MODUL

GRAMMAR
&
Gerund vs infinitives
After certain verbs we use the -ing form, and after other verbs we use the
infinitive. Sometimes we can use either form and there is no change in meaning.
Occasionally we can use either form and there is a change in meaning.

Verbs which can be followed by nouns or gerunds

avoid celebrate consider contemplate defer delay detest

dislike dread enjoy entail escape excuse finish

forgive involve keep loathe mind miss pardon

postpone prevent resent resist risk save stop

 I told him you really enjoy cooking.

 Would you mind helping me?
 It didn't stop raining all day yesterday.
 Daisy recommends trying Alfie’s tiramisu.
 Imagine not having pizza! I eat it all the time.

Verbs which can be followed by nouns, gerunds, or a that-clause

acknowledge admit anticipate appreciate deny imagine mean

mention propose recall recollect report suggest understand

 I can't imagine living in that big house.

 I can't imagine a purple unicorn in my yard.
 I can't imagine that he lied on purpose.
 I understand French.
 I understand fishing pretty well.
 I understand that you would prefer to stay.
Verbs followed by the infinitive
afford agree* aim appear** arrange* bother care

claim* condescend consent decide* demand* determine* endeavour

fail guarantee* happen* hasten have (= be hesitate hope*

obliged)

learn long manage offer prepare pretend* proceed

promise* propose prove (= refuse resolve* seek seem**

turn out)

strive swear* tend threaten* trouble undertake volunteer

vow*

These include decide, want, promise, plan and forget.

 She decided to go with Elliot instead.
 I wanted to visit Rome.
 She promised to take me there.
 I planned to go to some real Italian restaurants.
 She didn’t forget to phone.
 They decided not to make pizza.

Verbs that take a gerund or an infinitive with no difference in meaning

can't bear I can't bear being alone. / I can't bear to be alone.
can't stand Anne can't stand working the late / Anne can't stand to work the late
shif.
cease The government ceased providing free provide free health care. / The government
ceased to health care.
continue Sarah continued talking. / Sarah continued to talk.
hate He hates cleaning dishes. / He hates to clean dishes.
like Chris likes reading. / Chris likes to read.
love We love scuba diving. / We love to scuba dive.
neglect He neglected doing his daily chores. / He neglected to do his daily
chores.
prefer He prefers eating at 7 PM. / He prefers to eat at 7 PM.
propose Peter proposed paying for the trip. / Peter proposed to pay for the trip.
Verbs change their meaning when they are followed by a Gerund or an Infinitive
Some verbs have different meanings when they are followed by a gerund or an infinitive.
 forget
GERUND INFINITIVE

looks back in the past looks into the future

He'll never forget spending so much money on Don't forget to spend money
his first computer. on the tickets.

 go on
GERUND INFINITIVE

to continue with the same thing to change the activity

Go on reading the text. Go on to read the text.

 mean
GERUND INFINITIVE

sth. has to be done to get a result intend to do sth.

You have forgotten your homework again. I meant to phone your mother,
That means phoning your mother. but my mobile didn't work.

 regret
GERUND INFINITIVE

you did sth in the past and you are to tell bad news and you are not happy
not happy about it about it

We regret to inform you that the flight has

I regret being late for school.
been delayed for another two hours.

 remember
GERUND INFINITIVE

looks back in the past looks into the future

I remember switching off the lights when Remember to switch off the lights
I went on holiday. when you go on holiday.
 stop
GERUND INFINITIVE

to stop with an activity to stop in order to do sth.

I stopped smoking. I stopped to smoke.

 try
GERUND INFINITIVE

to test sth. to do sth. that is not easy

I tried taking an aspirin but it didn't Try to be quiet when you come home
help. late.

Exercise on Gerund vs infinitives

Change the verbs in the brackets into gerund or infinitive.

1. I enjoy to play (play) online games.
2. My brother promised to take (take) us to the airport.
3. If you feel ill, avoid to do (do) any hard exercise.
4. I would like to make (make) a reservation, please.
5. I suggest to visit (visit) the museums while you're in London.
6. Do you mind to wait (wait) for me a few minutes?
7. We can't afford to go (go) on holiday this year.
8. I'm learning to drive (drive) at the moment.
9. Next summer, we're planning to visit (visit) our relatives.
10. Now I've changed job, I miss to see (see) my old colleagues.

S, O, possessive Pronoun
We use personal pronouns (I, me, he, him, etc.) to replace names or nouns when
it is clear what they refer to. We use possessives (my, your, her) when it is not
necessary to name the person the thing belongs to.

We use personal pronouns to avoid repeating nouns.

Mum's calling. She’s in Turkey.
How’s Daisy? Give her my love.
You used she because it’s the subject and her because it’s the object.
Here’s the list of all the personal pronouns and possessive adjectives:
Subject Object Possessive Possessive
pronoun pronoun adjective pronoun
I me my mine
you you your yours
he him his his
she her her hers
it it its -
we us our ours
they them their theirs
We use pronouns to avoid repetition when it is obvious what we are talking about.
Is this your bike? > No, that one’s mine. (= my bike)
Those red gloves are yours; the blue ones are hers. (= her gloves)
The man in the shop gave me them free.

Well, sometimes we use me when it might seem logical to use I. We also

use it sometimes to refer to people.
I love house music > I do too / Me too.
Who’s that? > Me. / It’s me. / It’s Fran.

Sometimes we use they instead of he or she, them instead

of him or her and their instead of his or hers.
When you meet your new teacher, they will give you the books.
If anyone asks where I am, tell them I’m in Istanbul this week.
Someone left their gloves in the classroom.

Nowadays, we avoid using he for people in general, and he or she is very long, so we
use they instead, especially when we’re speaking.
“The English cricket team lost again. They were rubbish.”?

We sometimes use they for single nouns which refer to groups of people.
We usually use it/they for animals, but when people are talking about their own pets,
they use he or she.
The dog must be thirsty. Give him some water.

Ah, we don’t use one to mean everyone very much. It sounds very old-fashioned and
too formal. We use you to mean people in general.
You can see the sea from the top of that mountain. (you = people in general)
Reflexive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns are words
like myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.
They refer back to a person or thing.

We often use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object of a verb are the
same.
I cut myself when I was making dinner last night.
I hope you enjoy yourselves at the party tonight!
My phone isn't working properly. It turns itself off for no reason.
We need to believe in ourselves more.

Adding emphasis
 We can add a reflexive pronoun for emphasis when it's unusual or different.
 He wants to pass his driving test so that he can drive himself to work.
She broke her arm, so she couldn't wash herself very easily.
 We can use reflexive pronouns to emphasise that someone does it personally,
not anybody else.
 The door was definitely locked. I locked it myself.
Are you redecorating your flat yourselves?

We can also use a reflexive pronoun together with the noun it refers to in order to
emphasise it.
 We talked to the manager herself, and she agreed to give us our money back.
Parents themselves need to take more responsibility for their children's
learning.

By + reflexive pronoun
We can use by + reflexive pronoun to mean alone.
 He usually goes on holiday by himself.
Do you enjoy being by yourself?

Reciprocal pronouns
Notice the difference between plural reflexive pronouns and reciprocal pronouns (each
other, one another).
 They're buying themselves a new television.
 They're buying each other small gifts.
 We looked at ourselves in the mirror.
 We looked at each other in surprise.
With reciprocal pronouns (e.g. each other), each person does the action to the other
person/people but not to themselves.

Exercise on Pronouns
Complete the sentences.
myself
 each other
ourselves
 themselves
himself
 herself
itself
 yourself
1. We're really enjoying ourselves here in Brazil.
2. My daughter's four and she dresses herself now in the mornings.
3. That bed is too big and heavy to move by yourself.
4. I hurt myself really badly falling down the stairs.
5. The main rule in this classroom is that everyone should respect each other
6. The children made this cake themselves!
7. He knows how to laugh at himself.
8. Our cat was more interested in the box than the toy itself!
9. I woke myself up last night because I kept coughing.
10. Just download it and the software will install itself.

Comparative vs superlative
We use comparative adjectives to compare two things or show change. The
comparative form depends on the number of syllables in the adjective.

Adjectives with one syllable

To make comparative forms with one-syllable adjectives, we usually add -er:
old → older
clean → cleaner
slow → slower
If an adjective ends in -e, we add -r:
safe → safer
nice → nicer
If an adjective ends in a vowel and a consonant, we usually double the consonant:
big → bigger
hot → hotter

Adjectives with two or more syllables

If a two-syllable adjective ends in a consonant and -y, we change -y to -i and add -er:
noisy → noisier
happy → happier
easy → easier
We use more to make comparative forms for most other two-syllable adjectives and for
all adjectives with three or more syllables:
crowded → more crowded
stressful → more stressful
dangerous → more dangerous

Exception: You can either add -er/-r or use more with some two-syllable adjectives,
such
as common, cruel, gentle, handsome, likely, narrow, pleasant, polite, simple and stupid.
 I think life in the countryside is simpler than in the city.
It's more simple to live in the city because everything you need is there.

Irregular adjectives
The adjectives good, bad and far have irregular comparative forms:
good → better
bad → worse
far → further/farther

Than
When we want to say which person or thing we are comparing with, we can use than:
Their house is cleaner than ours.
Traffic is slower in the city than in the countryside.
After the race I was more tired than Anne.

When we want to compare two or more things, we can change the form of
adjectives by adding –er or –est. We can also use extra words
like more or most and expressions like not as … as.
Here are some examples:
I think you're taller than me. (tall)
She's the tallest in the group. (tall)
The pizzas in La Bella Napoli are better than the ones in Pietro's. (good)
It was the best pizza I've ever had! (good)
People say Bioshock is a more exciting game than Skyrim. (exciting)
Grand Theft Auto is the most exciting video game. (exciting)
With most one-syllable adjectives, we add –er or –est, and with most adjectives with two
syllables or more, we add more or (the) most. In comparatives, we also use than before
the second thing which is compared, if it is mentioned.
La Bella Napoli is nearer than Pietro's. (near)
It's not the cheapest restaurant though. (cheap)
With one-syllable adjectives ending in vowel + consonant, remember to double the final
consonant before –er/–est.
big → bigger → biggest
If the adjective ends in –e, just add –r or –st.
large → larger → largest
So what are the exceptions, apart from good → better → best?

Other exceptions
are bad → worse → worst and far → further/farther → furthest/farthest.
They use the worst cheese.
What about adjectives ending in –y, like crazy? My brother is crazier than me.

Yes, that's correct. With adjectives ending in y, you change the y to i and add er/ est.
lucky → luckier → luckiest happy → happier → happiest
They've got the friendliest waiters!
With most adjectives with typical adjective endings, and with two or more syllables, you
use more/most + adjective.
They do the most disgusting pasta I've ever tasted.

Other ways of comparing things

We often use not as … as.

I'm not as tall as you. (= I'm smaller than you)
Maybe the pizza at La Bella Napoli isn't as good as I remember.

Less and least are also ways of comparing things. They are used more in writing.
It is less cold in the north of the country than in the south. (the north is warmer, but both
north and south are cold)
Of the four participants, Bill is the least experienced. (the other three have more
experience)

There are several different ways to compare things in English. We can also modify
comparisons to show big or small differences.
Comparing
We can use comparative adjectives to compare different things.
Max is taller than Judy.
You're more patient than I am.
His first book is less interesting than his second.
We can use as … as with an adjective to say that two things are the same, or not as …
as to say that one thing is less than another.
Her hair is as long as mine.
It's not as sunny as yesterday.
We can also use expressions like different from, similar to and the same as.
England is different from the United Kingdom.
His car is similar to mine.
The results from the first test are the same as the results from the second.

Showing big differences

We can use much, so much, a lot, even or far with comparative adjectives.
Sales in July were a lot higher than sales in June.
He was far less experienced than the other applicant.
We can use nowhere near with as … as.
The interview was nowhere near as difficult as the written exam.
We can use very, really, completely or totally with different from.
They may be twins, but they're completely different from each other.

Showing small differences

We can use slightly, a little, a bit, a little bit or not much with comparative adjectives.
The number of registrations has been slightly lower than we expected.
Houses in my city are not much more expensive than flats.
We can use almost, nearly, not quite, roughly, more or less or about with as …
as and the same as.
She's almost as old as I am.
The figures for May are more or less the same as the figures for June.
We can use very or really with similar to.
My son looks really similar to my father when he was that age.

Showing there is no difference

We can use exactly the same as or just as … as to emphasise that there is no
difference.
My grandma's cakes still taste exactly the same as when I was a child!
A new phone can be just as expensive as a new computer these days.
Exercise on Comparative and superlative
Change the words in the brackets into the correct form of comparative or superlative.
1. I like to go to work early because the bus is more crowded (crowded) after 8.
2. Flying is safer (safe) than driving.
3. He's better (good) at football than me.
4. We're going to move to the city when our children are bigger (big).
5. She thinks her job is more stressful (stressful) because she works with difficult people.
6. This town is noisier (noisy) than my hometown. There's a lot of traffic.
7. Her mark in the exam was worse (bad) than mine.
8. Ariel moved to the countryside because he wanted a more peaceful (peaceful) life.
9. She is happier (happy) in the city because she has a lot of friends there.
10. I feel more relaxed (relaxed) if I go for a walk in the forest with my dog.

Adverb of time related to tenses

Adverbs of time tell you when something happened. They express a point in time.
These adverbs of time are often used:
 to talk about the past: yesterday, the day before, ago, last week/month/year
 to talk about the present: still, yet, while, when
 to talk about the future: soon, then, next week/month/year, in 2 days, tomorrow,
the day after tomorrow

Study the following examples:

 John went to the cinema yesterday. He had to work the day before. Last
week he was on vacation.
 When Julia talks to her boyfriend, she is really happy. This month, however, she
hasn't seen him yet.
  The family will go on vacation soon. Next month they will go to Italy. Then they
will go to Spain.

Other adverbs of time can be used to talk about the past, the present and the future:
• already, finally, eventually, after, before
Look at the examples:
 We must hurry up, George is already waiting for us.
 They were finally able to buy a new car.
 I have never been to the US before, but I am going there next year.

Adverbs of time can also tell you how long something lasted or lasts. They express a
period of time. These adverbs of time are often used:
 since, for, one year, two days, three weeks, four months, ….
Look at the examples:
 She hasn't seen him since 1999.
 Tom has been in England for one year.
Note: You use since in combination with a specific point of time, for example a year or a
date. You use for in combination with the length of a time period.

Word order
Usually, adverbs of time come after the verb and the object. In many cases, that's at the
end of the sentence. However, you can also put the adverb of time in the beginning of a
sentence! The position of the adverb depends on your intention:
 If you want to point out a fact, like an action, then you use the usual word order:
subject + verb + object + adverb.
o John went to the cinema yesterday. He had to work the day before.
 If you want to point out the time, you put the adverb of time in the beginning of
the sentence: adverb + subject + verb + object.
o Yesterday John went to the cinema. The day before he had to work.

Examples:
• I have just seen him.
• I saw him a minute ago.

There is a clear connection between the tense and its adverbs of time and adverbial
phrases of time. This connection will help us to understand how English tenses are
used.
Examples:
• usually: simple present
• now: present continuous
• already: present perfect
• for three hours, already: present perfect continuous
• yesterday: simple past

Not all adverbs and adverbial phrases of time call for certain tenses. For example, the
adverb soon. You can say: He left soon. He will leave soon. The adverb soon doesn’t
call for a specific tense and doesn’t help us to choose the tense correctly.

Question form
Do you know how to make questions?
Look at these examples to see how questions are made.
 Is he a teacher?
 Does she eat meat?
 When did you get here?
 How much does a train ticket cost?

To make questions, we often put the verb before the subject. This is called inversion.

Affirmative Question

I am late. Am I late?

I can help. Can I help?

She is sleeping. Is she sleeping?

We have met before. Have we met before?

If there is a question word (why, what, where, how, etc.), it goes before the verb.

Question Question with question word

Are you late? Why are you late?

Was she there? When was she there?

 Question Question with question word

Can I help? How can I help?

Have we met before? Where have we met before?

This is true for sentences with be, sentences that have auxiliary verbs (e.g. They are
waiting. She has finished.) and sentences with modal verbs (can, will, should, might,
etc.).

Questions in the present simple and past simple

For other verbs in the present simple, we use the auxiliary verb do/does in the question.

Question with question

Affirmative Question
word

You work at Do you work at

Where do you work?
home. home?

It costs £10. Does it cost £10? How much does it cost?

We use the auxiliary verb did in the past simple.

Question with
Affirmative Question
question word

She went home. Did she go home? Where did she go?

They went to the Did they go to the

Where did they go?
cinema. cinema?

Subject questions
In some questions, who or what is the subject of the verb. There is no inversion of
subject and verb in these questions.
 Who broke the window?
 Who is knocking on the door?
Exercise on Question Form
did
Can
Where
do
you
Did
Is
Does

1. Does your friend a scientist? – No, he's an artist.

2. where Núria live in Valencia? – No, she lives in Barcelona.
3. When do you get home? – I got home yesterday.
4. What time do you get up? – I get up at 6.00.
5. Did the children go to the park? – Yes, they went there after school.
6. Are you going to the office? – No, I'm going home.
7. Can you speak Korean? – Just a little.
8. where did you grow up? – I grew up in Addis Ababa.

Can
 going
like
 ate
go
 Have
 What
Where
9. where do you live?
10. have you ever seen the Great Pyramids of Egypt?
11. Are you go to work today?
12. What time do you go to work?
13. can you see the kids from here?
14. what happened? You're all wet!
15. Would you like a cup of tea?
16. Who ate all the pizza? – I did. Sorry!

Using tenses
Present simple
We use the present simple to talk about repeated actions or events, permanent
states or things which are always true.

We use the present simple to talk about things which are repeated every day, every
week, every year, etc.
I usually get up at 7 o'clock.
During the week I have swimming practice on Mondays, I do taekwondo on
 Tuesdays and tennis on Thursdays.
We always go on holiday in the summer.

We often use adverbs of frequency sometimes, often, usually or other time expressions
like on Mondays, twice a week or in the summer.

Permanent states are situations or feelings which are not temporary.

I like him a lot.
Sophie works as a travel writer.
They live in London.

We also use the present simple for general facts, for example when talking about
science or geography.
Thailand is really hot at this time of year.
Snakes live on the ground, in trees and in water.

The form of the present simple

The main thing is that the third person singular forms end in -s or -es. That's
for he, she or it.
He watches black and white films at his cinema club on Wednesdays.
He thinks chess is a sport!
OK, and the other forms don't end in -s or -es? I watch TV a lot. We think Coldplay are
boring.
Correct!
What about questions and negatives?

For most verbs we use the present simple of the verb do/does + subject +
infinitive without to to form questions.
Do you see him on Wednesdays then?
Does Jack like sports?
For negatives we use the subject + do/does + not + infinitive without to.
Daisy and Jack don't go out together much at the weekend.
I don't think Coldplay are boring.

Normally we use the present simple for permanent states, and the present continuous
for temporary states, but some verbs are thought of as State Verbs and they are not
usually used in the continuous form, so even though staying in Thailand is temporary,
we use the present simple with the verb to be. Here's another example:
How's Daisy? Is she with you?
We also use Present simple for a repeated event. This is sometimes called the
'timetable future'.
 OK, I have a maths class in a minute, so I have to go.
 Good use of the 'timetable future'! Bye!

