Universal indicator

A roll of universal indicator paper

Colours of universal indicator

A universal indicator is a pH indicator made of a solution of several

compounds that exhibits several smooth colour changes over a wide
range pH values to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. Although
there are several commercially available universal pH indicators, most
are a variation of a formula patented by Yamada in 1933.[1] Details of this
patent can be found in Chemical Abstracts.[2] Experiments with
Yamada's universal indicator are also described in the Journal of
Chemical Education.[3]
A universal indicator is usually composed of water, 1-
propanol, phenolphthalein, sodium hydroxide, methyl red, bromothymol
blue, sodium bisulfide, and thymol blue.[4] The colours that indicate the
pH of a solution, after adding a universal indicator, are
 pH range Description Colour

<3 Strong acid Red

3–6 Weak acid Orange or Yellow

7 Neutral Green

8–11 Weak alkali Blue

> 11 Strong alkali Indigo or Violet

The colours from yellow to red indicate an acidic solution, colours blue to
violet indicate an alkaline solution and a green colour indicates that a
solution is neutral.
 Universal indicator components

Low pH Transition pH High pH

Indicator
colour range colour

Thymol blue (first

Red 1.2 – 2.8 Yellow
transition)

Methyl orange Red 3.2 – 4.4 Yellow

Methyl red Red 4.8 – 6.0 Yellow

Bromothymol blue Yellow 6.0 – 7.6 Blue

Thymol blue (second

Yellow 8.0 – 9.6 Blue
transition)

Phenolphthalein Colourless 8.3 – 10.0 Fuchsia

Wide-range pH test papers with distinct colours for each pH from 1 to 14

are also available. Colour matching charts are supplied with the specific
test strips purchased.

Types

A universal indicator is collectively a mixture of indicators which show a

colour change in a solution, which interprets how acidic or basic a
solution is. A universal indicator can be in paper form or present in a
form of a solution.[5]

• Paper form: It is a strip of coloured paper which changes colour to red

if the solution is acidic and to blue, if the solution is basic. The strip
can be placed directly onto a surface of a wet substance or few drops
of the solution can be dropped onto the universal indicator using
 dropping equipment. If the test solution is of a dark colour, it is
preferable to use a paper universal indicator.
• Solution: The main components of a universal indicator, in the form of
a solution, are thymol blue, methyl red, bromothymol blue,
and phenolphthalein. This mixture is important because each
component loses or gains protons depending upon the acidity or
alkalinity of the solution being tested. It is beneficial to use this type of
universal indicator in a colourless solution. This will increase the
accuracy level of indication.
pH indicator

A pH indicator is a halochromic chemical compound added in small

amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can
be determined visually or spectroscopically by changes in absorption
and/or emission properties.[1] Hence, a pH indicator is
a chemical detector for hydronium ions (H3O+) or hydrogen ions (H+) in
the Arrhenius model. Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the
solution to change depending on the ph. Indicators can also show
change in other physical properties; for example, olfactory indicators
show change in their odor. The pH value of a neutral solution is 7.0 at
25°C (standard laboratory conditions). Solutions with a pH value below
7.0 are considered acidic and solutions with pH value above 7.0 are
basic. Since most naturally occurring organic compounds are
weak electrolytes, such as carboxylic acids and amines, pH indicators
find many applications in biology and analytical chemistry. Moreover, pH
indicators form one of the three main types of indicator compounds used
in chemical analysis. For the quantitative analysis of metal cations, the
use of complexometric indicators is preferred,[2][3] whereas the third
compound class, the redox indicators, are used in redox
titrations (titrations involving one or more redox reactions as the basis of
chemical analysis).
Theory
In and of themselves, pH indicators are usually weak acids or weak
bases. The general reaction scheme of acidic pH indicators in aqueous
solutions can be formulated as:
HInd(aq) + H
2O(l) ⇌ H
+ −
3O (aq) + Ind (aq)

where, "HInd" stands for the acidic form and "Ind−" for the conjugate
base of the indicator. Vice versa for basic pH indicators in aqueous
solutions:
IndOH(aq) + H
2O(l) ⇌ H
+ −
2O(l) + Ind (aq) + OH (aq)

where "IndOH" stands for the basic form and "Ind+" for
the conjugate acid of the indicator.
The ratio of concentration of conjugate acid/base to concentration
of the acidic/basic indicator determines the pH (or pOH) of the
solution and connects the color to the pH (or pOH) value. For pH
indicators that are weak electrolytes, the Henderson–Hasselbalch
equation can be written as:
pH = pKa + log10  [Ind−] / [HInd] 
or
pOH = pKb + log10  [Ind ] / [IndOH] 
+

