1.

To+Infinitive
the to-infinitive is used:

 to express purpose. He has gone to buy a book .

 after certain verbs (agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, plan, promise, refuse, etc). they
decided to get to the island.
 after would like, would prefer, would love, etc, to express a specific preference. I would
like to tell you about this article.
 after adjectives which describe feelings/emotions (happy, sad); express
willingness/unwillingness (willing, eager, reluctant, etc); refer to a person's character
(clever, kind, etc) and the adjectives lucky and fortunate. She was lucky to find a
prestigious job
 Note: with adjectives that refer to character, we can also use an impersonal construction.
It was kind of you to help me with my homework.
 after too/enough. It is too cold to go for a walk.
 to talk about an unexpected event, usually with only. They arived to home only to take
their animal but door was closed
 with it + be + adjective/noun. It was pleasant to help your son
 after be first/second/next/last, etc. Amanda was the first person to win the competition.
 after verbs and expressions such as ask, learn, explain, decide, find out, want, want to
know, etc, when they are followed by a question word. My mother explained how to cook
that soup.
Note: why is followed by subject + verb, NOT an infinitive. I wonder why he hasn't cleaned
yet.
 in the expressions to tell you the truth, to be honest, to sum up, to begin with, etc. To tell
you the truth, I had expected the first time.
Note: If two to-infinitives are linked by and or or, the to of the second infinitive can be
omitted. I would like to go and see the latest Dali exhibition

The infinitive without to is used:

 after modal verbs. My dog can sit and stay
 after the verbs let, make, see, hear and feel. I made him copy out the sentence one
hundred times. BUT: we use the to infinitive after be made, be heard, be seen etc (passive
form). He was made to copy the sentence one hundred times.
Note: When see, hear and watch are followed by an -ing form, there is no change in the
passive. They saw me talking to the police. I was seen talking to the police.
 after had better and would rather. We had better call ahead and reserve a table.
 help can be followed by either the to-infinitive or the infinitive without to. Doug helped
me (to) learn my lines

2. GERUND (-ING FORM)

The -ing form is used

 as a noun. Baking cakes relaxes me.

 after certain verbs: admit appreciate, avoid, confess the Ear continue, deny, fancy, go (for
activities), imagine, mind, miss, quit, save, suggest, practise, consider prevent, etc.
Imagine winning a million dollars.
 after love, like, enjoy, prefer, dislike, hate to express general preference. I hate waiting for
people. BUT: for a specific preference (would like/would prefer/would love) we use a to
infinitive. I would like to buy you an ice cream.
 after expressions such as be busy, it's no use, it's (no) good, it's (not) worth, what's the
use of, can't help, there's no point in, can't stand, have difficulty (in), have trouble, etc.
There is no point in talking to her, she won't change her mind.
 after spend, waste or lose (time, money, etc). He wasted a lot of time staring at the ceiling.
 after the preposition to with verbs and expressions such as look forward to, be used to, in
addition to, object to, prefer (doing sth to sth else). He prefers giving to receiving gifts.
 after other prepositions. I am interested in seeing that film.
 after the verbs hear, listen to, notice, see, watch and feel to describe an incomplete
action. I heard you speaking to Miss Logan. (I only heard part of the conversation.)
BUT: we use the infinitive without to with hear, listen to, notice, see, watch and feel to
describe the complete action. I heard you tell the story. (I heard the whole story.)

Difference in meaning between the to-infinitive and the -ing form

Some verbs can take either the to-infinitive or the -ing form with a change in meaning.

 forget + to-infinitive = not remember - David forgot to lock завтриди полурем

forget + -ing form = not recall - I'll never forget swimming with the dolphins.

 remember+ to-infinitive = not forget - Did you remember to v to save fax the last
report?
remember + -ing form = recall - I remember seeing you for the first time.

 mean + to-infinitive = intend to - I'm sorry, I never meant to bring up bad

memories.
mean + -ing form = involve - If I don't get a Christmas bonus, I'm afraid it will mean
not coming home for the holidays.

 regret + to-infinitive = be sorry to (normally used in the present simple with verbs
such as say, tell, inform) - We regret to inform you that your request has been
denied.
regret + -ing form = feel sorry about - I regret moving to this part of town.