Present continuous
We use the present continuous (am/is/are + -ing) to talk about temporary things
which have begun but haven't finished. They are often happening now, at this
moment.
Here are some examples of things happening now.
I'm just uploading some photos to Facebook and I'm sending a message to
Billie.
We're all riding camels and the sun's shining.
They're waiting for me to get off the phone!

We use the present continuous for longer situations like this too. We use the present
continuous for future arrangements with other people.
At eight I’m meeting Lucas, just for a quick coffee.

For questions you just change round the subject and the verb to be. So, You are > Are
you, then add the –ing form. Sometimes you need a question word first.
Are you working hard for the exam?
What are you doing?
Is anybody sitting here?

For negatives you add not after the verb to be. Don't forget to use a contraction if you're
speaking.
You're not really studying at all, are you? (or You aren't really studying…)
They aren't using the computer room at the moment.
This program isn't working.

If a verb ends in e, you take off the e and add –ing

have - having ride - riding
If a verb ends in a vowel + a consonant, the consonant is usually doubled before you
add –ing.
swim - swimming run - running

There is a group of verbs which are called state verbs which we use for states (not
actions) and we don't usually use these in the continuous form.
want - need - like - love - hate - prefer - believe - think - know - realise -
understand - recognise - suppose - be - exist - appear - look - seem - belong -
have (for possession) - own - feel - smell – taste

So these are verbs for talking about emotions, thinking, existing, appearing, possession
and the senses.

The meaning of think there is 'having thoughts in your mind' or 'considering'. It's not the
same as 'having an opinion' about something.
I think that song's brilliant. (opinion)
She's thinking about studying archaeology. (considering / wondering about)

Past simple – regular verbs

The past simple is the most common way of talking about past events or states
which have finished. It is often used with past time references (e.g. yesterday, two
years ago).

A past event could be one thing that happened in the past, or a repeated thing.
I stopped at a zebra crossing.
We carried on with the test.
We played tennis every day in August.

A state is a situation without an action happening.

We stayed at my grandparents' house last summer.

Regular past simple forms are formed by adding -ed to the infinitive of the verb.
start → started
kill → killed
jump → jumped

Yes, but there are some spelling rules. If a verb ends in -e, you add -d.
agree → agreed
like → liked
escape → escaped
If a verb ends in a vowel and a consonant, the consonant is usually doubled before -ed.
stop → stopped
plan → planned
If a verb ends in consonant and -y, you take off the y and add -ied.
 try → tried
carry → carried
But if the word ends in a vowel and -y, you add -ed.
play → played
enjoy → enjoyed

With the verb did (do in the past) + the infinitive.

Did you pass?
You didn't fail, did you?
Yes, I did. / No, I didn't.

Past simple – irregular verbs

Some verbs are irregular. Their past forms do not end in -ed.
I took a taxi to the airport. (take → took)
That was when we spoke. (speak → spoke)
One person gave me his last bar of chocolate. (give → gave)

The negatives are all formed with did + not + the infinitive without to. The question
forms are very similar: did + subject pronoun + the infinitive without to.
What did you do all day in the airport?
Did you have enough food?
We didn't think you would get home in time for your birthday.

The past form is was for I, he, she and it, but were for you, we and they.
It was horrible not being able to phone you two!
There wasn't any food. I was so hungry!
We were stuck in the airport.

Verbs list
Present Past Simple Present Past Simple

be was / were begin began

break broke bring brought
build built buy bought
catch caught choose chose
 Present Past Simple Present Past Simple

come came cost cost

cut cut do did
draw drew drink drank
drive drove eat ate
fall fell feel felt
fight fought find found
fly flew forget forgot
freeze froze get got
give gave go went
have had hear heard
hold held hit hit
keep kept know knew
learn learnt leave left
lead led let let
lie lay lose lost
make made mean meant
meet met pay paid
put put read read
ride rode run ran
say said see saw
sell sold send sent
set set shut shut
sing sang sit sat
sleep slept speak spoke
spend spent stand stood
steal stole swim swam
take took teach taught
 Present Past Simple Present Past Simple

tell told think thought

understand understood wake woke
wear wore win won
write wrote
Past continuous and past simple
The past continuous and the past simple help us to show how two past actions or
situations are connected.

Past simple
The past simple shows us that an action was in the past, not in the present. Regular
past simple verbs have -ed at the end (e.g. called, played, arrived). Irregular verbs have
a different form, usually with a different vowel sound
(e.g. wake → woke, break → broke, feel → felt).
 My parents called me yesterday.
 I woke up early this morning.
 Sam played basketball when he was at university.

We make the negative with didn't and the infinitive verb.

 My parents didn't call me yesterday.
 I didn't wake up early this morning.

We make the question form with did and then the subject and infinitive verb.
 Did you wake up early this morning?
 Did Sam play basketball when he was at university?

Past continuous
The past continuous shows us that the action was already in progress at a certain time
in the past.
 What were you doing at 8 p.m. last night? I was studying.
This means that I started studying before 8 p.m. and I continued after 8 p.m.

The past continuous can also show that an activity was in progress for some time, not
just for a moment.
 We were cleaning the house all morning.

We make the past continuous with was or were and the -ing form of the verb.
 She couldn't come to the party. She was working.
Three years ago, we were living in my home town.
I tried to give him some advice, but he wasn't listening.
What were you doing this time last year?

Past continuous and past simple

When we use these two tenses together, it shows us that the past simple action
happened in the middle of the past continuous action, while it was in progress.
  While I was studying, I suddenly felt sleepy.

We often use these tenses to show an action interrupting another action.

 I broke my leg when I was skiing.
As I was going to work, I saw an old friend.
We were watching television when the power went off.

Can you see a difference in the meaning of these two sentences?

 When the guests arrived, Jane was cooking dinner.
 When the guests arrived, Jane cooked dinner.
In the first one, Jane started cooking dinner before the guests arrived. We know that
because it uses the past continuous. In the second sentence, the guests arrived first
and then Jane started cooking.

Change the words in the brackets into the correct form of tenses
1. I was starting work at 9 a.m. this morning.
a. started b. was starting
2. This time last year I studied at university.
a. Studied b. was studying
3. Sarah hurt her ankle while she was running.
a. Ran b. was running
4. I was missing your call because I was working.
a. Missed b. was missing
5. While I was walking home, I was noticing a new shop in the high street.
a. Noticed b. was noticing
6. At 6 p.m. yesterday it was already getting dark.
a. already got b. was already getting
7. I saw you driving down Green Street yesterday! Where were you going?
a. did you go b. were you going
8. When we saw the crime, we were calling the police.
a. Called b. were calling
9. I started my new job yesterday.
a. started
b. was starting
10. What were you doing at around 8 a.m. this morning?
a. did you do
b. were you doing
Future forms
We have different ways of talking about the future. We often use going to (+
infinitive), the present continuous (to be + -ing) or will (+ infinitive). The structure
we use depends on the function of what we want to say, whether we are talking
about arrangements, plans, predictions, etc..

We use will / won’t (= will not) + the infinitive for predictions about the future.
Oliver’ll be back soon.
We won’t be ready.
Do you think it’ll rain this afternoon?

We also use will when we decide something at the moment of speaking.

(The doorbell rings) I’ll get it.

We can use either the present continuous or going to (+ infinitive) to express future.
Amy’s coming round.
We’re going to watch a film – want to join us?
What are you doing this evening?

We use the present continuous more for arrangements with other people
and be + going to + infinitive for intentions. Sometimes it’s important to choose the right
structure, but often we could use either because many events are both arrangements
and intentions.
Amy’s coming round. (= arrangement between Amy and Daisy)
Amy’s going to come round. (= Amy’s intention)
I’m going to clean my room tonight. (= intention)
I’m cleaning my room tonight. (not an arrangement)

We usually avoid saying going to go, just because it doesn’t sound very elegant. We
normally use the present continuous with go.
I’m going to the cinema with Alex.

We use going to for predictions too, especially when you can see something happening
or about to happen.
Look out! You’re going to spill that coffee.

We can use present simple for future timetabled events.

My plane leaves at 4pm tomorrow.
The match starts at 8pm.
Future plans
We use different verb forms to talk about our plans for the future, depending on what
kind of plan it is: a spontaneous plan, a pre-decided plan or an arrangement.
 will
We use will to talk about spontaneous plans decided at the moment of speaking.
 Oops, I forgot to phone Mum! I'll do it after dinner.
 I can't decide what to wear tonight. I know! I'll wear my green shirt.
 There's no milk. I'll buy some when I go to the shops.
 going to
We use going to to talk about plans decided before the moment of speaking.
 I'm going to phone Mum after dinner. I told her I'd call at 8 o'clock.
 I'm going to wear my black dress tonight.
 I'm going to go to the supermarket after work. What do we need?
 Present continuous
We usually use the present continuous when the plan is an arrangement – already
confirmed with at least one other person and we know the time and place.
 I'm meeting Jane at 8 o'clock on Saturday.
 We're having a party next Saturday. Would you like to come?

We often use the present continuous to ask about people's future plans.
Are you doing anything interesting this weekend?

Exercise on Future Plan

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. It's really hot in here. I'll open a window.
a. I'll open b. I'm opening
2. I've told my bank to close my account. I'm going to open an account with a more ethical bank.
a. I'll open b. I'm going to open
3. I'm speaking at a conference on Saturday.
a. I'll speak b. I'm speaking
4. I've decided that I'm going to speak to my boss about the situation.
a. I'll speak b. I'm going to speak
5. I would love to go out with you tomorrow but I'm having dinner with James.
a. I'll have b. I'm having
6. A: Tea or coffee? B: I'll have coffee, please.
a. I'll have b. I'm going to have
7. I want to do more with my free time. I know! I think I'll start taking Mandarin lessons.
 a. I'll start b. I'm starting
8. I've paid for the course and I'll start lessons next week.
a. I'll start b. I'm starting
9. I can't come to class next Monday. I'm having a tooth taken out.
a. I'll have b. I'm having
10. Waitress: And what would you like to drink? Customer: I'll have an orange
juice,please.
a. I'll have b. I'm going to have

Present perfect: simple and continuous

We use the present perfect simple (have or has + past participle) to talk about past
actions or states which are still connected to the present.

Unfinished time and states

We often use the present perfect to say what we've done in an unfinished time period,
such as today, this week, this year, etc., and with expressions such as so far, until
now, before, etc.
They've been on holiday twice this year.
We haven't had a lot of positive feedback so far.
I'm sure I've seen that film before.

We also use it to talk about life experiences, as our life is also an unfinished time period.
We often use never in negative sentences and ever in questions.
I've worked for six different companies.
He's never won a gold medal.
Have you ever been to Australia?

We also use the present perfect to talk about unfinished states, especially
with for, since and how long.
She's wanted to be a police officer since she was a child.
I haven't known him for very long.
How long have you had that phone?

Finished time and states

If we say when something happened, or we feel that that part of our life is finished, we
use the past simple.
We visited Russia for the first time in 1992.
I went to three different primary schools.
Before she retired, she worked in several different countries.
We also use the past simple for finished states.
We knew all our neighbours when we were children.
I didn't like bananas for a really long time. Now I love them!

Past actions with a result in the present

We can use the present perfect to talk about a past action that has a result in the
present.
He's broken his leg so he can't go on holiday.
There's been an accident on the main road, so let's take a different route.
They haven't called me, so I don't think they need me today.
Again, if we say when it happened, we use the past simple.
He broke his leg last week so he can't go on holiday.

However, we often use the present perfect with words

like just, recently, already, yet and still.
We've recently started going to the gym.
She's already finished season one and now she's watching season two.
Have you checked your emails yet?

Exercise on Present Perfect

1. That's the worst film I've seen in my life!
a. Saw b. 've seen
2. She must be really tired. She's worked late every night this week.
a. Works b. 's worked
3. You've got a new car? How long have you had the old one?
a. did you have b. have you had
4. Oh dear, it looks like Jan hasn't done the shopping yesterday. I'll go now.
a. didn't do b. hasn't done
5. They've lost the documents I sent them! Now I have to send them all again.
a. Lose b. 've lost
6. She's learned to swim on holiday in 1995.
a. Learned b. 's learned
7. I think you're my oldest friend! How long have we known each other?
a. do we know b. have we known
8. I haven't had a chance to call him back yet.
a. don't have b. haven't had
9. I've lived in this flat since I moved here.
a. Lived b. 've lived
10. Have you seen anyone famous when you were in New York?
a. Did you see b. Have you seen
Present perfect simple and continuous
We use both the present perfect simple (have or has + past participle) and the present
perfect continuous (have or has + been + -ing form) to talk about past actions or states
which are still connected to the present.

Focusing on result or activity

The present perfect simple usually focuses on the result of the activity in some way, and
the present perfect continuous usually focuses on the activity itself in some way.

Present perfect simple Present perfect continuous

Focuses on the result Focuses on the activity

You've cleaned the bathroom! It I've been gardening. It's so nice out
looks lovely! there.

Says 'how many' Says 'how long'

She's read ten books this summer. She's been reading that book all day.

Describes an activity which may

Describes a completed action
continue

I've written you an email. I've been writing emails.

When we can see evidence of recent

activity

The grass looks wet. Has it been

raining?
I know, I'm really red. I've been
running!

Ongoing states and actions

We often use for, since and how long with the present perfect simple to talk about
ongoing states.
How long have you known each other?
We've known each other since we were at school.

We often use for, since and how long with the present perfect continuous to talk about
ongoing single or repeated actions.
How long have they been playing tennis?
They've been playing tennis for an hour.
They've been playing tennis every Sunday for years.

Sometimes the present perfect continuous can emphasise that a situation is temporary.
I usually go to the gym on the High Street, but it's closed for repairs at the moment so
I've been going to the one in the shopping centre.

Exercise on present perfect dan present perfect continuous.

Choose the correct verb forms to complete the sentences.
1. I've been washing the windows all day without any help! Two more and I can have a rest.
a. 've been washing b. 've washed
2. You look nice! Have you had your hair cut?
a. been having b. had
3. Has someone eaten my special bread? There's only a little bit left.
a. been eating b. eaten
4. They've scored four goals and it's only half-time!
a. They've been scoring b. They've scored
5. I've been learning English for three years and soon I'm going to be using it at work.
a. been learning b. learned
6. A: Are you OK? B: Yeah, I'm fine! I'm not crying. I've been chopping onions!
a. been chopping b. chopped
7. Finally! We 've sold our house!
a. 've been selling b. 've sold
8. Sorry, I'm late! How long have you waited ?
a. have you been waiting b. have you waited
9. Have you always been hating garlic?
a. been hating b. hated
10. Thanks for the recipe book! We've been trying two different recipes so far.
a. been trying b. tried
Future continuous and future perfect
Future continuous
We can use the future continuous (will/won't be + -ing form) to talk about future actions
that:
 will be in progress at a specific time in the future:
When you come out of school tomorrow, I'll be boarding a plane.
Try to call before 8 o'clock. After that, we'll be watching the match.
You can visit us during the first week of July. I won't be working then.
 we see as new, different or temporary:
Today we're taking the bus but next week we'll be taking the train.
He'll be staying with his parents for several months while his father is in recovery.
Will you be starting work earlier with your new job?

Future perfect
We use the future perfect simple (will/won't have + past participle) to talk about
something that will be completed before a specific time in the future.
The guests are coming at 8 p.m. I'll have finished cooking by then.
On 9 October we'll have been married for 50 years.
Will you have gone to bed when I get back?

We can use phrases like by or by the time (meaning 'at some point before') and in or in
a day's time / in two months' time / in five years' time etc. (meaning 'at the end of this
period') to give the time period in which the action will be completed.
I won't have written all the reports by next week.
By the time we arrive, the kids will have gone to bed.
I'll have finished in an hour and then we can watch a film.
In three years' time, I'll have graduated from university.

Exercise on Future continuous and future perfect

Complete the sentences with one word.
1. We'll have been can a bit of Korean by the time you come to Seoul. We're
startingclasses next week.
2. By June next year, I will have retired from work.
3. In their retirement, they'll have been living in a small house in the mountains.
4. Take some keys with you – I'll probably be taking a shower when you get back.
5. Next week we'll have been together for two years.
6. I'm taking the day off on Friday – I will be working.
7. Our table at the restaurant is at 1 p.m. Do you think we'll have been lunch by 3
p.m.?
8. Come and find me when the film finishes. I'll be buying a coffee in the bar
nextdoor.
9. He's got a new job in Canada. He'll be staying in Vancouver from September.
10. I'm having driving lessons! Hopefully, I'll have been doing my test by summer.

Past habits – 'used to', 'would' and the past simple

When we talk about things in the past that are not true any more, we can do it in
different ways.

Used to + infinitive
We can use used to to talk about past states that are not true any more.
We used to live in New York when I was a kid.
There didn't use to be a supermarket there. When did it open?
Did you use to have a garden?

We can also use used to to talk about past habits (repeated past actions) that don't
happen any more.
I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.
She used to smoke but she gave up a few years ago.
used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + -ing, which has a
different meaning. The difference is covered here.

Would
We can use would to talk about repeated past actions that don't happen any more.
Every Saturday I would go on a long bike ride.
My dad would read me amazing stories every night at bedtime.
would for past habits is slightly more formal than used to. It is often used in stories. We
don't normally use the negative or question form of would for past habits. Note that we
can't usually use would to talk about past states.

Exercise on Past tenses

Choose the correct option to complete the sentence.
1. When I was young we used to live in a big house in the countryside.
a. would live b. used to live
2. On summer mornings my brother and I used to go fishing while everyone else was asleep.
a. used to go fishing b. have fished
3. We had breakfast and then go quietly out of the house to the river.
a. would have b. had
4. We would spend hours fishing in a small boat belonging to my grandmother.
a. would spend b. didn't use to spend
5. My brother would know the names of all the different types of fish that were in the river.
a. would know b. used to know
6. We would often fall asleep in the boat and our father would come to find us.
a. would come b. was coming
7. But Dad wouldn't get angry because he had done the same when he was a kid.
a. wouldn't get b. didn't use to get
8. Once I caught an enormous fish. I was so
happy!
a. used to catch b. caught
9. I would be a really sporty person.
a. would be b. used to be
10. In my first year at university, I would run for an hour every morning before breakfast.
a. have run b. would run

Past perfect

Time up to a point in the past

We use the past perfect simple (had + past participle) to talk about time up to a certain
point in the past.
She'd published her first poem by the time she was eight.
We'd finished all the water before we were halfway up the mountain.
Had the parcel arrived when you called yesterday?

Past perfect for the earlier of two past actions

We can use the past perfect to show the order of two past events. The past perfect
shows the earlier action and the past simple shows the later action.
When the police arrived, the thief had escaped.

It doesn't matter in which order we say the two events. The following sentence has the
same meaning.
The thief had escaped when the police arrived.
Note that if there's only a single event, we don't use the past perfect, even if it happened
a long time ago.
The Romans spoke Latin. (NOT The Romans had spoken Latin.)

Past perfect after before

We can also use before + past perfect to show that an action was not done or was
incomplete when the past simple action happened.
They left before I'd spoken to them.
Sadly, the author died before he'd finished the series.
Adverbs
We often use the adverbs already (= 'before the specified time'), still (= as
previously), just (= 'a very short time before the specified time'), ever (= 'at any time
before the specified time') or never (= 'at no time before the specified time') with the
past perfect.
I called his office but he'd already left.
It still hadn't rained at the beginning of May.
I went to visit her when she'd just moved to Berlin.
It was the most beautiful photo I'd ever seen.
Had you ever visited London when you moved there?
I'd never met anyone from California before I met Jim.

