimidation and harassment of journalists and media houses limits the
public's understanding of the problem's extent and impact on media independence. The limited
coverage also makes it challenging for the public to demand accountability from the government,
leading to have biased media work.

Literature of media independence in Uganda: The role played by government policies and
laws.
The history of media independence in Uganda has been marked by periods of both freedom and
repression. Uganda gained independence from British colonial rule in 1962, and its first president,
Milton Obote, immediately began to limit press freedom through censorship and the use of
criminal libel laws.
Obote's regime was overthrown in a military coup in 1971, and the new ruler, Idi Amin, continued
to suppress media freedom. Journalists were arrested, tortured, and killed, and many media outlets
were closed down. Amin's rule ended in 1979, and a brief period of press freedom followed.
However, the situation worsened again under the regime of President Yoweri Museveni, who came
to power in 1986. Museveni initially promised to uphold press freedom, but his government has
since been accused of intimidating journalists and censoring critical reporting.
In 1995, Uganda passed a new constitution that guaranteed freedom of the press, but the
government has continued to use criminal defamation laws to silence journalists. In 2013, a new
law was passed that imposed strict regulations on journalists, requiring them to register with the
government and imposing heavy fines and imprisonment for non-compliance.
Despite these challenges, Uganda's media has continued to grow and diversify. In recent years,
online media and social media platforms have emerged as important sources of news and
information, providing a space for critical reporting and debate that is often absent from traditional
media outlets. The history of media independence in Uganda has been shaped by government
policies and laws, which have alternately supported and suppressed press freedom. Despite these
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challenges, Uganda's media landscape is diverse and vibrant, and journalists continue to play an
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The current state of media independence in Uganda
An analysis of the current situation of media independence in Uganda, including the challenges faced by
journalists and media houses.
Media independence in Uganda has been a topic of concern in recent years. While Uganda's
constitution guarantees press freedom and freedom of expression, the country has been criticized
for its poor record on media freedom, with journalists and media houses facing various challenges.
One of the main challenges faced by journalists in Uganda is government censorship and
harassment. The government has been known to shut down media houses that are critical of its
policies or that report on sensitive issues, such as corruption or human rights abuses. In 2019, for
example, the government shut down two media houses, NBS Television and NTV Uganda, for
their coverage of opposition politician Robert Kyagulanyi (also known as Bobi Wine).
Journalists in Uganda also face physical violence and intimidation from both state and non-state
actors. In 2020, a journalist with the Vision Group, a major media house in Uganda, was beaten
by security forces while covering protests in Kampala. The same year, a journalist with the Daily
Monitor, another major media house, was abducted and beaten by unknown assailants.
Another challenge faced by journalists in Uganda is self-censorship. Due to fear of retribution
from the government or other powerful actors, many journalists in Uganda choose not to report on
sensitive issues or to report in a way that is less critical of those in power. This limits the ability of
the media to serve as a watchdog and hold those in power accountable.
Despite these challenges, there are still independent media outlets in Uganda that are able to report
freely and critically. However, these outlets are often subject to harassment and intimidation from
the government and other powerful actors.
Media censorship in Uganda
An exploration of the ways in which the Ugandan government has been suppressing freedom of
expression and the press.
Media censorship in Uganda is a serious issue that has been ongoing for many years. The
government has been suppressing freedom of expression and the press through a variety of means,
including physical violence, intimidation, and legal action. This has resulted in a climate of fear
and self-censorship among journalists, limiting their ability to report on important issues and hold
the government accountable.
The most recent example of such censorship was during the 2021 presidential elections in Uganda,
where the government shut down internet access in the country and restricted the movement of
journalists. According to Human Rights Watch, at least 50 journalists were arrested or assaulted
during the election period.
One prominent case was that of NBS TV, a leading Ugandan television station, which was
temporarily shut down by the government in January 2021 for allegedly breaching broadcasting
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standards. The station had been covering opposition candidate Bobi Wine's campaign rallies,
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Another example of media censorship in Uganda is the government's blocking of social media
platforms during the 2016 presidential elections. The government claimed that this was necessary
to prevent the spread of false information, but many saw it as a blatant attempt to silence opposition
voices and prevent them from organizing protests.