 try + to-infinitive = do one's best, attempt - I tried to tell you the truth but you
wouldn't listen.
try + -ing form = do something as an experiment - Why don't you try calling again in
ten minutes?

 stop + to-infinitive = stop temporarily in order to do something else - After a couple

of hours, we stopped to watch the game on TV.
stop + -ing form = finish doing something - At three o'clock, I stopped studying and
went to bed
 2. Participle
Participle clauses enable us to say information in a more economical way. They are formed using
present participles (going, reading, seeing, walking, etc.), past participles (gone, read, seen,
walked, etc.) or perfect participles (having gone, having read, having seen, having walked, etc.).
We can use participle clauses when the participle and the verb in the main clause have the same
subject. For example,
Waiting for Ellie, I made some tea. (While I was waiting for Ellie, I made some tea.)
Participle clauses do not have a specific tense. The tense is indicated by the verb in the main
clause.

Present participle clauses

Here are some common ways we use present participle clauses. Note that present participles have
a similar meaning to active verbs.

 To give the result of an action

The bomb exploded, destroying the building.
 To give the reason for an action
Knowing she loved reading, Richard bought her a book.
 To talk about an action that happened at the same time as another action
Standing in the queue, I realised I didn't have any money.
 To add information about the subject of the main clause
Starting in the new year, the new policy bans cars in the city centre.

Past participle clauses

Here are some common ways that we use past participle clauses. Note that past participles
normally have a passive meaning.
 With a similar meaning to an if condition
Used in this way, participles can make your writing more concise. (If you use participles in
this way, … )
 To give the reason for an action
Worried by the news, she called the hospital.
 To add information about the subject of the main clause
Filled with pride, he walked towards the stage.
Perfect participle clauses
Perfect participle clauses show that the action they describe was finished before the action in the
main clause. Perfect participles can be structured to make an active or passive meaning.

Having got dressed, he slowly went downstairs.

Having finished their training, they will be fully qualified doctors.
Having been made redundant, she started looking for a new job.

3. bare infinitive.
The word to is frequently used with an infinitive, but it is not an essential
part or sign of it. When an infinitive is used without the marker to it is
called a bare infinitive.

Uses of the bare infinitive

1.The infinitive is used without to after certain verbs like bid, let, make,

see, hear, need, dare etc. She let the subject drop.

2. The bare infinitive is also used after the verbs will, would, shall,
should, may, might, can, could and must. You should go for walks
more often

3. The infinitive is also used without to after had better, would rather,

sooner than and rather than. He'd better not come.

4. help can be followed by either the to-infinitive or the infinitive without

to. They helped me search for him innumerable times

4. Future tenses: forms and usage.

Future Simple
We use the future simple (will + bare infinitive) for:
1.decisions made at the moment of speaking. Somebody knocked on the door. I’ll
see who it is
2.predictions about the future, based on what we think, beiieve or imagine, using the
verbs think, believe, expect, etc, the expressions be sure, be afraid, etc, and the
adverbs probably, certainly, perhaps, etc. Those clouds are so dark, I think it’s
going to rain soon.
3.promises, threats, warnings, requests, hopes and offers Will you open the door
please?
4.actions, events, situations which will definitely happen in the future and which we
can't control. Jill will be two years old next month
Be going to
We use be going to:
1. for plans, intentions or arnbitions for the tuture. I’m going to help dad in the
garden
2. actions we have already decided to do in the near future. I am going to see my
best friend tomorrow. I haven’t seen him in 20 years.
3.predictions based on what we can see or what we know especially when there is
evidence that something will happed It’s going to snow again soon.
Future Continuous
We use the future continuous (will be + verb -ing):
1.for actions which will be in progress at a stated future time This time next year,
he will be living in India.
2. for actions which will definitely happen in the future as the result of a routine or
arrangement. -He will be driving to Milan tonight
3.when we ask politely about someone's plans/intentions for the near future Will you
be watching the film tonight?
Future Perfect→ will have + past participle
We use the future perfect for actions that will have finished before a stated time in the
future. Jack will have finished his homework by the time his mother gets home
Future Perfect Continuous → will have been + verb + -ing
We use the future perfect continuous to emphasise the duration of an action up to a
certain time in the future. I will have been waiting here for three hours by six
o'clock.
5. Expressions and verbs with future meanings
EXPRESSIONS WITH FUTURE MEANING
 We use be to in formal English to talk about official arrangements in the
future. This construction is common in writing – news articles. The verb be is
often omitted in headlines.
 We often use be to in if clauses when we wish to say that the event in the if
clause is dependent on the event in the main clause happening first.
 We can also use be (not) to + infinitive for formal commands and instructions.
 It is quite common to use the passive for instructions with be to.
Be to + base form of the verb has a number of meanings. It is rather formal.
Obligations
Be to refers to what someone is obliged or required to do. We also use it to refer to
formal decisions:
[referring to an obligation]
 If I am not to tell anyone, then that’s simply not fair.