Exercise on Past Perfect

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. When she enrolled on the course, she had never studied a foreign language before.
a. enrolled b. 'd enrolled
2. When I closed the door, I realised that I Left my keys inside.
a. Left b. 'd left
3. She looked really sad but I didn't know what Happened.
a. Happened b. 'd happened
4. Had Sai already left when you rang the doorbell?
a. Did Sai already leave b. Had Sai already left
5. This is the oldest building in the town. It was built over 200 years ago.
a. was built b. 'd been built
6. By the time I moved in, they Finished the building work.
a. Finished b. 'd finished
7. I opened the door, and Went inside.
a. Went b. 'd gone
8. I looked in the letter box yesterday and the letter still hadn't arrived.
a. didn't arrive b. hadn't arrived
9. By the time I could talk to her, she'd decided to quit
her job.
a. Decided b. 'd decided
10. I looked at the photo and suddenly realised that I'd seen that man somewhere before.
a. Saw b. 'd seen
Auxiliary verbs for present, past, future, perfect
The form of the verb to be is am (contracted to 'm), is ('s) and are ('re) in the
present tense and was/were in the past. To be is used as an auxiliary verb, to
form continuous tenses and the passive, and as a main verb. Here we are looking
at it as a main verb.
After the verb to be, we use an adjective phrase, a noun phrase, a preposition phrase or
an adverb phrase.
Here are some examples with adjectives or adjective phrases:
I'm a bit tired.
He was late last time too.
The journey was fantastic.
My brother isn't very tall.

Here are examples with nouns or noun phrases:

She was an English teacher for years.
They're both teachers at our school.
That's my laptop.

And here are examples with adverb and preposition phrases:

I'm here at the café, and you're not!
Are you there yet?
Your phone's in my bag.
Where were you at 5 o'clock?

For questions, you just change the order of the subject and the verb. Sometimes you
need to add a question word.
Is he in his room?
Where are you?
What was that noise?

For negatives, you just add not. If you're speaking, don't forget to use a contraction.
We aren't ready yet.
Is Daisy at home? ~ No, she isn't.
Those books weren't on the table. I don't know where they are.

OK, in this table there are some common areas where we use to be.
Age How old are you? I'm 18.

Place Where are you from? I'm from Beijing.

 Nationality What's your nationality? I'm Brazilian.

Health How are you? I'm very well, thanks.

People What's she like? She's really nice.

Prices How much is it? It's £3.50.

Conjunction
There are some kinds of conjunctions:
1. Coordinating conjunctions
2. Subordinating conjunctions
3. Conjunctive adverbs

Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses,
words, or other parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance. Also known
as coordinators, coordinating conjunctions are used to give equal emphasis to a pair of
main clauses.

Coordinating Conjunction Rules

As there are only seven of these words, there are just a few rules for using coordinating
conjunctions correctly:
1. It’s a good idea to use the mnemonic “FANBOYS” to memorize coordinating
conjunctions so you’ll never forget them. They are:
o F = for; For indicates causation: “We left a day early, for the weather was
not as clement as we had anticipated.”
o A = and; And juxtaposes two or more items without specifying a
relationship between them: “neorealism, neoclassical realism, and realist
constructivism”; “Mearsheimer subscribes to one approach, and Waltz
argues for another.”
o N = nor; Nor supplements a previously stated negation: “neither
fish nor fowl”; “The results did not confirm the hypothesis, nor did they
suggest any particular alternative explanation.”
o B = but; But signals a contradiction, caveat, or other tension: “this oft-
cited but inaccurate account”; “There was no precedent for such an
approach, but the team forged ahead.”
o O = or; Or indicates alternatives: “Give me liberty or give me death.”
 o Y = yet; Yet, like "but," means “nevertheless” or “in spite of” something:
“There was no precedent for such an approach, yet the team forged
ahead.”
o S = so; So, like "for," indicates reasoning or causation; while "for"
indicates the cause, "so" introduces the effect: “The weather was not as
clement as we had anticipated, so we left a day early.”
2. Coordinating conjunctions always connect phrases, words, and clauses. For
example: This batch of mushroom stew is savory and delicious.
3. Some instructors warn that starting a sentence with a coordinating conjunction is
incorrect. Mostly, this is because they are attempting to help prevent you from
writing fragments rather than complete sentences; sometimes though, it’s just a
personal preference. The fact is, you can begin sentences with coordinating
conjunctions as long as you follow these three rules for doing so:
o Ensure that the coordinating conjunction is immediately followed by a
main clause
o Don’t use coordinating conjunctions to begin all of your sentences. Do so
only when it makes your writing more effective.
o Although commas typically follow coordinating conjunctions used in areas
other than the beginning of a sentence, they should not be used after
coordinating conjunctions used to open sentences unless an interrupter
immediately follows.

Examples of Coordinating Conjunctions

In the following examples, the coordinating conjunctions have been italicized for easy
identification.
1. You can eat your cake with a spoon or fork.
2. My dog enjoys being bathed but hates getting his nails trimmed.
3. Bill refuses to eat peas, nor will he touch carrots.
4. I hate to waste a drop of gas, for it is very expensive these days.

Exercise on Coordinating Conjunctions

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how coordinating
conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. Would you rather have cheese or bologna on your sandwich?
1. For
2. Nor
3. Or
4. So
2. His two favorite sports are football and tennis.
1. Or
 2. And
3. Nor
4. For
3. I wanted to go to the beach, but Mary refused.
1. But
2. Or
3. So
4. For
4. I am allergic to cats, yet I have three of them.
1. Or
2. For
3. Yet
4. So
5. I am a vegetarian, so I don’t eat any meat.
1. So
2. Yet
3. Nor
4. But

6. Thomas will be late to work, for he has a dental appointment.

A. but
B. or
C. for
D. nor

7. Jennifer does not like to swim, but does she enjoy cycling.
A. and
B. or
C. but
D. nor

8. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake, but he was on a diet.

A. for
B. but
C. yet
D. so

Subordinating Conjunctions
A suboídinating conjunction is a woíd used to combine an independent clause and a dependentclause in a
sentence. ľhey help in foíming complex sentences.
In the English language, suboídinating conjunctions include those like as long as, because, even if, if,unless,
befoíe, since, though, etc. Let us look at the following sentences to undeístand how suboídinate conjunctions
aíe employed and made use of.
Examples:

 Unless you submit all the suppoíting documents, youí application will not be píocessed.
 I was not able to go to the hospital because it was íaining heavily.
 When I íeached the íailway station, I found out that the tíain had alíeady left.
 Although we had paíked in the paíking lot, the tíaffic police issued us a paíking ticket.
 It is betteí to keep eveíything packed as you aíe not suíe when you would be asked to come to
Bangaloíe.

Given below is a list of suboídinating conjunctions that can be used in eveíyday conveísation.

After When Before

As soon as Because As

Since Though Although

Even though If Unless

Until Even if Once

While Than Till

Now that Whenever In order that

Wherever As though As long as

Provided So that That

No matteí how fíequently you conveíse in English, it is always betteí to keep the following points inmind.

 Suboídinating conjunctions can be used in the beginning oí middle of a sentence accoídingto the
position of the dependent clause.
 When the suboídinating conjunction appeaís in the beginning of a complex sentence,a comma
is used afteí the dependent clause.
 When a suboídinating conjunction is used in the middle of a sentence, theíe is no need foí a comma to
be used.
 A dependent clause with a suboídinating conjunction cannot stand by itself as it does not make
sense.
Exercise on Subordinating Conjunctions
Fill in the blanks with the most appíopíiate conjunction in the following sentences. You can choosethe most
suitable conjunction fíom the list given below.
(If, while, when, since, as soon as, even though, unless, though, befoíe, afteí)
1. even though Deepa íeached home, she called to let me know .
2. when she had paid all the bills, the system showed that she had some due payments to bedone.
3. unless you do not find it inteíesting, it is okay.
4. when I was walking acíoss the stíeet, I saw that the shops weíe closed.
5. afteí she finishes the woík given, she cannot go home.
6. If you make a decision, just take a second opinion.
7. though he was tiíed, he agíeed to help me out.
8. She knew that theíe was a nationwide lockdown today only as soon as I told heí about it.
9. while you aíe done with it, let me know.
10. I think this place will not feel the same eveí again since they demolished the football galleíy.

Conjunctive adverbs
Conjunctive adverbs are parts of speech that are used to connect one clause to
another. They are also used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other
relationships.
Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are however, moreover, namely,
nevertheless, meanwhile, subsequently, and furthermore.

Functions of Conjunctive Adverbs:

1. Emphasizing a Point
Conjunctive adverbs can effectively emphasize a point. These adverbs connect two
ideas that are similar, with the second idea being a bit more emphatic. Check out these
conjunctive adverbs that create emphasis:
• again
• certainly
• indeed
• moreover
• of course
Try using each conjunctive adverb in a sentence to reinforce your point.
• Our kids really need a new traffic signal on the corner; again, it keeps the
children safe.
• Stay away from the water; certainly, you don’t want to fall in.
• This is a wonderful investment; indeed, you’ll make your money back and then
some.
• Eric hated cleaning the toilet; moreover, it was a waste of time.
• Decreasing homework leads to higher school engagement; of course, we want
our students to be engaged.

2. Sequencing Events
Putting events in sequential order can make them easier to understand. Conjunctive
adverbs are helpful ways to transition between the order of events. Examples of these
conjunctive adverbs include:
• first
• next
• finally
See how you can use these conjunctive adverbs in these sentences:
• Let’s have a chat; first, I’ll pour you a cup of coffee.
• We have to get you new shoes; next, I have to get the groceries.
• Katie put the finishing touches on her project; finally, she signed her name.

3. Summarizing an Argument
Once you’ve finished making a point or an argument, it’s effective to sum things up. Use
the following conjunctive adverbs to summarize what you’ve just said:
• all in all
• in conclusion
• in summary
Here are some examples of these conjunctive adverbs that sum up a statement:
• We packed up the car and drove home; all in all, it was a great trip.
• Many children have been injured this year; in conclusion, the playground is
unsafe.
• Dogs are great protectors and companions; in summary, we should get a dog.

4. Show Time
Finally, conjunctive adverbs can also signify time. They compare when the first clause
occurred versus when the second clause occurred. Examples of conjunctive adverbs
that show time include:
• beforehand
• meanwhile
• lately
• now
• since
How to punctuate conjunctive adverbs
When a conjunctive adverb connects two independent clauses in one sentence, it is
preceded by a semicolon and followed by a comma.
Tuition increases, say officials, are driven by the universities’ costs; consequently,
tuition income typically covers less than 50% of college budgets.
If a conjunctive adverb is used in any other position in a sentence, it is set off by
commas.
Nonetheless, some colleges are making efforts to trim budgets and pass along the
savings.
Secretary Bennett, however, maintains that more federal aid would only encourage
universities to count on the government to meet any increases they might impose.

The conjunctive adverbs in the following examples are in bold for easy identification.
1. Jeremy kept talking in class; therefore, he got in trouble.
2. She went into the store; however, she didn’t find anything she wanted to buy.
3. I like you a lot; in fact, I think we should be best friends.
4. Your dog got into my yard; in addition, he dug up my petunias.
5. You’re my friend; nonetheless, I feel like you’re taking advantage of me.
6. My car payments are high; on the other hand, I really enjoy driving such a nice
vehicle.

Exercise on Conjunctive Adverb

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how conjunctive
adverbs work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. You need to put more effort into your work; , you won’t get a
passing grade.
a. Moreover
b. Otherwise
c. Unless
d. Instead

2. We wanted to spend the day at the beach; , it rained

so we stayed home.
a. Moreover
b. Unless
c. However
d. Additionally
 3. She is a very smart girl; , it’s not at all surprising that she
gets such good grades.
a. Again
b. Besides
c. Contrarily
d. Therefore

4. Jared is a millionaire; , his brother Jeremy is always flat

broke.
a. In contrast
b. Accordingly
c. Again
d. Likewise

5. He felt he couldn’t tell the truth about what happened; ,

he lied.
a. In contrast
b. Likewise
c. Undoubtedly
d. Instead

6. You need to put more effort into your work;otherwise , you won’t get a
passing grade.
7. I love to eat toffees;because , people often give them to me at holidays.
8. The tree has developed a large crack over the years;likewise , it will have
to be cut down for safety’s sake.
9. It would be nice to spend our vacation on the beach in Jamaica:
contrarily, it would be fun to hike the Swiss alps.

Imperative form
You can use the imperative form to give an order, to give a warning or advice, and (if
you use “please”) to make a request.

To make the imperative, use the infinitive of the verb without ‘to’:
“Come here!”
“Sit down!”
To make a negative imperative, put “do not” or “don’t” before the verb:
“Don’t go!”
“Do not walk on the grass.”
The imperative can be used for all subjects (you, he, they and we), but you can also use
“let’s” before the verb if you are including yourself in the imperative:
“Let’s stop now.”
“Let’s have some lunch.”
The negative of “let’s” is “let’s not”:
“Let’s not argue!
“Let’s not tell her about it.”

Orders
Adults do not usually give each other orders, unless they are in a position of authority.
The intonation of an order is important: each word is stressed, and the tone falls at the
end of the sentence:
“Sit down now!” (‘Sit’, ‘down’ and ‘now’ are all stressed, and the tone falls on ‘now’.)

Warnings
You can use the imperative to warn someone of danger. All the words in the warning
are stressed, but the last word has a higher tone than the first word:
“Watch out!”
“Look out!”
“Don’t cross!”

Advice
When you give advice using the imperative, the words are stressed normally:
“Eat an apple – it’s much better for you than a biscuit!”
“Don’t tell him you’re resigning now! Wait until Monday when he’s in a better mood.”

You can often read articles in magazines that give advice on a subject. Sometimes, this
advice is presented as “Dos and don’ts”.
For example:
Travelling long-distance
Do try to sleep well the night before
Do drink plenty of water
Do try to walk about the plane during the flight
Don’t drink alcohol
Don’t eat heavy meals
Don’t wear restrictive clothing

Requests
You can also use the imperative to make a request, but you should use a polite word
before the verb:
“Please take a seat.”
“Please wait here.”
“Please hold the line.”
“Please don’t smoke here.”

In written English, you might also see “Kindly” used as a polite word:
“Kindly return the documents as soon as possible.”
“Kindly forward this to the Sales and Marketing department.”
“Kindly send me 2 copies of your brochure.”

Exercises
Fill in the blanks using appropriate verbs.
1. Wait a minute.
2. Come over here, please.
3. Please close the door when you go outside.
4. She is your teacher.
5. Please give me your phone number so that I can call you.

Construct the negative form of the imperative.

1. (work) so hard.
2. (go) there.
3. (be) so rude.
4. (forget) to tidy up your room.
5. (smoke) inside the building.

Fill in the gaps with the correct words from the box. Some of these imperatives are
negative (-).
tidy - call - be - shut - drive - stay - help - take - buy - turn

1. be afraid. (-)
2. take the bus to school.
3. drive too fast. (-)
4. call a taxi, please.
5. shut down the music.
6. buy a new laptop. (-)
7. tidy your room before you leave.
8. help me in the garden.
9. be the door, please.
10. take out too late. (-)
Prepositions
Prepositions of Place: at, in, on
In general, we use:
 at for a POINT
 in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
 on for a SURFACE

at in on
POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE

at the corner in the garden on the wall

at the bus stop in London on the ceiling

at the door in France on the door

at the top of the page in a box on the cover

at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor

Look at these examples:
 Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
 The shop is at the end of the street.
 My plane stopped at Dubai and Hanoi and arrived in Bangkok two hours late.
 When will you arrive at the office?
 Do you work in an office?
 I have a meeting in New York.
 Jupiter is in the Solar System.
 The author's name is on the cover of the book.
 There are no prices on this menu.
 You are standing on my foot.
 There was a "no smoking" sign on the wall.
 I live on the 7th floor at 21 Oxford Street in London.

Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:

at in on

at home in a car on a bus

at work in a taxi on a train

 at in on

at school in a helicopter on a plane

at university in a boat on a ship

at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike

at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant

at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television

at the side in a row on the left, on the right

at reception in Oxford Street on the way

Exercise on Preposition of place

1. He's swimming in the river.
2. Where's Julie? She's at school.
3. The plant is on the table.
4. There is a spider at the bath.
5. Please put those apples at the bowl.
6. Frank is at holiday for three weeks.
7. There are two pockets in this bag.
8. I read the story at the newspaper.
9. The cat is sitting at the chair.
10. Lucy was standing On the bus stop.

Prepositions of Time - at, in, on

We use:

 at for a PRECISE TIME

 in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
 on for DAYS and DATES

at in on
PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG DAYS and
TIME PERIODS DATES

at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday

at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays

 at in on
PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG DAYS and
TIME PERIODS DATES

at noon in the summer on 6 March

at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas

Day

at the moment in the past/future on New Year's

Eve

in on at

Months: in January / in April

Days of the week: on Monday
Seasons: in spring / in winter
Days + parts of days: on Clock times: at 7.30
Years: in 1984 / in 2015
Tuesday afternoon / on a.m. / at 5 o’clock
Centuries: in the 20th century
Saturday mornings Festivals: at
Times of day: in the morning
Dates: on November 22nd Christmas / at Easter
/ in the evening
Special days: on my birthday Exceptions: at night
Longer periods of time: in
/ on New Year’s Eve / at the weekend
the past / in the 1990s / in the
holidays

Look at these examples:

 I have a meeting at 9am.
 The shop closes at midnight.
 Jane went home at lunchtime.
 In England, it often snows in December.
 Do you think we will go to Jupiter in the future?
 There should be a lot of progress in the next century.
 Do you work on Mondays?
 Her birthday is on 20 November.
 Where will you be on New Year's Day?
Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:

Expression Example

at night The stars shine at night.

at the weekend* I don't usually work at the weekend.

at Christmas*/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.

at the same time We finished the test at the same time.

at present He's not home at present. Try later.

*Note that in some varieties of English people say "on the weekend" and "on
Christmas".

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:

in on

in the morning on Tuesday morning

in the mornings on Saturday mornings

in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoon(s)

in the evening(s) on Monday evening(s)

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.
 I went to London last June. (not in last June)
 He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
 I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
 We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Exercise on Prepositions
Choose the correct prepositions.
1. "Let's meet midday Saturday.”
a. at, at
b. in, on
c. at, on
2. "The manager isn't here present, but she'll be back half an hour."
a. at, in
b. at, at
c. in, in
3. "You won't be working Saturday nights the future, will you?"
a. at, in
b. on, in
c. on, at
4. "I'm busy moment, but I'll be free evening."
a. at the, in this
b. in the, at this
c. at the, this

Prepositions of Direction
Prepositions of direction give readers a sense of place or location. The following chart
lists different prepositions of direction, their definitions, and examples.