In 2013, two Ugandan journalists, Andrew Mwenda and Timothy Kalyegira, were arrested and
charged with sedition for writing critical articles about the government. The charges were
eventually dropped, but the incident served as a warning to other journalists that they could face
similar consequences if they spoke out against the government.
Other journalists have been subjected to physical assault and harassment by security forces. In
2018, a photojournalist working for the Associated Press was beaten and arrested by police while
covering a protest against the proposed removal of presidential age limits. Similarly, in 2019, a
group of journalists covering a demonstration against the government's social media tax were tear-
gassed and had their equipment confiscated by police.
Some notable journalists who have faced media censorship in Uganda include investigative
journalist Solomon Serwanjja, who was arrested in 2019 while investigating corruption in the
country's health sector, and former Daily Monitor editor Charles Onyango-Obbo, who was forced
to flee the country in 2013 after being accused of "promoting sectarianism" in his reporting.
The role of social media in promoting media independence in Uganda
An examination of the role of social media in Uganda, including the ways in which it has been
used to promote media freedom and the challenges it faces.
Social media has played a significant role in promoting media independence and freedom of
expression in Uganda, particularly in light of the challenges faced by the traditional mainstream
media. The emergence of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, and
YouTube has provided an alternative avenue for Ugandans to access and share information.
One of the ways social media has promoted media freedom in Uganda is through the dissemination
of uncensored news and information. Social media users in Uganda can easily share and access
news and information that may not be covered by traditional media outlets due to censorship or
self-censorship. This has allowed for a wider dissemination of information and has empowered
citizens to make informed decisions.
Social media has also provided a platform for Ugandans to express their opinions and critique the
government and other public officials. The ability to express opinions freely and openly has
increased public participation in governance and has served as a check on government excesses.
However, the use of social media in Uganda has also faced several challenges. The Ugandan
government has often used the Constitution of Uganda 1995 to limit freedom of expression on
social media platforms. For instance, in 2018, the government imposed a tax on social media use,
which was seen as a deliberate attempt to limit access to social media and suppress dissenting
voices.
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Additionally, social media platforms have been known to restrict or remove content deemed to be
in violation of their terms of service, which has led to accusations of bias and censorship. This has
raised concerns about the ability of social media platforms to be truly independent and impartial.
In conclusion, while social media has played a significant role in promoting media independence
in Uganda, it also faces challenges related to government restrictions and the limitations of social
media platforms themselves. It is important that Ugandans continue to advocate for their right to
access and share information freely, and for the government to respect and protect this fundamental
right.
The impact of foreign aid on media independence in Uganda
A discussion of the impact of foreign aid on the Ugandan media landscape, including the ways in
which it has influenced media coverage and the challenges faced by journalists who rely on foreign
funding.
Foreign aid has had a significant impact on the Ugandan media landscape, particularly in terms of
influencing media coverage and the challenges faced by journalists who rely on foreign funding
during recent elections in 2021. On the one hand, foreign aid has helped to improve media
infrastructure and capacity building in Uganda, with foreign donors providing funding to support
the training of journalists, the establishment of media outlets, and the expansion of media coverage
in rural areas. This has led to a proliferation of media outlets and increased access to information
for Ugandan citizens.
However, foreign aid has also had its downsides in the Ugandan media landscape. One major
challenge is the influence of foreign donors on media content and editorial policies. Some critics
argue that foreign aid has resulted in biased reporting, with media outlets that rely on foreign
funding often promoting the agenda of their donors. This has led to concerns over media
independence and the ability of journalists to report on sensitive issues without fear of retribution
from their donors.
The 2021 Ugandan elections were particularly challenging for journalists who rely on foreign
funding. The Ugandan government cracked down on media coverage of the elections, and
journalists faced harassment and intimidation from security forces. Foreign donors also faced
pressure to limit their support for media organizations that were critical of the government, which
further limited the ability of journalists to report on the elections independently.
Despite these challenges, Ugandan journalists have continued to play an important role in holding
the government accountable and providing citizens with access to information. Many media
organizations have adapted to the changing media landscape by embracing digital media and
citizen journalism, which has helped to fill gaps in coverage and provide alternative perspectives
on the news.