The equations, derived from the acidity constant and

basicity constant, states that when pH equals the pKa or
pKb value of the indicator, both species are present in a 1:1
ratio. If pH is above the pKa or pKb value, the concentration
of the conjugate base is greater than the concentration of
the acid, and the color associated with the conjugate base
dominates. If pH is below the pKa or pKb value, the converse
is true.
Usually, the color change is not instantaneous at the pKa or
pKb value, but a pH range exists where a mixture of colors is
present. This pH range varies between indicators, but as a
rule of thumb, it falls between the pKa or pKb value plus or
minus one. This assumes that solutions retain their color as
long as at least 10% of the other species persists. For
example, if the concentration of the conjugate base is 10
times greater than the concentration of the acid, their ratio is
10:1, and consequently the pH is pKa + 1 or pKb + 1.
Conversely, if a 10-fold excess of the acid occurs with
respect to the base, the ratio is 1:10 and the pH is pKa − 1
or pKb − 1.
For optimal accuracy, the color difference between the two
species should be as clear as possible, and the narrower
the pH range of the color change the better. In some
indicators, such as phenolphthalein, one of the species is
colorless, whereas in other indicators, such as methyl red,
both species confer a color. While pH indicators work
efficiently at their designated pH range, they are usually
destroyed at the extreme ends of the pH scale due to
undesired side reactions.
Application

pH measurement with indicator paper

pH indicators are frequently employed in titrations in analytical chemistry
and biology to determine the extent of a chemical reaction.[1] Because of
the subjective choice (determination) of color, pH indicators are
susceptible to imprecise readings. For applications requiring precise
measurement of pH, a pH meter is frequently used. Sometimes, a blend
of different indicators is used to achieve several smooth color changes
over a wide range of pH values. These commercial indicators
(e.g., universal indicator and Hydrion papers) are used when only rough
knowledge of pH is necessary. For a titration, the difference between the
true endpoint and the indicated endpoint is called the indicator error.[1]
Tabulated below are several common laboratory pH indicators.
Indicators usually exhibit intermediate colors at pH values inside the
listed transition range. For example, phenol red exhibits an orange color
between pH 6.8 and pH 8.4. The transition range may shift slightly
depending on the concentration of the indicator in the solution and on
the temperature at which it is used. The figure on the right show’s
indicators with their operation range and color changes.
 Low High
Transition Transition
Indicator pH pH
low end high end
color color

Gentian violet (Methyl blue-

yellow 0.0 2.0
violet 10B)[4] violet

Malachite green (first

yellow 0.0 2.0 green
transition)

Malachite
green (second green 11.6 14.0 colorless
transition)

Thymol blue (first

red 1.2 2.8 yellow
transition)

Thymol blue (second

yellow 8.0 9.6 blue
transition)

Methyl yellow red 2.9 4.0 yellow

Methylene blue colorless 5.0 9.0 dark blue

Bromophenol blue yellow 3.0 4.6 blue

blue-
Congo red 3.0 5.0 red
violet

Methyl orange red 3.1 4.4 yellow

Screened methyl red 0.0 3.2 purple-

 Low High
Transition Transition
Indicator pH pH
low end high end
color color

orange (first transition) grey

Screened methyl
purple-
orange (second 3.2 4.2 green
grey
transition)

Bromocresol green yellow 3.8 5.4 blue

Methyl red red 4.4 6.2 yellow

Methyl purple purple 4.8 5.4 green

Azolitmin (litmus) red 4.5 8.3 blue

Bromocresol purple yellow 5.2 6.8 purple

Bromothymol blue yellow 6.0 7.6 blue

Phenol red yellow 6.4 8.0 red

Neutral red red 6.8 8.0 yellow

greenish-
Naphtholphthalein pale red 7.3 8.7
blue

reddish-
Cresol red yellow 7.2 8.8
purple
 Low High
Transition Transition
Indicator pH pH
low end high end
color color

Cresolphthalein colorless 8.2 9.8 purple

Phenolphthalein (first purple-

colorless 8.3 10.0
transition) pink

Phenolphthalein purple-
12.0 13.0 colorless
(second transition) pink

Thymolphthalein colorless 9.3 10.5 blue

Alizarine Yellow R yellow 10.2 12.0 red

Indigo carmine blue 11.4 13.0 yellow

Universal Indicator

pH range Description Colour

1-3 Strong acid Red

3–6 Weak acid Orange/Yellow

7 Neutral Green

8 – 11 Weak alkali Blue

11-14 Strong alkali Violet/Indigo

Precise pH measurement

Absorption spectra of bromocresol green at different stages of

protonation
An indicator may be used to obtain quite precise measurements of pH
by measuring absorbance quantitatively at two or more wavelengths.
The principle can be illustrated by taking the indicator to be a simple
acid, HA, which dissociates into H+ and A−.
HA ⇌ H+ + A−
The value of the acid dissociation constant, pKa, must be known.
The molar absorbances, εHA and εA− of the two species HA and A− at
wavelengths λx and λy must also have been determined by previous
experiment. Assuming Beer's law to be obeyed, the measured
absorbances Ax and Ay at the two wavelengths are simply the sum of the
absorbances due to each species.