Preposition Meaning Example

higher relative to something The milk is above the soda in the
above
else refrigerator.
across on the other side of My friend lives across the street from me.
along beside The ducks are eating along the river.
among within a group The girl was sitting among her friends.
around in a circular way They told stories around the campfire.
at indicates a particular point Meet me at the stop sign.
behind at the back of The employees parked behind the store.
lower relative to something
below I hung the poster below the mirror.
else
beside next to Come stand beside me.
The flowers are close to the produce
close to near
section.
over above The spices are over the sink.
through from one point to the next The river runs through the woods.
toward in the direction of The man started walking toward the exit.
up from low to high The store is right up the road.
down from high to low The boy tumbled down the hill.
in the space separating two
between The ring fell between the couch cushions.
things
Preposition Meaning Example
by near The thrift store is by the church.
Have you ever been inside an abandoned
inside/in within
building?
near close by The movie theater is by the interstate.
next to beside The library is next to the post office.
on touching something Put the mail on the table.
onto moving on top of something The dog climbed onto the bed.
off away from Don’t jump off that wall.
past on the farther side of She drove right past the house.
under below something The cat slept under the bed.

Some prepositions are trickier than others. For example, it’s not so logical to be on a
bus or a train or a plane rather than in one, yet that’s the way we say it. While you are
on the plane (i.e., inside the plane), there is also a logo on the plane, and two wings on
the plane, though they’re not inside with you. When in doubt about how to use a specific
preposition, look up the proper term in a dictionary.

Exercise on Prepositions of Direction: To, On (to), In (to)

Complete the following sentences with the correct preposition:
to, toward, on, onto, in, or into. Some sentences may have more than one possible
correct answer. Remember that a few verbs of motion take only "on" rather than "onto."
1. Anna has returned to her home town.
2. The dog jumped into the lake.
3. Are the boys still swimming in the pool?
4. Thomas fell in the floor.
5. The plane landed toward the runway.
6. We drove onto the river for an hour but turned north before we reached it.
7. The kids climbed to the monkey bars.
8. Joanna got to Fred's car.
9. The baby spilled his cereal in the floor.
10. We cried to the man on the ladder, "Hang onto !"
Adjectives and prepositions
Some adjectives go with certain prepositions. There are no grammatical rules for
which preposition is used with which adjective, so it's a good idea to try to learn them
together. However, there are some patterns that can help you. Let's look at them first.
Remember that a preposition is followed by a noun or a gerund (-ing form).

With at
We use at with adjectives like good/bad/amazing/brilliant/terrible, etc. to talk about skills
and abilities.
He's really good at English.
She's amazing at the piano.
They're terrible at organising anything.
I'm not very good at drawing.

With about
We often use about with adjectives of feelings
like angry/excited/happy/nervous/sad/stressed/worried, etc. to explain what is causing
that feeling.
I'm angry about the decision.
He's nervous about the presentation.
She's excited about the new job.
They were worried about the exam.

With of
However, sometimes we use of with feelings.
She was afraid of telling her mum.
I'm frightened of having an accident.
He's scared of flying.
You should be proud of your progress.

With to
We can use to to show the connection between people or things.
He's married to the director.
I'm addicted to my phone.
I'm allergic to nuts.
It's similar to the old one.

We can also use to to talk about someone's behaviour towards someone else.
They were really friendly to me.
Was he nice to you?
He is always polite to everyone.
She was very rude to the waitress.
Here are some other useful adjectives with prepositions.

With for
Exercise is good for you.
Stress is bad for you.
The town is famous for its cheese.
I'm responsible for the financial side of the business.

With in
She's interested in the project.
They want someone who's experienced in design.
I didn't want to get involved in the argument.

Exercise on Adjective and proposition

Choose the correct answer.
1. She's interested buying the flat.
a. about
b. in
c. on

2. I'm a bit nervous going somewhere so different.

a. about
b. of
c. to

3. The activities will be similar what we did last year.

a. at
b. to
c. with

4. He wants to be involved making the decision.

a. about
b. in
c. on

5. She's angry not being invited to the dinner.

a. about
 b. for
c. of

6. You're good talking to big groups of people.

a. at
b. in
c. to

7. Eating a lot of red meat is not good you.

a. at
b. for
c. on

8. I'm afraid flying.

a. of
b. to
c. with

9. I'm really proud you!

a. of
b. to
c. with

10. She's responsible health and safety.

a. for
b. in
c. of

Passive forms
We use the passive, rather than the active, to show that we are more interested in
a certain part of the sentence. The passive is usually formed by the verb to be +
past participle.

We also use the passive when we don’t know who did something, or when it isn’t
important.
It’s the biggest outdoor elevator in the world, so I’ve been informed.

We use the passive voice to change the focus of the sentence.

My bike was stolen. (passive – focus on my bike)
Someone stole my bike. (active – focus on someone)
We often use the passive:
 when we prefer not to mention who or what does the action (for example, it's not
known, it's obvious or we don't want to say)
 so that we can start a sentence with the most important or most logical
information
 in more formal or scientific writing.

How we make the passive

We make the passive using the verb be + past participle. We start the sentence with the
object. Only the form of be changes to make the tense. The past participle stays the
same. Here are examples of the passive in its most common tenses.

Tense Example Structure

Present Alioli is made from oil, garlic and is/are + past

simple salt. participle

Present The hall is being painted this is/are being + past

continuous week. participle

John F. Kennedy was was/were + past

Past simple
assassinated in 1963. participle

Past The signs were being put up last was/were being +

continuous week. past participle

Present Oranges have been grown here has/have been +

perfect for centuries. past participle

When he got home, he found that had been + past

Past perfect
his flat had been burgled. participle

The work will be finished next will be + past

Future simple
week. participle
Exercise on Passives
Choose the correct option to complete the sentence.
1. The Egyptian pyramids thousands of years ago.
a. are built
b. been built
c. were built

2. Your letter within 28 days.

a. will be answer
b. will be answered
c. will answer

3. Chocolate for over 4,000 years.

a. has been produce
b. is been produced
c. has been produced

4. I don't know who my bike.

a. stole
b. is stolen
c. was stolen

5. My car this week, so I'm going to work by bus.

a. is being repaired
b. is been repair
c. is repairing

6. Not enough of our rubbish .

a. recycles
b. is recycled
c. is recycle

7. The fire service still the fire.

a. wasn't put out
b. is put out
c. haven't put out

8. The underground connection when I moved into the house.

a. is still being built
b. was still being built
 c. was still building

9. All our lamps from original 1950s designs.

a. produce
b. is produced
c. are produced

10. Mistakes , but we're working on a solution now.

a. have been make
b. are been made
c. have been made

Indefinite Pronoun
Nouns are important parts of speech that refer to people, places, things, and ideas.
Pronouns can do all of the jobs that nouns do, such as acting as subjects or objects in
sentences. However, there is a certain type of pronoun that doesn’t seem too motivated
to do its job: the indefinite pronoun.

Indefinite pronouns can be singular, plural, or either singular or plural.

Singular indefinite pronouns
Listed below are indefinite pronouns that are typically used as singular. When used in a
sentence, these words typically take a singular verb:
 another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, enough, everyone,
everybody, everyone, everything, less, little, much, neither, nobody, no one,
nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
Plural indefinite pronouns
Listed below are the indefinite pronouns that are treated as plural. When used in
sentences, these words typically use a plural verb:
 both, few, fewer, many, others, several
Indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural
Depending on the sentence, the following indefinite pronouns can be either singular or
plural. The verb they use will depend on if these words are acting as singular or plural:
 all, any, more, most, none, some, such

Examples of indefinite pronouns

Singular indefinite pronouns
 He had barely finished his first soda before he started to drink another.
 Everyone was shocked by the sudden announcement.
  Little is known about the ancient civilization.
 My data shows that nobody thinks a hot dog is a sandwich.
 Something smells really good in the kitchen.
Plural indefinite pronouns
 Both of my friends are hungry.
 We invited all of the neighbors to the picnic, but few have come.
 Many of the cats have striped tails.
 Several of the boys know how to swim.
 This particular plane functions underwater, but others do not.
Singular or plural indefinite pronouns
 All of the trash is gone.
 All of my sisters are blonde.
 Most of the drinks are already gone.
 Most of the town is covered in snow.
 Some of the pie has been eaten, and some of the potatoes are missing.

How to use indefinite pronouns

Like all other pronouns, indefinite pronouns can only be used the same ways as nouns.
This means that indefinite pronouns can function as a subject or an object in a
sentence.
 Subject: No one knows what to do.
 Object: She was talking to someone on the phone.
However, most words that are used as indefinite pronouns can also be used as another
part of speech. If a word is being used as a modifier, for example, it could be classified
as an adjective or an adverb rather than an indefinite pronoun:
 Pronoun: Some of us were here last night. (Functioning as a noun.)
 Adjective: I found some change on the floor. (Modifying a noun.)
 Adverb: Some 400 people attended the ceremony. (Modifying an adjective.)

Proper usage
The main thing to watch out for when using indefinite pronouns is that they adhere
to subject-verb agreement. If an indefinite pronoun is treated as singular, it must use a
singular verb. Likewise, if a pronoun is treated as plural, it must use a plural verb.
✅ Correct: One of us was hiding something.
❌ Incorrect: One of us were hiding something.
✅ Correct: Both of the planets have rings.
❌ Incorrect: Both of the planets has rings.
Things get tricky when it comes to the indefinite pronouns that can be either singular or
plural depending on context. In order to figure out if the pronoun is singular or plural, try
to identify what the pronoun is referring to: if it is referring to a singular noun, use a
singular verb. If it is referring to a plural noun, use a plural verb.
 Singular: Most of the test is multiple choice. (Test is a singular noun.)
 Plural: Most of the leaves are green. (Leaves is a plural noun.)
You need to watch out for collective nouns, which are nouns that collectively refer to
multiple people or things as one unit. If a collective noun is being used to refer to an
entire group as a cohesive unit, use a singular noun. If the collective noun is being used
to refer to the group members individually, use a plural noun.
 Singular: Some of the team is missing. (The members are not all present.)
 Plural: Some of the team are doing practice drills. (Individual members are
performing drills.)
None
Because the word none usually means “not one” or “not any,” it often uses a singular
verb:
 None of us knows the answer. (Not one of us knows the answer.)
 None of the spaghetti is left. (Not any of the spaghetti is left.)
However, it is perfectly acceptable to use none with a plural verb if it is used to mean
“no persons” or “no things.” For example,
 The wicked king made many promises, but none were kept. (No promises
were kept.)
 There were 17 clowns at the circus when I went this morning. None were
there when I went in the afternoon. (No clowns were there…)

Modals and the functions

Modals for Deduction
We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the
available information. The modal verb we choose shows how certain we are about the
possibility. This page focuses on making deductions about the present or future.

must
We use must when we feel sure that something is true or it's the only realistic possibility.
This must be her house. I can see her car in the garage.
He must live near here because he always walks to work.
Come inside and get warm. You must be freezing out there!

might, may, could

We use might, may or could to say that we think something is possible but we're not
sure.
She's not here yet. She might be stuck in traffic.
He's not answering. He could be in class.
We regret to inform you that some services may be delayed due to the bad weather.
They all have the same meaning, but may is more formal than might and could.

can't
We use can't when we feel sure that something is not possible.
It can't be far now. We've been driving for hours.
She can't know about the complaint. She's promoted him to team leader.
It can't be easy for him, looking after three kids on his own.
Note that these verbs, like all modal verbs, are followed by an infinitive without to.

Exercise on Modal of Deduction

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. Do you remember my birthday party last year? You remember! It was the
same day as your graduation.
a. can't
b. could
c. must

2. Come in and sit down. You be tired after the journey.

a. must
b. might
c. can't

3. Whose is this coat? It be Paul's. It's way too small for him.
a. must
b. could
c. can't

4. The exam results will be out soon. It be this week or possibly next week.
a. must
b. might
c. can't

5. She always gets such good grades at school. She work very hard.
a. must
b. could
c. can't
6. The doctor said my headaches be because of the hot weather but they're
going to do some tests to be sure.
a. must
b. could
c. can't

7. He be our teacher! He looks about twelve!

a. must
b. might
c. can't

8. Take this umbrella just in case. It looks as if it rain.

a. must
b. might
c. can't

9. The house isn't hard to find. It's the red one at the end. You miss it!
a. must
b. might
c. can't

10. What an amazing trip! You have some incredible photos.

a. must
b. might
c. can't

Modals – deductions about the past

Do you know how to use modal verbs to show how certain you are about past events?
Look at these examples to see how must, might, may, could, can't and couldn't are used
in the past.
An earthquake? That must have been terrifying!
We don't know for sure that Alex broke the coffee table. It might have been the dog.
How did she fail that exam? She can't have studied very much.

We can use modal verbs for deduction – guessing if something is true using the
available information. The modal verb we choose shows how certain we are about the
possibility. This page focuses on making deductions about the past.
must have
We use must have + past participle when we feel sure about what happened.
Who told the newspapers about the prime minister's plans? It must have been someone
close to him.
The thief must have had a key. The door was locked and nothing was broken.
Oh, good! We've got milk. Mo must have bought some yesterday.
might have / may have
We can use might have or may have + past participle when we think it's possible that
something happened.
I think I might have left the air conditioning on. Please can you check?
Police think the suspect may have left the country using a fake passport.
May have is more formal than might have. Could have is also possible in this context
but less common.
can't have / couldn't have
We use can't have and couldn't have + past participle when we think it's not possible
that something happened.
She can't have driven there. Her car keys are still here.
I thought I saw Adnan this morning but it couldn't have been him – he's in Greece this
week.
Exercise on Modals – deductions about the past: 1
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. Why were there no buses yesterday? Maybe it was the snow or they been on
strike.
a. must have
b. might have
c. couldn't have

2. You seen her, surely! She was standing right in front of you.
a. must have
b. might have
c. can't have

3. Let's ask at reception to see if they have your keys. Someone found them.
a. must have
b. might have
c. can't have

4. He gone to Russia. He didn't have a passport.

a. must have
b. might have
c. couldn't have

5. I explained the homework but she did the wrong page. She misunderstood
me.
a. must have
b. may have
c. can't have

6. Oh no! My phone's not in my bag. I left it at home.

a. must have
b. can have
c. couldn't have

7. It is still a mystery how the robber gained access to the bank. Police are
investigating whether the suspect known one of the employees.
a. must have
b. may have
c. couldn't have
8. I left my wallet in the restaurant. I paid for the taxi home afterwards.
a. must have
b. could have
c. can't have

9. Where's Clare? Her bag's here and her computer's still on so she gone
home.
a. must have
b. might have
c. can't have

10. I can't remember my password! But I written it in my notebook as sometimes

I do that.
a. must have
b. may have
c. couldn't have

Modals – permission and obligation

We often use verbs with modal meanings to talk about permission and obligation.
Permission
can
We often use can to ask for and give permission.
Can I sit here?
You can use my car if you like.
Can I make a suggestion?
could
We also use could to ask for permission (but not to give it). Could is more formal and
polite than can.
Could I ask you something?
Could I interrupt?
Could I borrow your pen for a moment, please?
may
May is the most formal way to ask for and give permission.
May I see your passport, please?
Customers may request a refund within a period of 30 days.
These pages may be photocopied for classroom use.
Prohibition
We use can't and mustn't to show that something is prohibited – it is not allowed.
can't
We use can't to talk about something that is against the rules, particularly when we
didn't make the rules.
What does this sign say? Oh, we can't park here.
You can't take photos in the museum. They're really strict about it.
Sorry, we can't sell knives to under-18s.
must not/mustn't
We use must not to talk about what is not permitted. It is common on public signs and
notices informing people of rules and laws.
Visitors must not park in the staff car park.
Baggage must not be left unattended.
Guests must not make noise after 10 p.m.
We use mustn't particularly when the prohibition comes from the speaker.
(Parent to child) You mustn't say things like that to your sister.
(Teacher to student) You mustn't be late to class.
I mustn't let that happen again.

Obligation
We use have to and must to express obligation. There is a slight difference between the
way we use them.
have to
Have to shows us that the obligation comes from outside the speaker.
We have to wear a uniform when we're working in reception.
(Student to teacher) When do we have to hand in our homework?
Al has to work tomorrow so he can't come.
We sometimes call this 'external obligation'.
must
Must expresses a strong obligation or necessity. It often shows us that the obligation
comes from the speaker (or the authority that wrote the sentence).
I must phone my dad. It's his birthday today.
(Teacher to student) You must hand in your homework on Tuesday or you will lose ten
per cent of your mark.
(Sign on a plane) Seat belts must be worn by all passengers.
Note that we don't use must to express obligation in the past. We use have to instead.
I had to pay £85 to renew my passport last week.
No obligation
don't have to
We use don’t have to to show that there is no obligation. You can do something if you
want to but it's not compulsory.
You don't have to wear a tie in our office but some people like to dress more formally.
You don't have to go to the bank to do a transfer. You can do it online.
You don't have to come with me, honestly. I'll be fine!

Exercise on Modals – permission and obligation

1. I'd love to come to the cinema but I hand in this assignment tomorrow.
a. must
b. have to
c. can

2. You hit your sister again! Do you understand?

a. mustn't
b. can
c. don't have to

3. I borrow your black dress tonight, please?

a. can
b. Must
c. Mustn't

4. You memorise the whole thing. Just try to remember the key points.
a. have to
b. mustn't
c. don't have to

5. The hostel is totally vegetarian. You cook or eat meat there.

a. can't
b. must
c. don't have to

6. I did this yesterday – I can help you! You fill in the form and attach an up-to-
date passport photo.
a. must
b. have to
c. can
7. (Airport notice) Liquids be in 100ml containers and in a closed plastic bag.
a. have to
b. must
c. can

8. You park your car here for a maximum of 30 minutes.

a. have to
b. don't have to
c. can

9. go to the party? I'm really tired.

a. Do we have to
b. Can we
c. Can't we

10. (Parent to child) You do your homework before watching television.

a. must
b. can
c. could

Have to, must and should for obligation and advice

We use have to / must / should + infinitive to talk about obligation, things that are
necessary to do, or to give advice about things that are a good idea to do.
Must and have to are both used for obligation and are often quite similar. They are both
followed by the infinitive.
I must go now. / I have to go now.

We often use must for more personal opinions about what it is necessary to do,
and have to for what somebody in authority has said it is necessary to do.
I must remember to get a present for Daisy. (my opinion)
You have to look after their hair regularly. (dog experts say so)
Do you have to wear a tie for school? (asking about school rules)

Have to is more frequent in conversation; must is used more in formal writing, for
example in written notices.
Passengers must fasten their seat-belts.
Have changes in the third person singular (he/she/it has); but must doesn’t change. It’s
a modal verb and modals don’t change.
I think I’ve heard have got to. Is that correct?

Yes, we use both have got to, for obligation, and had better, for advice, a lot in
speaking.

You've got to be careful with a cat

You'd better get something a bit quieter.
I'd better go – I mustn't miss the helicopter!
So they’re not used in formal writing?

No. There’s something very important about must and have to. The positive forms are
very similar in meaning, but the negative forms are completely different.
You mustn’t forget ...
(don’t forget - you have no choice)
If you don't like him, you don't have to see him again.
(there is no obligation to see him again, but you have a choice)
Umm, I’m still a bit confused ...

Here's an example you can remember:

In a non-smoking area you mustn’t smoke, but in a smoking area you don’t have to
smoke but you can if you want to.
Ah! Right, I mustn’t forget that.

No, you mustn’t! OK, let’s look at advice, telling people what you think is a good idea.
We use should for advice, or making suggestions, and must for strong advice.
You must go for a walk with the dog at least once a day.
Maybe you should go for a coffee or lunch and see how you feel?
You shouldn't leave it on the street.
I think I’ve heard people use should in other ways, like 'he should be here in a minute' –
that’s not advice, is it?