It is important for donors to support media organizations that prioritize independence, impartiality,
and the public interest. By doing so, they can help to promote a vibrant and independent media
sector that plays a critical role in promoting democracy and good governance in Uganda.
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The role of civil society organizations in promoting media independence in Uganda
An exploration of the role played by civil society organizations in promoting media freedom in
Uganda, including their strategies and achievements.
Civil society organizations (CSOs) play a crucial role in promoting media independence and
freedom in Uganda. Here are some of the CSOs that have been actively involved in this effort:
Human Rights Network-Uganda (HURINET-U): This organization has been working to promote
and protect human rights in Uganda since 1994. HURINET-U has been actively advocating for
media freedom and independence, and has played a key role in the development of laws and
policies that support press freedom.
Uganda Journalists Association (UJA): This is a professional body that represents journalists in
Uganda. UJA has been at the forefront of advocating for the protection of journalists and promoting
media independence in Uganda. They have organized protests, workshops, and training sessions
to raise awareness about the importance of press freedom.
Uganda Media Women's Association (UMWA): UMWA is a non-profit organization that focuses
on promoting gender equality and empowering women in the media industry. They have been
actively involved in advocating for media freedom and independence, and have provided training
and support to female journalists in Uganda.
African Centre for Media Excellence (ACME): ACME is a non-profit organization that focuses
on improving the quality of journalism in Africa. They have been actively involved in advocating
for media freedom and independence in Uganda, and have provided training and support to
journalists to improve their skills and knowledge.
Foundation for Human Rights Initiative (FHRI): FHRI is a non-profit organization that focuses on
promoting and protecting human rights in Uganda. They have been actively involved in advocating
for media freedom and independence, and have provided legal support to journalists who have
been harassed or intimidated for their reporting.
These CSOs have employed various strategies to promote media independence and freedom in
Uganda. These include:
a) Advocacy: CSOs have been actively advocating for media freedom and independence
through lobbying policymakers, engaging in media campaigns, and organizing protests.\
b) Capacity building: CSOs have been providing training and support to journalists to
improve their skills and knowledge on media independence and freedom.
c) Legal support: CSOs have been providing legal support to journalists who have been
harassed or intimidated for their reporting.
d) Research and documentation: CSOs have been conducting research and documenting cases
of violations of media freedom and independence in Uganda.
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The achievements of CSOs in promoting media independence and freedom in Uganda include:
a) Increased awareness and understanding of media independence and freedom: CSOs have
been raising awareness and understanding of media independence and freedom among
journalists, policymakers, and the general public in Uganda.
b) Protection of journalists: CSOs have been providing legal support and protection to
journalists who have been harassed or intimidated for their reporting.
c) Improved quality of journalism: CSOs have been providing training and support to
journalists to improve their skills and knowledge, leading to an improvement in the quality
of journalism in Uganda.
The future of media independence in Uganda
An analysis of the prospects for media independence in Uganda, including the challenges and
opportunities that lie ahead.
Media independence in Uganda has faced significant challenges in the past, and the prospects for
its future remain uncertain. Despite legal guarantees for press freedom and independence, there
have been numerous cases of government interference and harassment of journalists.
One of the most significant challenges facing media independence in Uganda is the government's
use of restrictive laws and regulations to control the media. For example, the government has used
the 2013 Public Order Management Act to restrict the activities of journalists and media outlets.
Additionally, the government has used the 2010 Press and Journalist Act to revoke licenses of
media outlets that are critical of the government.
Another significant challenge facing media independence in Uganda is the high levels of poverty
and lack of resources among journalists and media organizations. Many journalists struggle to
make ends meet, which can make them vulnerable to pressure from advertisers or politicians who
may try to influence their reporting.
Despite these challenges, there are also opportunities for media independence in Uganda. The
growth of social media and digital technologies has made it easier for citizens to access news and
information from a variety of sources. This has created new opportunities for independent media
outlets to reach audiences and provide alternative perspectives on the news.