[making decisions at a business meeting]

So, George is to contact the Stockholm office, and Patricia is to speak to the Elsico
representative. Agreed?

Commands and instructions

We can also use be to when we give someone commands or instructions:
You are to report to the head office by 8.30 am.
She’s not to be late. OK?

 We can use be due to to talk about an event which forms part of a

timetable.We usually use a time phrase with be due to. When we use be due
to to talk about a future event, it is possible that the timetable may change, i.e.
the event is not totally fixed, as is the case with be to.
The visitors are due to arrive at the factory at 10:30.
 We use be about to to talk about an event that we intend or expect to happen
in the near future. The event may or may not be planned, but we often use
about to when evidence in the present indicates that it will happen. We can
stress that the future event is very imminent by adding just.
The driver is about to collect them. Shall I phone to stop him?
We’re just about to set off for a walk.

 The other expressions used for talking about the near future are on the point
of and on the verge of. These both mean that something is about to happen.
They can be followed by either an -ing form or a noun.
I was on the point of leaving my job but then I got promoted so I changed my mind.
She is on the point of bursting into tears.
Researchers are on the verge of a breakthrough.
The company was on the verge of going bankrupt.
The child was on the verge of tears. We were on the verge of divorce.

 Some adjectives contain the idea of the near future , e.g. imminent,
forthcoming, impending. We tend to use these adjectives in more formal
English. We use impending only in attributive position, i.e. before the noun.
Warning:
With time expressions, we don’t use be about to, we use the present simple:
Hurry up, please! The coach is about to leave!
Hurry up, please! The coach leaves in five minutes!
Not: The coach is about to leave in five minutes!
We do not usually use time adverbials (e.g. in an hour) with these expressions: be
about to / on the point of / on the verge of / adjectives.
  We use be likely to + infinitive to say that something in the future is probable.
Smokers are more likely to develop lung cancer compared to non-smokers.
It is likely that he will win the race.
 Be unlikely to + infinitive means that it is improbable that something will
happen.
This afternoon's session is unlikely to last very long.
I'm unlikely to be back late from the meeting. Are you likely to be staying in when you get back?

 We can use be sure (bound/certain) to + infinitive to say that something is

definitely going to happen. In the negative we put not after the adjective. This
can sound quite formal, so in casual speech we sometimes rephrase it.
 The Jamaican is bound/sure to win the final.
The final is bound/sure to be intense and dramatic.

 We can use be sure to and be certain to as imperatives; we don't use be

bound to in this way.
I told him to be sure to shut the door.

VERBS WITH FUTURE MEANING

Some verbs contain an implied future in their meaning, i.e. we understand that they
relate to the future even though we do not use a future form.
VERB + TO + INFINITIVE: decide/hope/intend/promise/swear
We decided to go to ZOO with our children.
VERB + NOUN/-ING FORM: anticipate/predict/envisage
He envisages the possibility of establishing direct diplomatic relations in the future.  
He had never envisaged spending the whole of his working life in that particular job.  
Personally, I envisage them staying together.  

VERB + (NOUN) + TO + INFINITIVE: arrange/expect/guarantee/plan/undertake

She expects to arrive in 30 minutes.
They guarantee to finish the work before 5
o’clock.
I plan to visit Chicago someday

Many modal verbs can refer to the future, usually expressing a degree of possibility
or probability: may not be / might win / should triumph.
I might go to the party, but I'm not sure yet.
He hasn't studied much, so he might not pass the exam.
People may work from home more in the future.
Robots definitely won't replace all human jobs.