No, that’s talking about what is likely or probable. We’ll look at that use another day. We
use modal verbs in different ways.
I see. So I should think about one use at a time.
Yes, exactly. You mustn’t get confused by too many uses at once.
Can, could and would for invitations, offers, requests and permission
We use the modal verbs can, could and would to offer to do things for people or
to invite them to do something. We also use them to make requests or ask
permission to do something.

They are a type of auxiliary verb we use with other verbs to add more meaning to the
verb. After modal verbs we use the infinitive form without to.
Modals are not used with the auxiliary verb do; to form the negative, we add not after
the modal. To ask questions, we put the modal in front of the subject.
Hey, you couldn't pass me that plate, could you?
Can I have a taste?

Modals do not change in the third person singular form (he/she/it) in the present simple.
Sophie can send photos.

We use would + like a lot for offers. It’s very useful for different situations.
Would you like to come to our house for dinner?
Would you like some cake?
Would you like to celebrate Chinese New Year with us?
For more informal invitations you can use can + get. Get means buy in this context.
Can I get you a drink?
We also use would and can for offering to help someone.
Would you like some help?
Can I help you?
Can I give you a hand with that?

We also use modals for asking for something (making a request or asking permission).
Can you do me a favour? (more informal)
Could you say thanks to your mum for me? (more polite)
I’ve finished my homework. Can I go now? (more informal)
Could I speak to Amy, please? (more polite)

We also like to use longer structures in more formal situations:

Do you think you could do me a favour?
Would you mind closing the window, please?
Could you tell me how to get to the town centre, please?
Past ability
Do you know how to use could, was able to and managed to to talk about past
abilities?
Look at these examples to see how could, was able to and managed to are used.
I could play the guitar when I was seven years old.
The police weren't able to catch the speeding car.
The bird managed to escape from its cage and fly away.

General ability
We usually use could or couldn't to talk about general abilities in the past.
She could paint before she started school.
I couldn't cook until I went to university.
When I lived next to the pool, I could go swimming every day.

Ability on one occasion – successful

When we talk about achieving something on a specific occasion in the past, we
use was/were able to (= had the ability to) and managed to (= succeeded in doing
something difficult).
The burglar was able to get in through the bathroom window.
The burglar managed to get in through the bathroom window even though it was locked.
Could is not usually correct when we're talking about ability at a specific moment in the
past.

Ability on one occasion – unsuccessful

When we talk about a specific occasion when someone didn't have the ability to do
something, we can use wasn't/weren't able to, didn't manage to or couldn't.
The speaker wasn't able to attend the conference due to illness.
She couldn't watch the match because she was working.
They worked on it for months but they didn't manage to find a solution.
Note that wasn't/weren't able to is more formal than couldn't, while didn't manage
to emphasises that the thing was difficult to do.

Exercise on Past ability

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. I open the door while carrying all the shopping.
a. managed to
b. could

2. The presentation wasn't working at first but we fix it.

a. could
 b. were able to

3. How did you write a book so soon after having a baby?

a. manage to
b. be able to

4. She ski almost before she learned to walk.

a. could
b. managed to

5. He attend the last meeting due to his daughter's illness.

a. weren't able to
b. couldn't

6. get your phone fixed? It looked very broken!

a. Did you manage to
b. Could you

7. I drink milk as a child because it always made me feel sick.

a. couldn't
b. didn't manage to

8. The journey went fine yesterday and we find their house easily with GPS.
a. could
b. were able to

9. We were leave our suitcases with reception while we waited for our room to
be ready.
a. could
b. able to

10. We were get a boat from the island that day because of the bad weather.
a. not able to
b. not manage to

Reported speech
We use reported speech when we want to tell someone what someone said. We
usually use a reporting verb (e.g. say, tell, ask, etc.) and then change the tense of
what was actually said in direct speech.

Verbs in the present simple change to the past simple; the present continuous changes
to the past continuous; the present perfect changes to the past perfect; can changes
to could; will changes to would; etc.
She said she was having the interview at four o’clock.
(Direct speech: 'I’m having the interview at four o’clock.')
They said they’d phone later and let me know.
(Direct speech: 'We’ll phone later and let you know.')

Yes, apart from changing the tense of the verb, you also have to think about changing
other things, like pronouns and adverbs of time and place.
'We went yesterday.' > She said they had been the day before.
'I’ll come tomorrow.' > He said he’d come the next day.

Well, then you would leave the time reference as 'yesterday'. You have to use your
common sense. For example, if someone is saying something which is true now or
always, you wouldn’t change the tense.
'Dogs can’t eat chocolate.' > She said that dogs can’t eat chocolate.
'My hair grows really slowly.' > He told me that his hair grows really slowly.

We often use ask + if/whether, then change the tenses as with statements. In reported
questions we don’t use question forms after the reporting verb.
'Do you have any experience working with people?'
They asked if I had any experience working with people.
'What acting have you done?'
They asked me what acting I had done.

One thing that sometimes causes problems is imperative sentences.

Sentences that start with a verb in direct speech need a to + infinitive in reported
speech.
She told him to be good. (Direct speech: 'Be good!')
He told them not to forget. (Direct speech: 'Please don’t forget.')

There are lots of other reporting verbs

like promise, remind, warn, advise, recommend, encourage which you can choose,
depending on the situation. But say, tell and ask are the most common.
Reported speech 1 – statements
Do you know how to report what somebody else said?
Look at these examples to see how we can tell someone what another person said.
direct speech: 'I love the Toy Story films,' she said.
indirect speech: She said she loved the Toy Story films.

direct speech: 'I worked as a waiter before becoming a chef,' he said.

indirect speech: He said he'd worked as a waiter before becoming a chef.

direct speech: 'I'll phone you tomorrow,' he said.

indirect speech: He said he'd phone me the next day.

Reported speech is when we tell someone what another person said. To do this, we can
use direct speech or indirect speech.
direct speech: 'I work in a bank,' said Daniel.
indirect speech: Daniel said that he worked in a bank.
In indirect speech, we often use a tense which is 'further back' in the past (e.g. worked)
than the tense originally used (e.g. work). This is called 'backshift'. We also may need to
change other words that were used, for example pronouns.

Present simple, present continuous and present perfect

When we backshift, present simple changes to past simple, present continuous
changes to past continuous and present perfect changes to past perfect.
'I travel a lot in my job.'
 Jamila said that she travelled a lot in her job.
'The baby's sleeping!'
 He told me the baby was sleeping.
'I've hurt my leg.'
 She said she'd hurt her leg.
Past simple and past continuous
When we backshift, past simple usually changes to past perfect simple, and past
continuous usually changes to past perfect continuous.
'We lived in China for five years.'
 She told me they'd lived in China for five years.
'It was raining all day.'
 He told me it had been raining all day.
Past perfect
The past perfect doesn't change.
'I'd tried everything without success, but this new medicine is great.'
 He said he'd tried everything without success, but the new medicine was great.
No backshift
If what the speaker has said is still true or relevant, it's not always necessary to change
the tense. This might happen when the speaker has used a present tense.
'I go to the gym next to your house.'
 Jenny told me that she goes to the gym next to my house. I'm thinking about
going with her.
'I'm working in Italy for the next six months.'
 He told me he's working in Italy for the next six months. Maybe I should visit him!
'I've broken my arm!'
 She said she's broken her arm, so she won't be at work this week.
Pronouns, demonstratives and adverbs of time and place
Pronouns also usually change in indirect speech.
'I enjoy working in my garden,' said Bob.
 Bob said that he enjoyed working in his garden.
'We played tennis for our school,' said Alina.
 Alina told me they'd played tennis for their school.
However, if you are the person or one of the people who spoke, then the pronouns don't
change.
'I'm working on my thesis,' I said.
 I told her that I was working on my thesis.
'We want our jobs back!' we said.
 We said that we wanted our jobs back.
We also change demonstratives and adverbs of time and place if they are no longer
accurate.
'This is my house.'
 He said this was his house. [You are currently in front of the house.]
 He said that was his house. [You are not currently in front of the house.]
'We like it here.'
 She told me they like it here. [You are currently in the place they like.]
 She told me they like it there. [You are not in the place they like.]
'I'm planning to do it today.'
 She told me she's planning to do it today. [It is currently still the same day.]
 She told me she was planning to do it that day. [It is not the same day any more.]
In the same way, these changes to those, now changes to then, yesterday changes
to the day before, tomorrow changes to the next/following day and ago changes
to before.

Exercise onReported speech 1: 1

Choose the correct verb form to complete the sentence.
1. 'My dad ran a marathon at the age of 65.'
 → She told me that her dad run a marathon at the age of 65.
2. 'I've written three pages of the report.'
→ He said that he has written three pages of the report.
3. 'I wasn't paying attention at the time.'
→ He said that he was not paying attention at the time.
4. 'I live in the centre.'
→ She told me that she live in the centre, but I think she's moved.
5. 'We're meeting Toni at 8 o'clock.'
→ She said that they are meeting Toni at 8 o'clock. I hope they're having a nice
time!
6. 'She had worked for that school for 40 years when she retired.'
→ He told me that she had worked for that school for 40 years when she retired.
7. 'We're having a great time here on holiday!'
→ I got a postcard from my parents – they said they're having a great time here
onholiday.
8. 'Coralia's arriving today.'
→ She told me that Coralia was arriving today, but I found out the next day that
hervisit was cancelled.
9. 'My best friend at school became a nurse first, then a paramedic.'
→ He told me that his best friend at school became a nurse first, then a paramedic.
10. 'I had lived in four countries by the age of ten.'
→ She said that she had lived in four countries by the age of ten.

Reported speech 2 – questions

Do you know how to report a question that somebody asked?
Look at these examples to see how we can tell someone what another person asked.
direct speech: 'Do you work from home?' he said.
indirect speech: He asked me if I worked from home.

direct speech: 'Who did you see?' she asked.

indirect speech: She asked me who I'd seen.

direct speech: 'Could you write that down for me?' she asked.
indirect speech: She asked me to write it down.

A reported question is when we tell someone what another person asked. To do this,
we can use direct speech or indirect speech.
direct speech: 'Do you like working in sales?' he asked.
indirect speech: He asked me if I liked working in sales.
In indirect speech, we change the question structure (e.g. Do you like) to a statement
structure (e.g. I like).
We also often make changes to the tenses and other words in the same way as for
reported statements (e.g. have done → had done, today → that day). You can learn
about these changes on the Reported speech 1 – statements page.
Yes/no questions
In yes/no questions, we use if or whether to report the question. If is more common.
'Are you going to the Helsinki conference?'
 He asked me if I was going to the Helsinki conference.
'Have you finished the project yet?'
 She asked us whether we'd finished the project yet.
Questions with a question word
In what, where, why, who, when or how questions, we use the question word to report
the question.
'What time does the train leave?'
 He asked me what time the train left.
'Where did he go?'
 She asked where he went.
Reporting verbs
The most common reporting verb for questions is ask, but we can also use verbs
like enquire, want to know or wonder.
'Did you bring your passports?'
 She wanted to know if they'd brought their passports.
'When could you get this done by?'
 He wondered when we could get it done by.
Offers, requests and suggestions
If the question is making an offer, request or suggestion, we can use a specific verb
pattern instead, for example offer + infinitive, ask + infinitive or suggest + ing.
'Would you like me to help you?'
 He offered to help me.
'Can you hold this for me, please?'
 She asked me to hold it.
'Why don't we check with Joel?'
 She suggested checking with Joel.

Exercise on Reported speech 2

Choose the correct answer to complete the sentence.
1. 'Did you meet each other at school?'
 He asked them to us did we meet each other at school
2. 'Why are you wearing sunglasses?'
 She wondered why am i wearing sunglasses
3. 'Who else have you told?'
 They asked me who else have i told
4. 'Were you listening to me?'
 She asked us were we listening to him
5. 'How will you get to France?'
 I asked them how will i get to france
6. 'Had you already met him?'
 She asked me had i already met him
7. 'What can we do about this?'
 We wanted to know what can they do about it
8. 'Can I get you a coffee?'
 I offered him can i get him a coffee
9. 'Where will you stay?'
 I asked her, where will she stay
10. 'Have you eaten ALL the cake?'
 She asked me, have i eaten all the cake

Reported speech 3 – reporting verbs

Do you know how to tell someone what another person said using reporting verbs?
Look at these examples to see how reporting verbs are used.
direct speech: 'You should come, it's going to be a lot of fun,' she said.
indirect speech: She persuaded me to come.
direct speech: 'Wait here,' he said.
indirect speech: He told us to wait there.
direct speech: 'It wasn't me who finished the coffee,' he said.
indirect speech: He denied finishing the coffee.

When we tell someone what another person said, we often use the
verbs say, tell or ask. These are called 'reporting verbs'. However, we can also use
other reporting verbs. Many reporting verbs can be followed by another verb in either an
infinitive or an -ing form.
Reporting verb + infinitive
Verbs
like advise, agree, challenge, claim, decide, demand, encourage, invite, offer, persuade,
promise, refuse and remind can follow an infinitive pattern.
'Let's see. I'll have the risotto, please.'
 He decided to have the risotto.
'I'll do the report by Friday, for sure.'
 She promised to do the report by Friday.
'It's not a good idea to write your passwords down.'
 They advised us not to write our passwords down.
We can also use an infinitive to report imperatives, with a reporting verb
like tell, order, instruct, direct or warn.
'Please wait for me in reception.'
 The guide told us to wait for her in reception.
'Don't go in there!'
 The police officer warned us not to go in there.
Reporting verb + -ing form
Verbs like admit, apologise for, complain about, deny, insist
on, mention and suggest can follow an -ing form pattern.
'I broke the window.'
 She admitted breaking the window.
'I'm really sorry I didn't get back to you sooner.'
 He apologised for not getting back to me sooner.
'Let's take a break.'
 She suggested taking a break.

Exercise on Reported speech 3 – reporting verbs: 1

Choose the correct option to complete the sentence.
1. 'Why don't you come and visit us next week?'
→ She invited us to come and visit them next week.
2. 'I didn't lock the door.'
→ He admitted not lock the door.
3. 'Don't close the window!'
→ I told him not close the window.
4. 'I'm so sorry I missed your birthday.'
→ She apologised for missed my birthday.
5. 'I don't think it's a good idea to invite him.'
→ She advised us not invite him.
6. 'I'm definitely going to the meeting. I really need to be there.'
→ He insisted on going to the meeting.
7. 'Please leave this area immediately.'
→ The police instructed us about the immediately the area.
8. 'I won't do it again!'
→ He promised not do it again.
9. 'I really must know what's going on here.'
→ She demanded to know what was going on there.
10. 'Don't use the milk! – It's gone bad.'
→ He warned us not use the milk.
Few vs little
We use 'a/an' with several quantifiers:
 a little
 a few
 a lot (of)
We also use 'no article' with several:
 little
 few
 lots (of)
In many situations, we can choose to use 'a little' or 'little' (when using an uncountable
noun) or 'a few' or 'few' (when using a plural countable noun). They have slightly
different meanings. ('A lot' and 'lots' aren't like this. 'A lot' means the same as 'lots').

When we say 'a little' or 'a few', we mean a small amount, but it's enough:
 John: Let's go out tonight.
 Lucy: Okay. I have a little money, enough for the cinema at least.
On the other hand, 'little' or 'few' usually give us a different impression. These also
mean a small amount, but this time the amount is almost nothing. If the noun is
something that we want (like money or friends) then using 'little' or 'few' means that we
don't have enough:
 John: Let's go out tonight.
 Lucy: Sorry, I have little money. I really can't afford to go out.
Of course, if we use 'few' or 'little' with a noun that we don't want, then it can have a
positive meaning. It's good to have nearly no problems, for example:
 There have been few problems with the new system, thankfully!
 Luckily, there is little crime in my town.
 I'm so pleased that I have few arguments with my family.
 It's great that there's been very little bad weather this month.

Exercise on A Little / Little / A Few / Few

Fill in the blanks using a little / little / a few / few.
1. I have a little water left. There's enough to share.
2. I have a few good friends. I'm not lonely.
3. He has few education. He can't read or write, and he can hardly count.
4. There are a few people she really trusts. It's a bit sad.
5. We've got a little time at the weekend. Would you like to meet?
6. Julie gave us few apples from her garden. Shall we share them?
7. She has few self-confidence. She has a lot of trouble talking to new people.
8. There are a few women politicians in the UK. Many people think there should
bemore.
9. It's a great pity, but the hospital has a little medicine. They can't help many people.
10. I've got a few cakes to give away. Would you like one?

Question tag and its function

We add question tags to the end of statements to turn them into questions. They
are used in spoken language, especially when we want to check something is
true, or invite people to agree with us.
So how do we form question tags?

We add a clause in the form of a question at the end of a sentence. If the main part of
the sentence is positive we usually add a negative question tag.
It’s a bit early, isn’t it?
If the main part is negative, we usually add a positive question tag.
Mum isn’t in trouble, is she?
OK, that seems easy.

Yes, but you need to think about what verb to use in the tag. If there is an auxiliary, a
modal verb or the verb to be in the main clause, we use that in the question tag.
You’re in a desert in the middle of Australia, aren’t you?
If there is another main verb, we use do in the correct form (as we would with questions
and negatives).
I think she might be getting a bit old for this sort of travelling, don’t you?
We told you not to drive in the outback on your own, didn’t we?
OK, so the question tag refers to the subject of the main sentence.

Yes, very often, but sometimes it doesn’t.

I can’t imagine her doing anything else, can you?
Are there any exceptions?

There are a few. We use 'aren’t I' instead of the more logical 'amn’t I'.
I’m next in the queue, aren’t I?
Where is the stress in question tags?

It’s on the verb and the intonation is usually falling, unless the speaker isn’t sure about
some kind of factual information, then it’s rising.
You’re from Beijing, aren’t you? (falling intonation = you’re fairly sure)
You’re from Beijing, aren’t you? (rising intonation = you’re not very sure and want
the other person to confirm the information)
You use them a lot in conversation, don’t you?
Conditional sentences and the conjunctions used in
conditional sentences
Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells you the
condition (If you study hard) and the main clause tells you the result (you will pass your
exams). The order of the clauses does not change the meaning.
If you study hard, you will pass your exams.
You will pass your exams if you study hard.
Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.
Zero conditional
We use the zero conditional to talk about things that are generally true, especially for
laws and rules.
If I drink too much coffee, I can't sleep at night.
Ice melts if you heat it.
When the sun goes down, it gets dark.
The structure is: if/when + present simple >> present simple.

First conditional
We use the first conditional when we talk about future situations we believe are real or
possible.
If it doesn't rain tomorrow, we'll go to the beach.
Arsenal will be top of the league if they win.
When I finish work, I'll call you.
In first conditional sentences, the structure is usually: if/when + present simple >> will +
infinitive.
It is also common to use this structure with unless, as long as, as soon as or in
case instead of if.
I'll leave as soon as the babysitter arrives.
I don't want to stay in London unless I get a well-paid job.
I'll give you a key in case I'm not at home.
You can go to the party, as long as you're back by midnight.