There is also a growing awareness among Ugandans of the importance of a free and independent
media. Civil society organizations, such as the Uganda Media Women's Association and the
Uganda Journalists Association, have been advocating for press freedom and independence.
Additionally, there have been several high-profile cases of journalists standing up to government
pressure and continuing to report on important issues despite the risks.
In conclusion, the future of media independence in Uganda remains uncertain. While there are
significant challenges to overcome, there are also opportunities for growth and expansion. The
government must do more to protect press freedom and independence, while journalists and media
organizations must continue to advocate for their rights and work to provide high-quality,
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Case studies
Examples of journalists or media houses who have faced censorship or harassment in Uganda, and
how they have responded to these challenges.
There have been several cases of journalists and media houses facing censorship or harassment in
Uganda in recent years. Here are some examples:
a) NBS Television:
In August 2021, the Ugandan government suspended the broadcasting license of NBS Television,
one of the country's leading independent television stations. The government accused the station
of airing "inflammatory and misleading" content related to the arrest of opposition leader Robert
Kyagulanyi, also known as Bobi Wine. NBS Television denied the allegations and called the
suspension an attack on press freedom. The station's journalists organized protests and called on
the government to lift the suspension. After several days of negotiations, the government lifted the
suspension, and NBS Television resumed broadcasting.
b) Daily Monitor:
In 2013, the Ugandan government raided the offices of the Daily Monitor, one of the country's
largest newspapers, and confiscated its equipment. The government accused the newspaper of
publishing a classified document related to a plot to succeed President Yoweri Museveni. The
newspaper denied the allegations and called the raid an attack on press freedom. The newspaper's
journalists organized protests and called on the government to return the confiscated equipment.
After several days of negotiations, the government returned the equipment, and the newspaper
resumed publishing.
c) BBC:
In 2019, the Ugandan government suspended the accreditation of three BBC journalists who were
covering the country's elections. The government accused the journalists of "unprofessional
conduct" and "promoting a negative agenda" against the government. The BBC denied the
allegations and called the suspension an attack on press freedom. The journalists continued to
report from Uganda, despite the suspension, and the BBC called on the government to lift the
suspension. After several days of negotiations, the government lifted the suspension, and the
journalists resumed their work.
d) Red Pepper: In 2017, the Ugandan government shut down the Red Pepper newspaper and
arrested several of its journalists for publishing a story alleging that President Museveni
was plotting to overthrow the government of Rwanda. The government claimed that the
story was false and posed a threat to national security.
In all of these cases, journalists and media houses responded to censorship and harassment by
organizing protests, calling on the government to lift suspensions or return confiscated equipment,
and continuing to report on important issues. These cases demonstrate the importance of press
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freedom and the challenges faced by journalists in Uganda.

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Comparisons with other countries
A comparative analysis of the struggle for media independence in Uganda and other countries in
the region or around the world.
Media independence is a critical aspect of democracy, as it allows the press to report objectively
and hold those in power accountable. Uganda is one of several countries in the region and around
the world that has struggled with media independence. Let's take a comparative look at Uganda
and other countries:
Kenya: Kenya has a relatively free and independent media, but it has faced challenges in recent
years. The government has attempted to pass laws that would restrict the media's freedom, and
there have been instances of journalists being attacked and harassed. However, the media in Kenya
has been able to push back against these challenges and maintain a relatively independent status.
Tanzania: Tanzania has seen a decline in media independence in recent years. The government
has passed laws that restrict the media's ability to report on certain issues, and journalists who
report on sensitive topics have been arrested and harassed. Additionally, the government has taken
control of several media outlets, further limiting their independence.
Zimbabwe: Zimbabwe has a long history of suppressing independent media. The government has
passed laws that restrict the media's freedom, and journalists who report on sensitive topics have
been harassed and arrested. Additionally, the government has taken control of several media
outlets, leaving only a handful of independent outlets to report on the news.
United States: The United States has a relatively free and independent media, but it has faced
challenges in recent years. The current administration has attacked the media, calling them "fake
news" and limiting access to government officials. Additionally, there have been instances of
journalists being physically attacked while covering protests and other events.