6 . Future in the past: forms and usage.

When we talk about the past, we sometimes want to refer to something which was in
the future at the time we were speaking.

Like simple future, future in the past has two different forms in English: would and was
going to. Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often
express two different meanings.

FORM Would

[would + VERB]

Examples:

 I knew you would help him.

 I knew you would not help him.

FORM Was/Were Going To

[was/were + going to + VERB]

Examples:

 I knew you were going to go to the party.

 I knew you were not going to go to the party.

USE 1 Future in Past

Future in the past is used to express the idea that in the past you thought something would
happen in the future. It does not matter if you are correct or not. Future in the past follows
the same basic rules as the simple future. "Would" is used to volunteer or promise, and
"was going to" is used to plan. Moreover, both forms can be used to make predictions
about the future.

Examples:

 I told you he was going to come to the party. plan

 I knew Julie would make dinner. voluntary action
 Jane said Sam was going to bring his sister with him, but he came alone. plan
 I had a feeling that the vacation was going to be a disaster. prediction
 He promised he would send a postcard from Egypt. promise

REMEMBER No Future in Time Clauses

Like all future forms, future in the past cannot be used in clauses beginning with time
expressions such as: when, while, before, after, by the time, as soon as, if, unless, etc.
Instead of using future in the past, you must use simple past.

Examples:

 I already told Mark that when he would arrive, we would go out for dinner. Not
Correct
 I already told Mark that when he arrived, we would go out for dinner. Correct

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

 I knew John would finish the work by 5:00 PM. Active

 I knew the work would be finished by 5:00 PM. Passive

 I thought Sally was going to make a beautiful dinner. Active

 I thought a beautiful dinner was going to be made by Sally. Passive

7. Conditionals: Conditional 0 and 1. If and other expresssions

There are always two parts to a conditional sentence – one part beginning with ‘if’ to
describe a possible situation, and the second part which describes the consequence.

The Zero Conditional

We use the zero conditional to talk about permanent truths, such as scientific facts,
and general habits.

The structure is simple:

The First Conditional
We use the first conditional to talk about a realistic situation in the present or
future.

The structure of the first conditional

Conditionals: other expressions

Unless

Conditional clauses can begin with unless. Unless means something similar to ‘if
… not’ or ‘except if’.

we use the present simple in the unless-clause and shall, should, will, would, can,
could, may or might in the main clause

As long as, so long as, providing, etc. (Поки, доки, при умові що)
conditional clauses can begin with phrases such as as long as, so long as, only if, on
condition that, providing (that), provided (that).
As long as is more common in speaking; so long as and on condition that are more
formal and more common in writing

Or and otherwise
We often use or and otherwise with conditional

Supposing
Supposing may be used with a conditional meaning. It can be used in first, second or
third conditional sentences. The speaker invites the listener to imagine a situation

1. Conditionals Special Cases: inversion, shortened forms.

Inversion in conditional sentences
should you find
In first conditional sentences it’s possible to use should at the beginning of the
sentence instead of if. This form is formal and it’s quite common with an imperative
form in the main clause.
• Should you find the answer, please let me know as soon as possible. (=If you find
the answer)
• Should you change your mind, you know where to contact us. (=If you change your
mind)
had we arrived
In third conditional sentences, we can invert the auxiliary verb had and leave if out.
Had we arrived = If we had arrived.
• Had we arrived earlier, we could have prevented the incident.
• Had they looked further into the data, they might have realised there was a mistake.
were we to announce
We can also find cases of inversion with this structure: were + subject + to. +
infinitive. It is used to talk about future improbable events (like the second
conditional).
• Were we to announce the truth, we would receive a lot of criticism. (=If we
announced …)
• Were they to buy a new house, they would need to sell the old one first. (=If they
bought …)
"Shortened" Conditional Sentences
In addition to the "normal" forms of conditional sentences
("if" sentences showing a condition and a result), you will
sometimes see a "shortened" type of conditional construction
in formal writing. This kind of "abbreviated" conditional is
most commonly seen in past unreal situations:
If we had known about the meeting,
we would have attended. --->
Had we known about the meeting,
we would have attended.

If he had been here, he could have

helped us. --->
Had he been here, he could have
helped us.