Second conditional
The second conditional is used to imagine present or future situations that are
impossible or unlikely in reality.
If we had a garden, we could have a cat.
If I won a lot of money, I'd buy a big house in the country.
I wouldn't worry if I were you.
The structure is usually: if + past simple >> + would + infinitive.
When if is followed by the verb be, it is grammatically correct to say if I were, if he
were, if she were and if it were. However, it is also common to hear these structures
with was, especially in the he/she form.
If I were you, I wouldn't mention it.
If she was prime minister, she would invest more money in schools.
He would travel more if he was younger.
Exercise on Conditionals
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. When I go on holiday, I always my neighbour to water my plants.
a. ask
b. asked
c. would ask

2. If I the problem to my sister, she'll be happy to help me.

a. explain
b. explained
c. will explain

3. We'll be late for the film if we .

a. didn't hurry up
b. won't hurry up
c. don't hurry up

4. If I didn't need the money, less.

a. I work
b. I'll work
c. I'd work

5. If you a red card, you can't play in the rest of the game.
a. get
b. got
c. will get

6. What would you say if he you on a date?

a. asks
b. asked
c. would ask

7. I'll have a shower as soon as home.

a. I get
b. I'll get
c. I'd get

8. I English every day if I had time.

a. studied
b. will study
 c. would study

9. What would you do differently if you to do this again?

a. have
b. had
c. would have

10. If I the more expensive bike, I won't have enough money to pay my rent.
a. buy
b. bought
c. will buy

Conditionals 2
Do you know how to use third conditionals and mixed conditionals?
Look at these examples to see how third and mixed conditionals are used.
We would have walked to the top of the mountain if the weather hadn't been so bad.
If we'd moved to Scotland when I was a child, I would have a Scottish accent now.
If she was really my friend, she wouldn't have lied to me.

Third conditionals and mixed conditionals

Conditionals describe the result of a certain condition. The if clause tells you the
condition (If I hadn't been ill) and the main clause tells you the result (I would have gone
to the party). The order of the clauses does not change the meaning.
If I hadn't been ill, I would have gone to the party.
I would have gone to the party if I hadn't been ill.
Conditional sentences are often divided into different types.

Third conditional
The third conditional is used to imagine a different past. We imagine a change in a past
situation and the different result of that change.
If I had understood the instructions properly, I would have passed the exam.
We wouldn't have got lost if my phone hadn't run out of battery.
In third conditional sentences, the structure is usually: If + past perfect >> would have +
past participle.

Mixed conditionals
We can use mixed conditionals when we imagine a past change with a result in the
present or a present change with a result in the past.
1. Past/Present
Here's a sentence imagining how a change in a past situation would have a result in the
present.
If I hadn't got the job in Tokyo, I wouldn't be with my current partner.
So the structure is: If + past perfect >> would + infinitive.
2. Present/Past
Here's a sentence imagining how a different situation in the present would mean that
the past was different as well.
It's really important. If it wasn't, I wouldn't have called you on your holiday.
And the structure is: If + past simple >> would have + past participle.

Exercise on mixed Conditionals

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. If he the penalty, we would have won Saturday's game.
a. scored
b. had scored
c. would score

2. I a cake this morning if I'd known you were coming.

a. buy
b. would bought
c. would have bought

3. If I so much cheese last night, I wouldn't feel terrible now.

a. didn't eat
b. wouldn't eat
c. hadn't eaten

4. We late if you hadn't taken such a long time getting ready.

a. wouldn't be
b. won't be
c. aren't

5. If you hadn't seen the car, it us back there.

a. would have hit
b. hadn't hit
c. would hit

6. If my grandmother alive, she would have loved to see me graduate.

a. is
 b. would be
c. were

7. I you it wasn't a good idea if you'd asked me.

a. would tell
b. would have told
c. will tell

8. If I'd bought that flat then, it worth a lot of money now.

a. would be
b. had been
c. will be

9. If I'd planted seeds in spring, I tomatoes now.

a. would have
b. had have
c. 'll have

10. My mum would be fine now if the doctor what was wrong with her at the
beginning.
a. had realised
b. would have realised
c. realised

Participial adjectives
Do you know the difference between bored and boring?
Look at these examples to see how adjectives ending in -ed and -ing are used.
I was really bored in that presentation.
That was a really boring presentation.

Adjectives that end in -ed (e.g. bored, interested) and adjectives that end in -
ing (e.g. boring, interesting) are often confused.
-ed adjectives
Adjectives that end in -ed generally describe emotions – they tell us how people feel.
I was so bored in that lesson, I almost fell asleep.
He was surprised to see Helen after all those years.
She was really tired and went to bed early.
-ing adjectives
Adjectives that end in -ing generally describe the thing that causes the emotion – a
boring lesson makes you feel bored.
Have you seen that film? It's really frightening.
I could listen to her for hours. She's so interesting.
I can't sleep! That noise is really annoying!

Here are some adjectives that can have both an -ed and an -ing form.
 Annoyed - annoying
 bored - boring
 confused - confusing
 disappointed - disappointing
 excited - exciting
 frightened - frightening
 interested - interesting
 surprised - surprising
 tired - tiring
 worried - worrying

Exercise on Adjectives ending in '-ed' and '-ing'

Choose the correct word.
1. You look really . Why don't you go to bed?
a. tired
b. tiring

2. Can I call you? I've got some very news for you!
a. excited
b. exciting

3. My neighbour is always playing loud music. It's very .

a. annoyed
b. annoying

4. The directions were and we got lost.

a. confused
b. confusing

5. I was really that I won the competition.

a. surprised
b. surprising
6. She didn't call about the car. I don't think she's in buying it.
a. interested
b. interesting

7. My cats get really when there's a thunderstorm.

a. frightened
b. frightening

8. His exam results were really .

a. disappointed
b. disappointing

9. She's a big dog but you don't need to be .

a. frightened
b. frightening

10. The instructions for my new coffee machine are really .

a. confused
b. confusing

Adverb clauses and the reduced adverb clause

Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way. They are
formed using present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.), past participles
(gone, read, seen, walked, etc.) or perfect participles (having gone, having read, having
seen, having walked, etc.).
We can use participle clauses when the participle and the verb in the main clause have
the same subject.
For example,
Waiting for Ellie, I made some tea. (While I was waiting for Ellie, I made some tea.)

Participle clauses do not have a specific tense. The tense is indicated by the verb in the
main clause.
Participle clauses are mainly used in written texts, particularly in a literary, academic or
journalistic style.

Present participle clauses

Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present
participles have a similar meaning to active verbs.
  To give the result of an action
The bomb exploded, destroying the building.
 To give the reason for an action
Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.
 To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action
Standing in the queue, I realised I didn't have any money.
 To add information about the subject of the main clause
Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city centre.

Past participle clauses

Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past
participles normally have a passive meaning.
 With a similar meaning to an if condition
Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use
participles in this way, … )
 To give the reason for an action
Worried by the news, she called the hospital.
 To add information about the subject of the main clause
Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.

Perfect participle clauses

Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the
action in the main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or
passive meaning.
Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.
Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.

Participle clauses after conjunctions and prepositions

It is also common for participle clauses, especially with -ing, to follow conjunctions and
prepositions such as before, after, instead of, on, since, when, while and in spite of.
Before cooking, you should wash your hands.
Instead of complaining about it, they should try doing something positive.
On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed.
While packing her things, she thought about the last two years.
In spite of having read the instructions twice, I still couldn’t understand how to use it.

Exercise on Participle clauses

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. lunch, I sat in the garden with a drink.
 a. Making
b. Made
c. Having made

2. for the bus, she slipped on some ice and fell over.
a. Running
b. Run
c. Having run

3. On her former owner, the dog ran across the room to greet him.
a. seeing
b. seen
c. having seen
4. in hospital for several weeks, she was delighted to be home.
a. Being
b. Been
c. Having been

5. by all the attention, he thanked everyone for the cake and presents.
a. Embarrassing
b. Embarrassed
c. Having embarrassed

6. The building collapsed, two people.

a. injuring
b. injured
c. having injured

7. under normal clothes, a thermal layer keeps you warm in minus temperatures.
a. Wearing
b. Worn
c. Having been worn

8. by the sun, she didn't see the boy crossing the road.
a. Blinding
b. Blinded
c. Having blinded

9. by the changing information, they thought the plane was cancelled.

a. Confusing
 b. Confused
c. Having confused

10. at a low temperature, these jeans will keep their original colour for a long time.
a. Washing
b. Washed
c. Having washed

Countable vs uncountable noun

Nouns can be countable or uncountable. Countable nouns can be counted, e.g. an
apple, two apples, three apples, etc. Uncountable nouns cannot be counted,
e.g. air, rice, water, etc. When you learn a new noun, you should check if it is countable
or uncountable and note how it is used in a sentence.

Countable nouns
For positive sentences we can use a/an for singular nouns or some for plurals.
There's a man at the door.
I have some friends in New York.
For negatives we can use a/an for singular nouns or any for plurals.
I don't have a dog.
There aren't any seats.

We use some with uncountable nouns in positive sentences and any with negatives.
There's some milk in the fridge.
There isn't any coffee.

Questions
In questions we use a/an, any or how many with countable nouns.
Is there an email address to write to?
Are there any chairs?
How many chairs are there?
We use any or how much with uncountable nouns.
Is there any sugar?
How much orange juice is there?

But when we are offering something or asking for something, we normally use some.
Do you want some chocolate?
Can we have some more chairs, please?

We also use some in a question when we think the answer will be 'yes'.
Have you got some new glasses?

Other expressions of quantity

A lot of (or lots of) can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
There are lots of apples on the trees.
There is a lot of snow on the road.

Notice that we don't usually use many or much in positive sentences. We use a lot
of instead.
They have a lot of money.

However, in negative sentences we use not many with countable nouns and not
much with uncountable nouns.
There are a lot of carrots but there aren't many potatoes.
There's lots of juice but there isn't much water.

Exercise on Countable and uncountable nouns

Complete the sentences with a, some, any, much or many.
1. How any people are coming?
2. We've got Many chicken but there isn't some rice.
3. How much water do you think we need?
4. There's a cat in the garden.
5. I've bought many new shoes.
6. Do you have any advice for me?
7. We have a some of chairs but we don't have a tables.
8. There isn't any toothpaste.
9. We didn't have some problems.
10. Do you want a chocolate?

Countable and uncountable nouns 2

Do you know how to use a few, few, a little and little?
Look at these examples to see how these quantifiers are used with countable and
uncountable nouns.
I have a few friends, so I'm not lonely.
She has few friends, so she's quite lonely.
We've got a little time before our train. Shall we get a coffee?
We've got very little time before our train. Hurry up!
A few and a bit of or a little mean some. Often we feel this amount is enough or more
than we expected. We use a few with plural nouns and a bit of or a little with
uncountable nouns.
I have a few ideas.
I've brought a few friends.
There's a bit of milk left.
It needs a little more work.

We use few and very little to show that we are talking about a small amount. Often we
feel this amount is not enough or less than we expected. Few is for countable nouns
and very little is for uncountable nouns.
Few people came to the meeting.
There are few places where you can still see these birds.
We have very little time.
I have very little money.

Exercise on Countable and uncountable nouns 2

Complete the sentences with a few, few, a little and little.
1. I have little questions.
2. Do you want A few chocolate?
3. You made few mistakes. Well done!
4. I have a few money.
5. Little students understand this.
6. They have little rain in summer.
7. It's not easy. You will need a little help.
8. Is it OK if I bring a few friends?
9. We have little ideas.
10. There is a few space in this room.

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some nouns in English are countable – we can use them in singular and plural
forms. Some are uncountable – they only have one form.
We often use a/an with singular countable nouns and some with plurals. We can also
use some with uncountable nouns.

Here are a few of countable nouns:

I've got a steak, some red chilli peppers, some potatoes…
OK, well, I've got a lemon, an apple … and some chicken breasts.
I'd like a blue pen, please.
OK, so for things you can count, like one pen, two pens … Why did you say a pen,
not one pen?

We often use a/an before singular countable nouns. Before words that start with a vowel
sound, we use an, and before words that start with a consonant sound, we use a.
So is one wrong? As in Would you like one drink?

It sounds as if you're saying one (not two). If you're offering someone a drink, you'd
say Would you like a drink?
But someone who works in a café might say, So that's one coffee and two lemonades.
So it's usually a or an for singular countable nouns and a number or some for plurals.
How many is some?

It can be any number more than one.

I got some new jeans at the weekend. (a pair of new jeans)
Some teachers left at the end of the year. (we don't know how many)
Is some or a number always used with plurals?

No, have a look at these examples

I'm frightened of dogs. (dogs in general)
Strawberries have a lot of vitamin C. (strawberries in general)
What about uncountable nouns?

These are nouns that don't have a plural form.

I've got some garlic and some butter.
I'm looking for information about early rock and roll.
I haven't got enough paper.
You have to get permission from the head teacher.
Do you want some cake?
So, I can use some with uncountables too?

Yes, we use some with both countables and uncountables.

How do I know whether a noun is countable or uncountable?

A dictionary will tell you. Usually dictionaries use symbols [C] for countable and [U] for
uncountable.
Just a minute. You said cake was uncountable. What about I made a cake this
morning?

Yes that's correct, but there's a difference in meaning.

 I made a cake this morning. (a whole cake – countable)
Do you want some cake? (a piece of cake – uncountable)
A box of chocolates. (individual chocolates – countable)
I'd like some chocolate too. (a piece or pieces of chocolate from a bar of
chocolate – uncountable)
I thought coffee and lemonade were uncountable too.

Yes, they are usually.

I love coffee with hot milk. (uncountable)
Can you get some coffee? (uncountable)
I'll have a coffee, please. (a cup of coffee, countable)
Wow, so it's more complicated than I thought.

No, they're not really very difficult.

OK, they're easy. It's a piece of cake!
Yes, simple! A piece of cake!

Verbs and Prepositions

When a verb is part of a longer sentence, it is often followed by a specific preposition.
I agree with Mike.
She listens to the radio a lot.
He thanked me for the flowers.
There are no grammatical rules to help you know which preposition is used with which
verb, so it's a good idea to try to learn them together. To help you do this, write new
vocabulary in your notebook in a sentence or phrase. Here are some common verbs for
each preposition.

Verbs with for

They're waiting for a bus.
He apologised for being late.
I applied for the job but I didn't get it.
How do you ask for a coffee in Polish?
I can't go out tonight because I have to prepare for my interview tomorrow.

Verbs with from

This spray should protect you from mosquitoes.
Has he recovered from the accident yet?
She won an award because she saved someone from drowning.
I suffer from allergies.
Verbs with in
She doesn't believe in coincidences.
Our company specialises in computer software.
You have to work hard if you want to succeed in life.

Verbs with of
I don't approve of hunting animals for their fur.
Our dog died of old age.
This shampoo smells of bananas.

Verbs with on
Their decision will depend on the test results.
The film is based on the novel by Boris Pasternak.
If you make so much noise, I can't concentrate on my work.
Come on! We're relying on you!
We don't agree on anything but we're still good friends.

Verbs with to
What kind of music do you like listening to?
Can I introduce you to my grandfather?
Please refer to the notes at the end for more information.
Nobody responded to my complaint.
She apologised to me the next day.

Verbs with with

I agree with everything you've said.
My assistant will provide you with more information if you need it.
We're finding it difficult to deal with the stress.

Exercise on Verbs and prepositions

Write the correct preposition to complete the sentence. Choose from the following
prepositions: for, from, in, of, on, to, with.
1. It smells from coconut in here.
2. Tax is based with how much you earn.
3. We promise to respond for all emails within three days.
4. I'm doing a law degree, specializing for commercial law.
5. Our staff will provide you with audio guides on request
6. It took me two weeks to recover of the flu.
7. Shall I ask of the bill?
8. We succeeded from raising the money for the local animal shelter.
9. I find it hard to concentrate to anything when the television is on.
10. They apologized of hurting her feelings.

Position of adverb
We use adverbs of frequency – like sometimes or usually – to say how often we
do things, or how often things happen.
We use adverbs of frequency in this order, according to their meaning.
100% 0%

always usually/normally often sometimes occasionally hardly ever never

These are the most common adverbs, although there are more.
 They always hang out together.
 The Northern Lights are usually green.
 You normally see them best in September or March.
 It’s often cloudy.

They are usually before the main verb, or between the auxiliary and the main verb. But
they come after the verb to be.We can use some adverbs of frequency at the beginning
or end of a sentence for emphasis.
 Occasionally I meet her for a coffee.

We can use usually, often, sometimes and occasionally at the beginning of a sentence,
and sometimes and often at the end. We use adverb expressions like a lot or not +
(very) much after the main verb too.
 She travels a lot.
 He doesn’t study very much.

Be careful with never. It is already negative, so we can’t use it with not.

 I never go to the supermarket with my mother.
 I’ve just remembered some more expressions! What about once a week, twice a
year, etc.?
 Oh yes, I’d forgotten about those.
 Take the medicine three times a day.
 We usually go swimming twice a month.
 You see them once in a lifetime, if you travel.
 You see, I’m not always annoying.
 OK, sorry. I’m not always right either. Usually, but not always!
'just', 'yet', 'still' and 'already'
Do you know how to use just, yet, still and already with the present perfect?
Look at these examples to see how just, yet, still and already are used.
I've just seen Sai. He's really enjoying his new job.
We haven't decided what to do yet.
I still haven't called Yumi to see how she is.
I've already had lunch but I'll join you for coffee.

We often use just, yet, still and already with the present perfect because they are
related to the present moment. This page focuses on the meaning and use of these
words when they are used with the present perfect.
just
Just used with the present perfect means 'a short time before'.
I've just seen Susan coming out of the cinema.
Mike's just called. Can you ring him back, please?
Have you just taken my pen?!
Just comes between the auxiliary verb (have/has) and the past participle.
yet
Yet used with the present perfect means 'at any time up to now'. We use it to
emphasise that we expect something to happen soon. Yet (in this context) is only used
in negative sentences and questions.
Have you finished your homework yet?
I haven't finished it yet. I'll do it after dinner.
A. Where's Sam? B: He hasn't arrived yet.
Yet comes at the end of the sentence or question.
still
Still used with the present perfect means that something hasn't happened. We use it to
emphasise that we expected the thing to happen earlier. Still (in this context) is only
used in negative sentences.
I've been waiting for an hour and the bus still hasn't come.
They promised me that report yesterday but they still haven't finished it.
She still hasn't replied to my email. Maybe she's on holiday.
Still comes between the subject (the bus, they, etc.) and auxiliary verb (haven't/hasn't).
already
Already used with the present perfect means 'before now'. We use it to emphasise that
something happened before something else or earlier than expected.
I've already spent my salary and it's two weeks before payday.
He wanted to see Sudden Risk but I've already seen it.
The train's left already!
Already can come between the auxiliary and the main verb or at the end of the clause.

Exercise on 'just', 'yet', 'still' and 'already'

Choose the correct word to complete the sentences.
1. They say they posted it two weeks ago but it hasn't arrived.
a. yet
b. still
c. already

2. I haven't found a flat . Everything around here is so expensive.

a. just
b. yet
c. still

3. I've seen this film. Let's watch something else.

a. yet
b. still
c. already

4. A: Is Al here? B: Oh, he's left, I'm afraid.

a. just
b. yet
c. still

5. Have they finished painting your house ?

a. just
b. yet
c. still

6. I'm sure she's on her way. I've seen her in reception.

a. just
b. yet
c. still

7. She told me they sent the exam results last week but mine haven't arrived.
a. yet
b. still
c. already

8. Have you eaten ? If not, we can go to that new Italian place.

 a. yet
b. just
c. still

9. He's only 22 and he's written a best-selling book.

a. yet
b. still
c. already

10. They said they'd have the results .

a. still
b. already
c. just

Question words
We use the question words who (for people), what/which (for things), when (for
time), where (for places), why (for reasons) and how (for more details).