These are two equations in the two concentrations [HA] and [A−]. Once
solved, the pH is obtained as

If measurements are made at more than two wavelengths, the

concentrations [HA] and [A−] can be calculated by linear least
squares. In fact, a whole spectrum may be used for this purpose. The
process is illustrated for the indicator bromocresol green. The
observed spectrum (green) is the sum of the spectra of HA (gold) and
of A− (blue), weighted for the concentration of the two species.
When a single indicator is used, this method is limited to
measurements in the pH range pKa ± 1, but this range can be
extended by using mixtures of two or more indicators. Because
indicators have intense absorption spectra, the indicator
concentration is relatively low, and the indicator itself is assumed to
have a negligible effect on pH.

Equivalence point[edit]
In acid-base titrations, an unfitting pH indicator may induce a color
change in the indicator-containing solution before or after the actual
equivalence point. As a result, different equivalence points for a solution
can be concluded based on the pH indicator used. This is because the
slightest color change of the indicator-containing solution suggests the
equivalence point has been reached. Therefore, the most suitable pH
indicator has an effective pH range, where the change in color is
apparent, that encompasses the pH of the equivalence point of the
solution being titrated.[5]

Naturally occurring pH indicators[edit]

Many plants or plant parts contain chemicals from the naturally
colored anthocyanin family of compounds. They are red in acidic
solutions and blue in basic. Anthocyanins can be extracted with water or
other solvents from a multitude of colored plants and plant parts,
including from leaves (red cabbage); flowers (geranium, poppy,
or rose petals); berries (blueberries, blackcurrant); and stems (rhubarb).
Extracting anthocyanins from household plants, especially red cabbage,
to form a crude pH indicator is a popular introductory chemistry
demonstration.
Litmus, used by alchemists in the Middle Ages and still readily available,
is a naturally occurring pH indicator made from a mixture
of lichen species, particularly Roccella tinctoria. The word litmus is
literally from 'colored moss' in Old Norse (see Litr). The color changes
between red in acid solutions and blue in alkalis. The term 'litmus test'
has become a widely used metaphor for any test that purports to
distinguish authoritatively between alternatives.
Hydrangea macrophylla flowers can change color depending on soil
acidity. In acid soils, chemical reactions occur in the soil that
make aluminium available to these plants, turning the flowers blue. In
alkaline soils, these reactions cannot occur and therefore aluminium is
not taken up by the plant. As a result, the flowers remain pink.
Another useful natural pH indicator is the spice Turmeric. It turns yellow
when exposed to acids and reddish brown when in presence of
an alkalis.

Indicator Low pH color High pH color

Hydrangea flowers blue pink to purple

Anthocyanins red blue

Litmus red blue

Turmeric yellow reddish brown

 SHREEYASH PRATISHTHAN’S
SHREEYASH POLYTECHNIC, AURANGABAD
2022-23
Chemistry Practical
ON

“Universal Indicator”
Submitted in partial Fulfilment for “I” Scheme 1st semester of

Diploma in
Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering
By: -

1) Yash Rajput 3) Ojas Kulkarni

2) Abdullah Siddiqui 4) Shashank Jawale

Under the guidance of

Prof. A. A. Bhombe
 Maharashtra State
Board of Technical Education, Mumbai

Certificate of Completion

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. ........................... has successfully completed

his/her Micro-Project entitled "UNIVERSAL INDICATOR” In the
course/Subject of CHEMISTRY PRACTICAL.

PRACTICE in the first semester during his/her tenure of completing the

Diploma in Electronics and Telecommunication from Shreeyash Polytechnic
institute with institute code 1092.

A. A. Bhombe Khandagle S.S V.N. Bhorde

(Guide) (Principal) (H.O.D)

 Acknowledgement
It gives us immense pleasure to present the Micro-Project named
“...............................................” as prescribed in the curriculum. It
is a matter of great pleasure to our deep sense of gratitude to Prof.
Khandagale S.S the Principal of Shreeyash Polytechnic, Aurangabad,
for his inspiration. We special thanks to Prof.V.N. Borde for his
encouragement.

We wish to express our profound thanks to Prof. A. A. Bhombe our

guide for her continuous support and guidance.

Yours Obediently

1) Yash Rajput

2) Abdullah Siddiqui

3) Ojas Kulkarni

4) Shashank Jawale