If she hadn't applied early, she wouldn't

have been accepted. --->
Had she not applied early, she wouldn't
have been accepted.

If you hadn't left an hour early, you would

have been late for the meeting. --->
Had you not left an hour early, 
you would have been late for the meeting.

This same pattern is also seen in present / future unreal

conditional sentences that use should:

If I should see him, I'll give him

the message. --->
Should I see him, I'll give him
the message.

If you should need anything,
please call me. --->
Should you need anything,
please call me.

If he should call you,
I also want to speak to him. --->
Should he call you,
I also want to speak to him.

Special Note: Except with should, this pattern is not normally used with
present / future unreal conditionals.
 9. Conditionals 2 and 3: forms and usage.
 Conditionals type 2 (unreal present) are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to
facts in the present and are unlikely to happen in the present or future. We use either was or were
for all persons in the if-clause. Also we can use the structure If I were you to give advice.

If-clause: If + past simple/past continuous Main Clause: would/could/might + present bare infinitive

Example:
If I had a better agent, I would get better acting offers.
If I was travelling around Europe, I would travel by train.

 Conditionals type 3 (unreal past) are used to express imaginary situations which are contrary to
facts I the past. They are also used to express regrets or criticism.

If-clause: If + past perfect/perfect continuous Main Clause: would/could/might + perfect bare

infinitive

Example:
If he had told me about his problems, I would have helped him.
If I hadn’t been working yesterday, I would have gone shopping.

Note: We can form by using words or expressions such as providing /provided that, so/as long as,
suppose/supposing, on condition that, in case of/ in the event of, or (else).
 I’ll go to the supermarket for you providing/provided that I finish work early. (= If I finish work
early, …)
 So/As long as you finish your homework, you can come with me. (= If you finish your homework, …)
 Suppose/Supposing you were injured, what would you do? (= If you were injured, …)
 She agreed to sell her car, on condition that she got a lift to work every day. (= If she got a lift, …)
 In case of/In the event of a fire, call the fire brigade. (= If there is a fire, …)
 Don’t yell at me again, or (else) I’ll tell mum. (= If you yell at me again, …)
 10. Mixed Conditionals: usage
Mixed conditional usually refers to a mixture of the second and third conditionals
There are two types of mixed conditional sentence:
 Mixed Third+ Second Conditional
 Mixed Second+Third Conditional

Mixed Third+Second Conditional

The mixed conditional describes present result of a past condition.
 We use the mixed third/ second conditional to express that if something had
been different in the past there would be a present result.

In this type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the ‘if‘ clause is the past
perfect, and the tense in the main clause is the present conditional.
If + Past Perfect, Present Conditional (would/wouldn’t + Verb (bare form)).

Mixed Second+Third Conditional

The mixed conditional describes past result of a present or continuing condition.
 We use the mixed second/ third conditional to express that due to certain
present conditions something already happened in the past.

In this second type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the ‘if‘ clause is the
simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional.
If + Past Simple, Perfect Conditional (would/wouldn’t + have + Past Participle).

Note
In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause
instead of would to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation
about the outcome.

11. Unreal past and wishes

The past simple can be used to refer to the present when we talk about imaginary,
unreal or impossible situations which are contrary to facts in the present.
The past perfect can be used to refer to imaginary, unreal or impossible situations
which are contrary to facts in the past.
The past simple is used with:
- type 2 Conditionals
If he had money, he would move house.
- suppose/supposing
Suppose/Supposing he lied to you, what would you do?
- wish/if only
I wish/If only I had more space.
- would rather (present)
l'd rather you left now.
- as if/as though
Ronald acts as if/as though he owned the place.
- it's (about/high) time
It's (about/high) time you went to bed.
The past perfect is used with:
- type 3 Conditionals
If he hadn't been so rude, he wouldn't have been punished.
- suppose/supposing
Suppose/Supposing you had been in a position to help, would you have done so?
- wish/if only
I wish/If only I hadn't lied.
- would rather (past)
I'd rather you had not told the truth.
- as if/as though
He spoke about Strauss as though/as if he had been a personal friend.

12. Relative clauses give us information about the person or thing

mentioned.

•Defining relative clauses give us essentialinformation – information that tells us who or what we
are talking about.