We usually form questions by putting an auxiliary verb, or a modal verb, before the
subject.
Does it suit me?
Has Mum called?
Can you get the tea?
Shall I pass you to Oliver?
When the verb 'to be' is the main verb, we don’t use auxiliary verbs.
Is Oliver there?
Was it good?
We can add question words to get more or different information.
Where did you go swimming? > In the swimming pool in town.
Why did you go there? > Because it’s a nice, big pool.
Who did you go swimming with? > With Amy.
What time did you meet Amy? > At 10 o’clock.
Which pool did you go in? > The serious one, without the slides!
How did you get there? > On the bus.
I see that questions sometimes finish with prepositions.

Yes, that’s very common.

Who were you out with?
What have you got that bag for?
 What’s all that about?
Where are you calling from?
OK, that all seems straightforward.

If who, what or which is the subject of the question, it comes before the verb and
we don’t use do as an auxiliary.
Who went out for curry? (subject – who)
What happened? (subject – what)
Which looks better, this or that one? (subject – which)
Object questions follow the structure we looked at before.
Who did you go out for curry with? (subject – you; object – who)
Which restaurant does Oliver like most? (subject – Oliver; object – which)
What did they do after the restaurant? (subject – they; object – what)
I think I understand …

Here’s a little test for you, then. A cat killed a mouse and a dog killed the cat.
1 What killed the mouse?
2 What did the cat kill?
3 What killed the cat?
4 What did the dog kill?
OK, 1 the cat, 2 the mouse, 3 the dog, 4 the cat. Right?

Exactly! You’ve got it.

Any more tricky things about question words?

Well in reported speech or indirect questions, question words come in the middle of
sentences. In these types of sentence, the word order does not change. We don’t put
the verb to be before the subject or use an auxiliary to form a question, as in a normal
question:
I asked her what she was doing at the weekend.
Do you know where the post office is?
Can you tell me how much it costs?
What are you doing at the weekend?
Where is the post office?
How much does it cost?
Hmm, why do you use indirect questions if they are more complicated?

Well, they are more polite, especially if you are talking to a stranger.
OK, I’ll remember to say: 'Do you know where the post office is?'
Good. Can you make that even more polite?
How about: 'Excuse me, could you tell me where the post office is, please?'
Fine! That’ll do. Do you really need a post office?!

The definite article

We use the, the definite article, before a singular or plural noun. We use the to
show people that they know (or they will soon know) what we are talking about.
Can you explain with examples?

Of course. The definite article, the, can refer backwards in a conversation or text to
something already mentioned.
… my sister there hid a little parcel in my suitcase, so when I was
unpacking the case I had a really cool surprise ...
It can also refer forwards to something which is going to be mentioned or explained.
Could you bring me the knife which you gave me?
The friend of hers who's looking after us ...
Does the always refer backwards or forwards?

No, it can also refer to shared knowledge or general knowledge. Both the listener and
the speaker (or the writer and the reader) know what is being referred to.
But I'll try to connect from the hotel every evening.
I think Mum is hoping to see George Clooney at the bus stop.
OK, I understand those rules, but I’ve seen lists of different uses of the.

All right, I can give more specific examples, but they fit into the three areas I’ve given
you. We use the when there is only one of something (in the world, the country, your
town, the house, etc.), and we know what it is.
And is the internet connection good?
They're like ... like the poster you've got in your room, Daisy.
We use the with superlatives – again, we are talking about one thing.
The chocolate here is the best in the world.
With some adjectives which refer to one thing – for example first, last, next – we also
use the.
… this is the third day ...
When referring forwards, we often use a relative clause.
That’s the friend who is looking after us.
Isn’t the used with musical instruments, like 'I play the guitar'?
Yes, we sometimes use the in fixed expressions for musical instruments, entertainment
and transport.
He plays the piano brilliantly.
They’re going to the opera tonight. (also: the cinema, the football, the shops, etc.)
We took a taxi to the airport. (also: the bus stop, the station, etc.)
So even if there are three cinemas in my town, I would still say 'I went to the cinema last
night'?

Yes, you would. We also sometimes use the to talk about groups of people or types of
animals or things in general.
The unemployed are asking for more help from the government. (also: the
poor, the old, the homeless, the deaf, etc.)
The wolf is the largest member of the dog family. (formal)
The Swiss watch is an amazing piece of engineering.
And we can use the with nationalities, like 'The Swiss make great chocolate'?

Yes, that’s right. You're good at this!

What about talking about things in general? Can I say 'The life is very expensive' or 'I
love the sport'?

No, we don’t use the definite article to generalise about abstract things. You’d say: 'Life
is very expensive' and 'I love sport'. If we’re generalising about things we usually use
the plural form (for countable nouns) or singular (uncountable nouns).
She’s frightened of spiders. (= spiders in general)
Lasagne is delicious! (= lasagne in general)
Thanks for dinner. The lasagne was incredible! (= one particular lasagne)
But you used 'the wolf' earlier to talk about wolves in general.

Yes, but that was more formal language, for example what you would read in an
encyclopaedia. We usually use no article to generalise.
What about geography words? Words for rivers and seas and things?

Ah, you mean proper nouns or names of things. Here are some categories where
we use the, with examples:
Rivers: the Thames
Mountain ranges: the Alps
Oceans and seas: the Pacific / the Red Sea
Deserts: the Sahara
Islands (groups): the Bahamas
Countries if + political term / plural: the UK / the USA / the United Arab Emirates
 Political institutions: the Government / the Monarchy
Newspapers (usually part of the title): The Times / The Guardian
Cinemas / theatres / hotels: the Odeon / the Holiday Inn
So we don't use the before lakes, forests, cities or towns?

No, not usually. And not usually before streets in towns.

Well, there’s more to the definite article than meets the eye!
Mm, that reminds me, more than meets the eye – there are a lot of idioms with the too.
For another time!

Some, any, every and no

We use some and any for talking about indefinite numbers or amounts of things.
We use them with nouns or on their own, as pronouns.
I know about some and any. You use some in positive sentences and any in questions
and negatives, right?
We've got some amazing chocolate cake, and some carrot cake.
Have you got any chocolate cake?
I haven't had any carrot cake for ages.
But we also use any in positive sentences.
Any cake will do. Surprise me.
She can tell you everything about ... well, about anything!

We use some for talking about a limited number or amount; and we use any for an
unlimited number or amount. For example, imagine you are talking about different kinds
of cake. All these sentences are possible:
A I like any kind of cake. (= all kinds of cake, unlimited)
B I don't like any kind of cake. (= 0 kinds of cake, unlimited)
C I like some kinds of cake. (= a limited number of kinds of cake)
D I don't like some kinds of cake. (= a limited number of kinds of cake)
OK, I think that’s clear. I like any kind of music. I don’t like some dogs.

Yes, if you like all music and if you also like some dogs.
Yes, I like most dogs, but not dogs that bite, or dogs that are ill.

OK, then.
And what about questions? Can we use both some and any in questions?

Yes, we use both.

Would you like some more coffee?
Would you like any more to eat?
Here the difference is very small. The speaker is thinking of a limited amount in the first
question, and an unlimited amount in the second question. In both questions we could
use some or any.
Sometimes we use some when we expect the answer to be “yes”. We use any when we
don’t know what the answer will be; we are asking whether something exists.
Can I have some sugar? (I know there’s some sugar)
Is there any cake left? (I don’t know whether there’s any cake)
Are you waiting for somebody? (I think you are)
Is anybody coming to meet you? (I don’t know)
Did you say we can use some and any on their own, as pronouns?

Yes, we don’t need to repeat the noun.

Is there any cake?
Yes, do you want some? / Sorry, there isn’t any. / Sorry, there’s none left.
Ah, none. That’s new to me.

Yes, we can use none or no + noun instead of not any.

Have we got any onions?
No, there aren’t any. / There are none left.
We haven’t got any money. = We have no money.
What about somebody, anybody, everybody and nobody? Can you tell me more about
how you use those words?

Of course. Somebody/anybody/nobody/everybody are used as singular nouns, even

though everybody refers to more than one person and anybody can mean more than
one person.
I saw somebody outside the window. (= 1 person)
There’s nobody there. (= 0 person)
Everybody knows that The Beatles were from Liverpool. (= all people)
Has anybody seen my keys? (= 1+ people)
Is somebody the same as someone?

Yes, it’s the same. We also use:

People: someone - anyone - no one - everyone
Things: something - anything - nothing - everything
Places: somewhere - anywhere - nowhere - everywhere
OK, I think that’s everything for today. I’ve got to go somewhere to meet somebody.

You don’t want to ask anything else?

No, thank you!
Have got
Have got (have/has + got) is used to talk mainly about possessions or personal
attributes.

For example:
I've got a new computer.
They haven't got any red chilli peppers.
She's got long, brown hair.
He hasn't got many friends.
So the negative is have/has + not + got?

Yes, but don't forget the contraction.

Daisy hasn't got her books yet.
You haven't got 50 p, have you?
Is has got only used for things?

No, it's also used for timetabled events or illnesses.

I've got swimming practice at seven.
Fred's got a terrible cold.
You can use have got for abstract things too.
I've got an idea for the weekend.
I've got all the inspiration I need ... up here!
Can I use have got in the past? For example: I had got a racing bicycle when I was
younger.

No, it's only used in the present tense. For the past you use had without got.
I had a racing bicycle.
What about the question form?

You use have/has + subject + got.

Have you got everything you need?
Have we got any red chilli peppers at home?
Have you got a minute?
Hang on a minute, I've heard Do you have … ? a lot too.

Yes, have got is more used in British English and have is more American. The question
and negative form is different with have – you need to use the auxiliary do/does.
I have two sisters. (American English)
Do you have change for ten dollars? (American English)
He doesn't have a clue about soccer. (American English)
You will hear British people use have as well as have got.
Anything else I should know?

In British English we use have got more in speaking and have more in writing – it's a
little more formal.
OK, I've got it now!
Very clever! Yes, you can also use have got to mean 'understand'.

Used to
We use used to + verb for talking about states or actions that were true or
happened in the past, but are not true or do not happen now.
London’s nothing like it used to be!
She used to go away on really long trips.

Used to is always for talking about actions or states in the past that are not true now.
The record shop I always used to visit is now a really cool café. (I don’t visit the
place now.)

We use used to to emphasise that the state or action is not true now or does not
happen now.

We use do in the past + not + the infinitive, use to + verb. The question is formed in a
similar way.
He didn’t use to wear nice clothes and recently he’s been looking quite cool.
So what else did you use to go to London for?
That’s quite a long construction – three verbs!

Yes, but used to doesn’t change – it’s always in the past simple.
Always in the past simple? So you can’t use it in the present?

No, it’s a strange verb. We only use it in the past.

I think I used to use it in the present too.

Oh dear. You won’t any more, will you?

No, I didn’t use to know the rules, but now I do.

'used to' + infinitive and 'be' or 'get used to' + '-ing'

Used to + infinitive and be/get used to + -ing look similar but they have very different
uses.
used to
We use used to + infinitive to talk about a past situation that is no longer true. It tells us
that there was a repeated action or state in the past which has now changed.
She used to be a long-distance runner when she was younger.
I didn't use to sleep very well, but then I started doing yoga and it really helps.
Did you use to come here as a child?
be used to and get used to
Be used to means 'be familiar with' or 'be accustomed to'.
She's used to the city now and doesn't get lost any more.
He wasn't used to walking so much and his legs hurt after the hike.
I'm a teacher so I'm used to speaking in public.
We use get used to to talk about the process of becoming familiar with something.
I'm finding this new job hard but I'm sure I'll get used to it soon.
It took my mother years to get used to living in London after moving from Pakistan.
I'm getting used to the noise now. I found it really stressful when I first moved in.
Be used to and get used to are followed by a noun, pronoun or the -ing form of a verb,
and can be used about the past, present or future.

Exercise on 'used to' + infinitive and 'be' or 'get used to' + '-ing': 1
Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. She in a bank but she left and got a job as a gardener.
a. used to work
b. used to working
c. got used to work

2. Since we had the baby I much sleep.

a. 'm not used to get
b. 've got used to not getting
c. used to get

3. How's the new job? it yet?

a. Are you used to
b. Did you use to
c. Do you used to

4. Before I retired I have much time to read.

a. used to
b. got used to
c. never used to
5. The engine noise was deafening but the driver it.
a. was used to
b. used to
c. didn't use to

6. Our house is on a steep hill, but I the walk after a month of living here.
a. get used to
b. got used to
c. used to

7. Don't worry! You in the city centre after a while.

a. 'll used to live
b. 'll get used to living
c. 'll get used to live

8. Don't worry! You in the city centre after a while.

a. 'll used to live
b. 'll get used to living
c. 'll get used to live

9. I always hated the cold weather but I it when I lived in Russia.

a. get used to
b. got used to
c. used to

10. We much positive feedback about our old product, but the new formula is
really successful.
a. didn't use to get
b. weren't used to get
c. didn't use to getting

'so' and 'such'

Do you know how to use the words so and such?
Look at these examples to see how so and such are used.
She's so interesting!
This is such an interesting book.
A new phone costs so much money these days.
Traffic in the city centre is such a nightmare!
We can use so and such to intensify adjectives, adverbs and nouns.
Adjectives and adverbs
We can use so with an adjective or adverb to make it stronger.
It's so hot today!
She looks so young in that photo.
He walks so slowly. It's so annoying!
If we are using the comparative form of the adjective or adverb, we use so much to
make it stronger.
They were so much more innocent when they were younger.
I work so much more quickly when I can concentrate.
Nouns
With a noun or adjective + noun, we use such to make it stronger.
You're such an angel!
It's such a hot day today!
They're such lovely trousers. Where did you buy them?
However, when we use much, many, little and few with a noun, we use so to make it
stronger.
There are so many people here!
I've had so little time to myself this week.
Saying the result
We often use these so and such structures with that and a clause to say what the result
is.
It was so cold that the water in the lake froze.
He was such a good teacher that we all passed the exam.
There's so much noise that I can't think!

Exercise on 'so' and 'such'

Write 'so' or 'such' to complete the sentences.
1. I'm so excited about my trip to Canada!
2. It's such a shame you couldn't make it to the party.
3. He worked so hard on that proposal.
4. He's such an amazing cook that I always ask him for recipes.
5. It always takes so much longer to get there when you drive!
6. We've had so much rain lately that the river almost flooded.
7. They could get their project done so much more cheaply if they used local
suppliers.
8. My cats have got so gorgeous eyes!
9. It was so a beautiful painting that she decided to hang it in the living room.
10. There are such many things to do before we move house!
11. You planned this essay such much more carefully this time. Well done!
12. It's such a hassle when you lose your wallet, with all the things you have to cancel
and replace!
13. It was so kind of him to help me that I bought him some flowers to say thank you.
14. I thought this season was so much better than the last. I watched all the
episodes in one weekend!
15. I've never had so hard-working students before!
16. They go to their local restaurant so regularly that all the staff know their names.

'wish' and 'if only'

Do you know how to use wish and if only to talk about things you would like to change
Look at these examples to see how wish and if only are used.
That guy is so annoying! I wish he'd stop talking.
I wish I lived closer to my family.
If only I hadn't lost her phone number. She must think I'm so rude for not calling her.
I wish they wouldn't park their car in front of my house.

We use wish and if only to talk about things that we would like to be different in either
the present or the past. If only is usually a bit stronger than wish.
In the present
We can use wish/if only + a past form to talk about a present situation we would like to
be different.
I wish you didn't live so far away.
If only we knew what to do.
He wishes he could afford a holiday.
In the past
We can use wish/if only + a past perfect form to talk about something we would like to
change about the past.
They wish they hadn't eaten so much chocolate. They're feeling very sick now.
If only I'd studied harder when I was at school.
Expressing annoyance
We can use wish + would(n't) to show that we are annoyed with what someone or
something does or doesn't do. We often feel that they are unlikely or unwilling to
change.
I wish you wouldn't borrow my clothes without asking.
I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water.
She wishes he'd work less. They never spend any time together.

Exercise on 'wish' and 'if only'

Choose the correct option to complete the sentences.
1. I wish I go to work tomorrow.
 a. wouldn't have to
b. didn't have to
c. hadn't had to

2. If only I that to her. She's not speaking to me now.

a. wouldn't say
b. hadn't said
c. didn't say

3. He wishes the kitchen in such a mess. He always has to clean before he

cooks.

a. they wouldn't leave

b. they had left
c. they would leave

4. She wishes they ten years ago!

a. would have met
b. met
c. had met

5. If only he here now. He'd know what to do.

a. would be
b. wasn't
c. were

6. It looks like rain. I wish I my umbrella.

a. would have brought
b. had brought
c. brought

7. I'm starving. If only there a restaurant open now.

a. would be
b. had been
c. was

8. I wish people loud music on the train. What's wrong with using headphones?!
a. wouldn't play
b. would play
c. wouldn't have played
9. If only they you for advice before they started the project. You're the expert!
a. would ask
b. had asked
c. asked

10. He wishes he back in time and visit Ancient Rome.

a. would travel
b. could travel
c. could have travelled
 MODUL
OF
VOCABULARIES
 Talking about Language

(noun, verb, plural etc.)

A. English words
English words consist of noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and preposition. The
noun can be classified based on singular and plural nouns. These English words
are grouped to form a phrase. Here are the examples of English words:
Word Meaning example
Noun a person and thing Book, pen, chair
verb Something we do Do, read, write
adjective Word used to describe Good, bad, and
a person or thing happy
adverb Word used to describe Slowly, badly
a verb
plural More than one Books, houses
singular Just one Book, house
phrase A group of words In the house, an old
woman

The exercises in this module are as follow

1. Fill in the gabs in the sentence
2. Correct the mistakes in the sentences
3. Complete the sentence for yourself
4. Add another example, etc

B. Crimes / people who do

5
There was a burglary at the school last night.
John West murdered his wife.
There are a lot of muggings in the city centre.
A robber robs a person or a place. That bank was robbed yesterday. My friend was
robbed in the city centre.
A thief steals something (steal/stole/stolen). Somebody stole my bike. [NOT
somebody robbed my bike]
He was robbed in the city centre yesterday [ NOT he was stolen]

C. The law
A student was arrested for shoplifting this morning.
The police came to the school and spoke to the teacher.
The student has to go to court next week.
If he is guilty he will have to pay a fine
If he is innocent he can go home
I don’t think he will go to prison.

D. Other crime problems

Some vandals broke the windows in the telephone box.
(a vandal breaks and smashes things)
We have a lot of vandalism in our town.
A lot of people take drugs nowadays.
Is football hooliganism a problem in your country?
(a football hooligan is person who goes to a football match and makes a trouble)

6
Exercise 1
Write the following words in the correct column.

Book, speak, good, word, house, have, write, new, man, right, blue, say

noun Verb adjective

book speak good

word have man

house write right

new say

blue

Exercise 2. Write the plural form of the following words.