United Kingdom: The United Kingdom has a relatively free and independent media, but it has
faced challenges in recent years. The government has attempted to pass laws that would restrict
the media's freedom, and there have been instances of journalists being harassed while reporting
on sensitive topics. However, the media in the UK has been able to push back against these
challenges and maintain a relatively independent status.
In summary, while media independence is important in all countries, the level of independence
and the challenges faced by the media vary greatly. Uganda, along with Tanzania and Zimbabwe,
face significant challenges in maintaining media independence due to government restrictions and
harassment of journalists. Other countries like Kenya, the United States, and the United Kingdom
have relatively free and independent media but still face challenges in maintaining their
independence.
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Recommendations
Media independence is an essential component of any functioning democracy, and it is crucial for
stakeholders to promote and protect it. Here are some recommendations for stakeholders, including
the Ugandan government, civil society organizations, journalists, and media houses, on how to
promote and protect media independence in Uganda:
Strengthen legal protections for media freedom: The Ugandan government should enact and
enforce laws that protect media freedom, including the right to free expression and access to
information. The government should also repeal any laws that infringe upon these rights.
Promote transparency and accountability: Civil society organizations should advocate for
transparency and accountability in government and public institutions. This includes pushing for
the release of information that is in the public interest and ensuring that public officials are held
accountable for their actions.
Foster a culture of professionalism in journalism: Journalists and media houses should uphold
professional standards of accuracy, fairness, and impartiality. They should also avoid
sensationalism and ensure that their reporting is fact-based and objective.
Support media diversity: Civil society organizations and media houses should work to promote
media diversity by encouraging the development of independent and alternative media outlets.
This can help ensure that a range of voices and perspectives are represented in the media.
Protect journalists from harassment and violence: The government should take action to protect
journalists from harassment and violence, including investigating and prosecuting those who
commit such acts. Civil society organizations should also provide support to journalists who face
threats or attacks.
Provide training and resources for journalists: Media houses and civil society organizations should
provide training and resources to journalists to help them improve their skills and stay up-to-date
with developments in the industry. This can help ensure that journalists are better equipped to
report on issues of public interest.
Encourage public participation in media: Civil society organizations and media houses should
work to encourage public participation in media, such as through citizen journalism initiatives and
public forums. This can help ensure that a range of perspectives are represented in the media and
that the media remains accountable to the public.
By implementing these recommendations, stakeholders can help promote and protect media
independence in Uganda, which is crucial for the country's democratic development and the well-
being of its citizens.
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in democratic societies (pp. 114–135). University of Illinois Press.
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and popular protest. https://www.in.gr/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Democracy-Index-2019.pdf
Trappel, J., Nieminen, H., & Nord, L. W. (2011). The Media for Democracy Monitor: A cross
national study of leading news media. Nordicom, University of Gothenburg.
http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:norden:org:diva-10043
Trappel, J., & Tomaz, T. (Eds.). (2021b). The Media for Democracy Monitor 2021: How leading
news media survive digital transformation (Vol. 1). Nordicom, University of Gothenburg.
https://doi.org/10.48335/9789188855404

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Further Readings
Books and Journals about media freedom and expression:
1. "The Global Struggle for Media Freedom" by William Horsley, in The International Journal of
Press/Politics (2019)
2. "Media Freedom: A Comparative Study" by Katrin Voltmer (2013)
3. "Freedom of the Press: An Overview of International Standards and Developments" by Luis
Navarro and Raul Saez, in Human Rights Law Review (2018)
4. "Media and Freedom of Expression in the Arab World" edited by El Mustapha Lahlali (2017)
5. "The Fight for Free Speech: Ten Cases That Define Our First Amendment Freedoms" by Ian
Rosenberg (2020)
6. "Freedom of the Press and the Right to Information: Recent Developments in International and
European Law and Practice" edited by Dirk Voorhoof and Daniel Joyce (2018)
7. "Media Freedom and Pluralism: Media Policy Challenges in the Enlarged Europe" edited by
Beata Klimkiewicz (2014)
8. "The Struggle for Press Freedom in South Africa" by William A. Hachten, in The Journal of
Modern African Studies (1991)
9. "Enemies of the People: My Family's Journey to America" by Kati Marton (2010)

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