Words we use with defining relative clauses:

•Who

•That

•Wich

Examples:

•The woman who lives next door works in a bank. 

•These are the flights that have been cancelled.

•Non-defining relative clauses give us extrainformation about someone or something. It isn't

essential for understanding who or what we are talking about.

Words we use with defining relative clauses:

•Who (We can use which with a preposition to talk about places and times)
•Which

•Whose

Examples:
•Yesterday I met my new boss, who was very nice.
•The house, which is very big, is also very cold!
•My next-door neighbour, whose children go to school with ours, has just bought a new car.

Other Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. Using pronouns keeps you from repeating
the same nouns over and over again. For example, in the sentence I love my dog because he is a
good boy,

Subject Pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they

I don't want to leave.

You are a talented artist.

They went to the store.

Object Pronouns me, you, her, him, it, us, them

Go talk to her.

Has anyone met him?

Come sit with us.

Possessive Determiners my, your, our, her, his, its, their

Is that my book?

Your dog is so cute.

Her job is exciting.

Independent Possessive Pronouns mine, yours, ours, hers, his, its, theirs

That prize is mine.

Ours is down the street.

The decision is theirs.

Singular Indefinite Pronouns anybody, anyone, anything, each, everybody, everyone,

everything, little, much, nobody, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something

Everybody loves it here.

Nothing is too hard.

One must consider the possibilities.

Plural Indefinite Pronouns both, few, many, several

Both sound good to me.

Few have mentioned it.

Many offered to help.

Singular and Plural Indefinite Pronouns all, any, more, most, none, some, such

All are welcome.

More can fit at the table.

Can you bring some?

Singular Reflexive Pronouns myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themself, theirself

You should buy yourself a smoothie.

Nadine taught herself Spanish.

The spider spun a web for itself.

Plural Reflexive Pronouns yourselves, ourselves, themselves

Enjoy yourselves at the party.

We gave ourselves plenty of extra time.

The kids made themselves a fort.

Singular Demonstrative Pronouns this, that, such, none, neither

This is my favorite song.

That doesn't matter.

Neither fits me.

Plural Demonstrative Pronouns these, those

These are delicious.

Those are too expensive.

Reciprocal Pronoun for Two Nouns each other

My parents love each other.

We gave each other gifts.

Reciprocal Pronoun for Three or More Nouns one another

Respect one another in this classroom.

The cats fought one another for the food.

13. Clauses of purpose

Clauses of purpose are used to explain why somebody does something. They are introduced with the
following words/expressions:

 to-infinitive - Colin went to the supermarket to buy some food.

 in order to/so as to + infinitive (formal) - The manager requested that everyone work overtime in
order to finish project on time.
 so that + can/will (present/future reference) – Take my number so that you can call me if you
need any help.
 so that + could/would (past reference) - He left at 3 o'clock so that he would be at the station in
plenty of time.
 in case + present tense (present or future reference)- Take an umbrella in case it rains.
 in case + past tense (past reference) - She had packed some warm clothes in case it was cold there.
Note: in case is never used with will or would.
 for + noun (expresses the purpose of an action) – The went to Mario's for a snack.
 for + -ing form (expresses the purpose of something its function) - Scissors are used for cutting
paper.
 with a view to + -ing form - The Browns rented the cottage with a view to spending their holidays
there.

We can express negative purpose using:

• in order not to/so as not to + infinitive - He made a list of the guests so as not to forget anyone.
• prevent + noun/pronoun (+from) + -ing form - Bad weather prevented the ship from departing.

Clauses of Result
Clauses of result are used to express result. They are introduced with the following words/phrases: as a
result, therefore, consequently/as a consequence, so, such . that, etc

• as a result/therefore/consequently/as a consequence - The mayor had a serious accident and, as a

result/therefore/ consequently/as a consequence the opening of the new local sports centre was
cancelled. The mayor had a serious accident. As a result/therefore/ consequently/as a consequence
the opening of the new local sports centre was cancelled.
• so – I was tired, so I went to bed early.
 • such a/an + adjective + singular countable noun - John is such a good boy that everybody loves him.
• such + adjective + plural/uncountable noun - They were such hospitable people that I will never
forget them. It was such heavy luggage that I couldn't lift it.
• such a lot of + plural/uncountable noun - He has got such a lot of books that he has to buy a new
bookcase. There was such a lot of information that I couldn't keep up with it.
• so + adjective/adverb - He felt so embarrassed that he left without saying goodbye. The little boy ran
so fast that nobody was able to catch him.
• so much/little + uncountable noun so many/few + plural noun - There was so much noise that I
couldn't hear him. I`ve got so little money that I can't buy him a present. There were so many
customers in the shop that they had to queue. He made so few mistakes that he will pass the exam.