1. box =…it……
2. ox =….it
3. Man =…him…
4. Woman = ……her
5. Chair = ………it.
Exercise 3
Choose two of the words below as the most likely ways of completing
each sentence. For one answer you will need to make the word plural, and for
the other you will need to make no change.
accommodation; bag; equipment; house; jewelry; job; luggage; painting;
shower; sunshine; tool work
1 On the weather forecast they said there would be_ shower this afternoon.
2 The waiting room was so full of people and their house, there was nowhere to
sit.

7
 3 Repairing car engines is easy if you've got the right job.
4 In Stockholm at the moment there's a fascinating exhibition of painting from
19th century Sweden.
5 Both my brothers are looking for sunshine.

Exercise 4.
What do we call ……?

1. A person who steals a car? thief.

2. A person who kills someone?......

3. A person who steals things from shops? ....

4. A person who robs people’s houses and flat?

5. A person who attacks someone in the street and steals their money?

6. A person who sells dangerous drugs?

Exercise 5. Fill the gabs in the sentences

1. There were a lot of football hooligans near the stadium.

2. The police officer a ................... her for shoplifting.

3. Some v ............ destroyed all the flowers in the park.

4. He had to pay a............... of 5 $ for parking his car in the wrong place.

5. There are a lot of b ........ in this part of city, so always close the window.

6. The police made a mistake; she was i............ she didn’t steal the
money.

7. People who t......... drugs often do other crimes too.

8. A group of t……have attacked the airport.

9. He murdered his wife. He was in p…. for 2 years.

8
Exercise 6

What do you think should happen to these people? choose from the list
a---i on the right. If you do not like list, what do you think should happen to
them

1. A man murdered his wife and three children

2. A student with no money stole a book from a bookshop

3. A woman sold some drugs to a teenager.

4. Some terrorists attacked a bus and killed 5 people.

5. A woman parked her car and blocked the traffic.

6. A teenager broke some trees in the park

7. A man who drank too much alcohol drove his car and crashed.

The choices

a. Fine of 100$

b. 30 years in prison

c. Six months in prison

d. Death

e. Five years in prison

f. In prison for life

g. a fine of 50 $

h. Must work in a hospital for six months

i. Must not drive a car for a year.

9
 Learning Vocabulary

(collocation, pictures and diagrams)

2. A. In this unit, you will learn how some words go together (collocation). The
following are the examples of word combinations such as preposition and
noun, adjective and noun, and adjective noun.

You go by train or on foot. (prep+Noun)

Some people are good at languages (Not good in)

I saw very tall man (Not high man)

Exercise 2.1.

Which of the following words could go with weather?

Wet high big dry warm happy cool rainy dark

wet Weather
………….. Weather
………. Weather
……….. Weather
……. Weather
………… Weather
…………… Weather
…………. Weather
………………….. Weather

B. The following are the words which collocate with have

Have lunch, have a party, have a lesson, have a cup of tea/coffee, have a shower.

C. Other things you can have

Example other things

10
 1. Lunch dinner, breakfast, a meal, something to eat
2. A party a meeting, a competition, a game (of football/chess/cards)
3. A lesson an exam, homework, an appointment (with the dentist).
4. Tea/coffee a drink, a sandwich, an ice-cream, some cheese
5. A shower a bath, a swim, a sauna

D. Expressions with have.

Is that your camera? Can I have a look? (=look at)

Is that your bicycle? Can I have a go? (= ride it)

Goodbye! Have a good journey! (somebody is going away)

Do you have a moment? (have some time) Can I have a word with you?
(speak to you)

We always have a good time in our English lessons. (fun, we enjoy them)

I am going to have my hair cut. See you later. Can you meet me at the
hairdresser’s?

I want to learn to ski but I don’t have the time.

E. Have + got (speaking/informal) = have (writing /formal)

I have got three sisters. Have you got any brothers and sisters?

My house is big. It’s got five bedrooms and three bathrooms.

We’ve got five minutes before the train goes.

Have you got a pen?

(in a shop)

A. Do you sell postcards?

B. yes, but we haven’t got any at the moment.

11
Exercises 2.2

Fill in the blanks in the sentences. Use the word from B and C opposite.

1. I always have … (and ………) for breakfast.

2. I have an … with dentist at 3 o’clock
3. Do you want to have a game of ................... ?
4. Jane’s having a ……on Saturday. Are you going?
5. Do you want to have a … ? the bathroom’s just here.
6. I have an … tomorrow, so I have to study.
7. We must have a............ to talk about these problems.
8. I’m going to cafeteria to have a… do you want to come?
9. The hotel has a swimming pool, so we can have a… everyday
10. We can have ............ before the film, or we can eat after it.

Exercise 2. 3 do the cross word

Across

1. you have it in restaurant

3. people often have one on their birthday

5 do you want to have a ……of tennis?

Down

2. you have it at school or university

12
 4 If you don’t like coffee, you can have ……

Exercise 2. 4. What do you say?

1. (Someone is thirsty) why don’t you have …?

2. (someone is going away) Bye, Have a ………!
3. (someone sneezes [atchoo!] , and has a red nose) Oh, have you got a …….?
4. (someone has a new camera) Is that new? Can I have …?

13
 Have/had/had

(have breakfast, have time)

A. The Use of GO
Go means to move from one place to another
Look at the following examples:
I go to work by bike. My brother goes by car.
We went to Paris last summer.
Shall we go to the swimming pool today?
You can go to the place on foot or in some kind of transport.
To make it clear that we are going on foot we can say: We are walking to work
this morning.
Is this train going to Granada?
Where does the road go?

B. Go + preposition
Verb go could collocate with particular preposition. Look at the examples
below
Kim went in (to) his room and shut the door.
Rani was tired. She went up the stairs slowly.
Yuko went out of the house and into the garden.

The phone was ringing. She went down stairs quickly.

14
C. Go + -ing for activities
Go is often used with –ing for different activities.
I hate shopping.
I usually go swimming in the morning.
Let’s go dancing.

Do you like going sightseeing when you are on holiday?

Hans goes skiing every winter.

Bob is going fishing today.
D. Future Plan
Be going to is usually used for future plan:
On Saturday, Jan is going to visit his aunt. On Sunday, we are going to stay at
home. On Monday, I’m going to meet Sam at the restaurant.

15
Exercises
3.1 Where are these people going? follow the lines.

1. Pablo is going to the zoo.

2. Soraya and Mahmet…
3. Imran…….
4. The Patesl…
5. Natasha…
3.2 correct the mistakes in the sentences
1. Please go in, I am tired. … away……
2. We are going sightsee today. …
3. Jo went down to the top of the hill. …
4. Let’s go to fish today. …
5. She went out of the shop. …
3.3 Write about Alison’s plans for next week.

1. On Monday, Alison is going to play tennis with Rose.

2. On Tuesday …………………….
3. On Wednesday………………….
4. On Thursday……………
5. On Friday…………………

16
 Go/went/gone

(go away, go shopping)

A. The use of Get

Get with adjectives: for changes

B. Get with nouns

Look at the following examples:
If you don’t have something you can get it
(the word it refers to noun something)
I want to send a postcard. I have to get a stamp.
I’ve finished my studies. Now I want to get a job.
My friend is ill! please get a doctor.
Do you want to drink? I can get some coffee.
I’m going to the shop to get a newspaper.

17
 Where can I get a taxi?
C. Get to (arrive at or reach a place)
Look at the following examples:
How can I get to the airport? Take the airport bus at the bus station.
When you get to New York, ring me. OK, give me your number.
D. Other phrases with get
Maria and David are getting married in April.
When you get back from Hong Kong, ring me. (return/come home).
When I get home, I have my lunch.
I get there at 6 o’clock, so please ring me at 6.30.
(not get to home or get to there)
Exercises
5.1 Complete these sentences using a, b, or c
1. I studied too much and got (a) hot (b) tired (C) sick.
2. I ate too much and got (a) hot (b) tired (c) sick.
3. I sat in the sun and got (a) hot (b) tired (c) sick.

5.2 Complete these sentences using get and a word from the box
better light dark cold wet

1. The sun is going down. It is. getting dark

2. When the sun comes up it……………
3. She’s in hospital but she …………
4. It’s raining! I…………
5. Please close the window. I ………………
5.3 What do you get if ……
1. You want to post a letter? a stamp
2. Somebody is ill?
3. You want a drink of water?
4. You want to write something down?
5. You want to read the news?
6. You want to go to the airport?
7. You want to earn some money?
18
5.4 Fill in the gaps in these sentences

Singapore (dep 0545) Paris (arr 12.30)

1. This plane ....................... at Paris at 12.30

2. The bus from my university ........................... my house in 25 minutes.

3. How…… the airport? take a taxi. The bus is very slow.

19
 Do/did/done

(do an exercise, do your best)

A Do as auxiliary

questions Do you like tennis? Did they like the film?

short answers Yes, I do. Yes, they did.

So does Sinjit. So did I.

negatives He doesn’t play well Jo didn’t see it.

B What are you doing?

Do as a general verb

What do you do to relax?

I listen to music.

Don’t do that, Tommy.

What are the people in the picture doing?

They’re dancing.

C What do you do?

What do you do? (=What is your job?)

20
 I’m a student. or I’m a teacher. or I’m an engineer.

What does your wife do? (= What’s your wife’s job?)

She’s a doctor. or She’s a secretary. or She’s a mechanic.

D Do + task

do the housework

do the gardening

do the washing

do the washing-up

do your homework

do some exercises

do business with

do your best

Did you do the washing this morning?

No, I’m going to do it later.

Our company does a lot of business with the USA.

The homework exercise is very difficult – just do your best.

21
Exercises
5.1 Write questions and answers about the people in the picture.

1. (the boy) What is the boy doing? He’s

eating an ice-cream
2 (the woman) ………………………………………………………….

3 (the girls) …………………………………………………………………

4 (the man in the house) ………………………………………………

5 (the dog) …………………………………………………………………

6 (the man in the garden) ……………………………………………..

5.2 Write questions and answers about the jobs of the people

in the pictures.

1 Lee Atkins 2 La_a Brown 3 Sophie Hicks 4 Jo Ted

22
 1 What does Lee Atkins do? He’s a teacher

5.3 Write questions about what the people in exercise 5.2 did this morning.
Answer the questions using the phrases in the box.

Talk to five patients teach 3 lessons write an essay go to a meeting

1 What did Atkins do? He taught three lessons

2 ………………………………………………….

3 ………………………………………………….

4 ………………………………………………….

23
5.4 Look at the do expressions in D. Write sentences about you or your
family and these activities.

5.5 Correct the mistakes in this dialogue.

ANNA: Where did you went on your holidays? To London?

PAVEL: No, we don’t go to London this year. We went to Scotland.

ANNA: Do your grandmother lives in Scotland?

PAVEL: No, she don’t but my uncle do.

24
 Make/made/made

(make coffee, make a mistake)

A Make ...

To make coffee. To make dinner.

I’ll make some tea/hot chocolate.

I make breakfast/lunch/supper every day. (supper=a meal just before bed)

B Make a ...

The teacher’s making a photocopy.

He’s making a film/video of the class.

The children are making a noise.

C Don’t make mistake with make!

Can I say…? yes/no Correction

I made a mistake in the exercise

I have to make my homework I have to do my homework

25
 I have to make an exam next week I have to take/do an exam next
week.

When I get up I make my bed.

I want to make an appointment with

the doctor.

(= fix a time to see him/her)

I’d like to make a photo of you. I’d like to take a photo of you.

After dinner, I’ll help you make After dinner, I’ll help you do

the dishes. the dishes.

D It makes me (feel) …

Going by train always makes me (feel) tired.

My friend called me stupid. It made me (feel) angry.

That film made me (feel) sad.

Exercises
6.1 Fill the gaps with make or do

1. I always..................... a lot of mistakes when I speak English.

2. If I .......... my homework every day, my English will get better.
3. Let’s go to bed now. We can ............ the dishes in the morning
4. I want to……... an exam in French. Do you know where I can …… one?
5. We always try not to ......... a noise after ten o’clock at night

26
6.2 Complete the sentences with make(s)/made me feel.

1. That film ............................ sad.

2. Long lessons always ............................... tired.

3. She was horrible to me; it ............................... angry.

6.3 What are these people doing? Complete the sentences using make.

1. He’s ……………… 3. The children are …………..

2. She’s ……………. 4. They’re …………………….

6.4 Correct the mistakes in these sentences. Look at the example

1. I have to make my homework. I have to do my homework
2. Can I make a photo of you?
3. He’s 25 but he never makes his own washing. He takes his dirty clothes to his
mother’s.
4. What do you think, yes or no? We must do a decision today.
5. I have to take an appointment with the doctor. Do you have her phone
number?
6. I do mistakes when I speak English.
7. Are you making an exam tomorrow
27
 Come/came/come
(come in, come from)

Come and go are different:

HERE go THERE HERE come THERE

A Come in/out
We say ‘Come in!’ when someone knocks at the door of a room.
The person who knocked comes into the room.

Come out is often the opposite of come in.

A woman came out of the shop with
two big bags. (I was in the street)

You put your money in and the ticket

comes out of the machine.

B Come back and come home

Come back means ‘return to this place here’.
She went away for three days. She came back yesterday. (she is here again.)

Come back is often used with from.

They came back from Italy yesterday.

28
 Come home is similar; ‘home’ is ‘here’ for the person speaking.

MOTHER: What time did you come home last night?

ANNE: Oh, about eleven o’clock.
MOTHER: What! Eleven! That’s much too late!

Other important uses of come

A: What country do you come from?

B: I’m from Norway. or I come from Norway. or I’m Norwegian.
We’re going to a disco tonight. Do you want to come along? (=come with
us)
Come and see me some time. (= visit me)
Tip: Write down any prepositions you find with come every time you see
them.

Exercises
7.1 Fill the gaps in the sentences.
1 I put money in, but the ticket didn’t come out of the machine.
2 A: I’m going to Taiwan tomorrow.
B: Oh! When are you coming...................... ?
A: Two weeks from now.
3 The teacher came .................... the classroom and started the lesson.
4 A: Where do you come ...................?
B: I’m Brazilian.
5 Come and ............................. me at five o’clock; we can talk about it then.

29
 6 The children come ...............school at four o’clock.

7.2 Answer these questions for yourself.

1 What time do you come home every day?
2 What country do you come from?
3 What do you do when you come into your classroom?
7.3 What do you think these people are saying?

1 …………………………………… 3 …………………………………..

2 ……………………………………

7.4 Fill the gaps using come in the correct form

1 Have you .................. for your letters? They’re on the table.
2 She ....................... back yesterday.
3 He ............................. here every Tuesday.
4 ……………you ........................ to the school party tonight?

7.5 Look up these verbs in a dictionary. Write the meaning in your

vocabulary book. You may find more than one meaning, but just
write down one meaning for each verb. After a week, cover the
verbs, look at your notes and see if you can remember the verbs.

1 come round 2 come across 3 come up

30
Suffixes
Adding suffixes to the base, or root, of existing words to form new words is common in English. Suffixes are added to the
back of the base word to create a new word with a different meaning. For example, if you add the verb suffix -en to the
adjective awake, you get awaken, a verb. Suffixes usually change the part of speech of the base word. Suffixes are not
words in their own right and cannot stand on their own in sentence; if we print them on their own we place a hyphen before
them (-en).

Suffixes that create verbs

Common suffixes used in academic English create verbs. If you add a verb suffix to a noun or adjective, it becomes a verb.
For example, adding -ate to the noun pollen creates the verb pollinate (or pollenate, an alternate spelling). If you add the
suffix -en to the adjective short, you get the verb shorten, to become short.

Suffix Meaning Example

-ate become differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-en become awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
-ify make or become classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-ise /-ize become compromise, stabilize, characterize, symbolize, visualize

Suffixes that create nouns

The following suffixes create nouns. For instance, if you take the verb demonstrate and add the noun suffix -tion, you get
the noun demonstration. Similarly, if you add the noun suffix -ship to the noun citizen, you get the noun citizenship, holding
the position of being a citizen.

Suffix Meaning Example

-age result of breakage, wastage, package
-al action or process of denial, proposal, refusal
-ant /-ent agent or performer of an action assistant, consultant, student
-cy state or quality urgency, efficiency, frequency
-ence /-ance state of quality of preference, dependence, interference, attendance,
acceptance, endurance
-er person or object that does a specified advertiser, dancer, teacher, driver, computer, silencer
action
-ism doctrine or belief Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ity quality of ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
-ment condition development, punishment, unemployment
-ness state of being darkness, preparedness, consciousness
-ship position held friendship, citizenship, leadership
-tion /-sion condition or state of alteration, demonstration, expansion, inclusion,
admission
Suffixes that create adjectives
These suffixes create adjectives. As an example, adding the adjective suffix -ful to the noun peace gives you an adjective,
peaceful. Adding the adjective suffix -ous to the verb danger gives you the adjective dangerous, characterized by danger.

Suffix Meaning Example

-able capable of being drinkable, countable, avoidable
-al having the form or character of central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent tending toward different, dependent, excellent
-ful notable for beautiful, peaceful, careful
-ive having the nature of attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-less without endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-ous characterized by continuous, dangerous, famous

Suffixes that create adverbs

A few suffixes create adverbs. For instance, adding the adverb suffix -ly to the adjective happy gives you happily, an adverb.
Or adding -ward to the noun west gives you the adverb westward, in the direction of the west.

Suffix Meaning Example

-ly / -ily related to or quality softly, happily, sleepily, quickly
-ward/ -wards direction toward, afterwards, backwards, westward
-wise in relation to otherwise, likewise, clockwise

Prefixes and Suffixes used together

Prefixes and suffixes are often used together. The following words use both the prefix mis- (wrongly or badly) and the noun
suffix -tion (condition of) with different base words:

inform misinformation
communicate miscommunication
interpret misinterpretation

The following base words are changed by using both the prefix un- (not) and the adjective suffix -able (capable of being):

comfort uncomfortable
imagine unimaginable
available unavailable

These use the prefix dis- (not) and the noun suffix -ment (condition):

agreement disagreement
arm disarmament
PRACTICE

1. Your party was the most (success) party I had ever been to.

2. The doctor said that her (ill) was a result of overwork.

3. There were so many (rain) days that we spent a lot of time watching T.V

4. My children have all received a (music) education.

5. Ingrid spent her (child) in Sweden.

6. I was glad to have the small (book) that describes the courses.

7. None of my (employ) went on strike because they are satisfied with their
working conditions.

8. You should get your poor mother prepared...It's (hope)

9. Why did you look at me so (suspicious) ?

10. Carol's parents were very upset by your (refuse) .

11. He is so (forget) that he has even left the cooker on before he left.

12. They wouldn't like to live in a noisy (neighbour) .

13. We understand your (excite) , it's a very good news.

14. Try to be more (friend) when you talk to them.

15. My cousin has (mother) qualities. Children are fond of her.

16. Don't you hate his (child) reactions ?

17. It's very fragile ! Handle it (careful) !

18. Before going to sleep, give him a (spoon) of that syrup.

19. Avoid the road that goes past the forest, it's (danger) at night.

20. I can't bear the pain of a (tooth) ! ... A headache isn't better !
 REFERENCES

Hatch, E.M. dan C. Brown. 1995. “Vocabulary Sentence and Language Education”. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.

Hornby, A S.1995. “Oxford Advenced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English”. London:

Oxford University Press.

McCarthy, M. and O’Dell, F. 1999. Englich Vocabulary in Use Elementary. Cambridge

University Press. United Kingdom

https://www.slideshare.net/AkbarFauzan/english-module-for-intermediate-students

31