14. Clauses of concession

A concessive clause is a clause which expresses an idea that suggests the opposite of the main part
of the sentence.

Adverb clauses of concession are introduced by subordinating conjunctions although, though, even
though, even if, despite, in spite of, while and whereas.

The main difference between them is that they are used with different structures.
 Although, though and even though
Although, though, and even though introduce concessive clauses.

After although and even though, we use a subject and a verb.

Although/Though/Even though he had enough money, he refused to buy a new car

 in spite of / despite
Despite and in spite of do not introduce a concessive clause. They are rather followed by a noun or
a verb+ing form.
They never made much money, in spite of their success.
In spite of the pain in his leg, he completed the marathon.
Despite having a headache, I had a great birthday.

(But) despite the fact that/ in spite of the fact that introduce a concessive clause.
In spite of the fact/ Despite the fact that we had no documents on us, the guard let us in.
 While / whereas / whilst:
While, whereas and whilst (formal) can mean although. The while/ whereas/ whilst clause can come
before or after the main clause.

While/Whereas/whilst my father is strong and tall, I am short and weak

 Much as:
Much as also means although and it is used with verbs for like and hate to talk about strong
feelings.
Much as I like James as a friend, I could never date him.
Much as it pains me to say this, we'll have to cancel the trip.

 Much+ as + subject + verb clause:

Much as he tried, he couldn't put up with the pain.
 Verb+ as + subject + auxiliary/ modal:
Try as he does/ will/ may/ might, he will never...
 Adjective/adverb + as/though + subject + verb clause:
Hard as he tried, he didn’t pass the exam.
Young though he is, he occupies a responsible position in the firm.

Even though/ Even if are not interchangeable. The meaning changes.

Even though describes a real situation. It means "despite the fact that" and is a more emphatic
version of though and although.

Even if describes an unreal situation. It means "whether or not" and has to do with the conditions
that may apply.

Comparing:
Even though I had two hours to spare for shopping, I couldn't find the suit I wanted.
Even if I had two hours to spare for shopping, I wouldn't go out and buy a suit.

15. Question tags

Grammar explanation
1) We often use question tags when we expect the listener to agree with our statement. In this case,
when the statement is positive, we use a negative question tag.

She's a doctor, isn't she?

2) If the statement is negative, we use a positive question tag.

He isn't here, is he?

Formation
Tag questions are made using an auxiliary verb (for example: be or have) and a subject pronoun (for
example: I, you, she). Negative question tags are usually : It's warm today, isn't it
Usually if the main clause is positive, the question tag is negative, and if the main clause is negative, it's
positive. For example: It's cold (positive), isn't it (negative)? And: It isn't cold (negative), is it (positive)?

If the main clause has an auxiliary verb in it, you use the same verb in the tag question. If there is no
auxiliary verb (in the present simple and past simple) use do / does / did (just like when you make a normal
question).

There is one weird exception: the question tag after I am is aren't I.

For example: I'm in charge of the food, aren't I?

Other cases

1. In the present tense, if the subject is 'I', the auxiliary changes to 'are' or 'aren't'.
I'm sitting next to you, aren't I?

2. With 'let's', the tag question is 'shall we'.

Let's go to the beach, shall we?

3. With an imperative, the tag question is 'will you'.

Close the window, will you?

4. We use a positive tag question after a sentence containing a negative word such as never, nobody.
Nobody lives in this house, do they?
You've never liked me, have you?

5. When the subject is nobody, somebody, everybody, no one, someone, or everyone, we use 'they' in the
tag question.
Nobody asked for me, did they?

6. If the main verb in the sentence is 'have' (not an auxiliary verb), it is more common to use 'do' in the
question tag.
You have a Ferrari, don't you?

7. With used to, we use 'didn't' in the tag question.

You used to work here, didn't you?