Name

Sabir Hussain

Father Name

Hussain

Registration ID

0000223927

Course

Classroom Management

Course Code

6403

Semester

2nd(Autumn 2022)

Level: B.ed

Assignment No. 1
Q.1 Briefly describe the components of classroom management?

For beginning teachers, or for teachers like myself returning to teaching,

the most difficult thing to master is classroom management. I had to
relearn what ten years of hard instruction had taught me: Good classroom
management is more than just being strict or authoritarian, and it is more
than simply being organized. If I want to have my classroom run smoothly
as a well-oiled learning machine, I have to set up a structured learning
environment in which certain behaviors are promoted and others are
discouraged. 

I have discovered that there are five components of effective classroom

management that establish structures strong enough to entice and motivate
student learning:

1. Developing effective working relationships with students

2. Training students on how learning takes place in your classroom

3. Protecting and leveraging time

4. Anticipating student behaviors in well-written lesson plans

5. Establishing standards of behavior that promote student learning

1. DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKING RELATIONSHIPS

WITH YOUR STUDENTS
The most important component of classroom management is relationships.
The relationships with my students start at the door when I shake the their
hand and greet them with a smile (regardless of what misbehaviors might
have happened the day before). Those relationships are strengthened, for
example, when I use a student’s name and actively praise him or her.
Those relationships are solidified when I spend individual time with each
student to get to know them and then use that knowledge to create
personal learning opportunities.

From the professional development program, Capturing Kids' Hearts, there

was one takeaway that benefited me the most: If I have a good relationship
with my students, I can push them harder and further to learn because they
trust me.

2. TRAIN YOUR STUDENTS ON HOW LEARNING TAKES

PLACE IN YOUR CLASSROOM
Your students need to know that you do not expect them to instantly
learn, that everyone has an individual process for learning, and that if they
follow your guidance, they will be successful in learning.

This is more than just talking about your homework policy, late work, and
absences. It is revealing to your students how you are going to create --
with them -- a highly effective, low-maintenance, learning team. For
example, I discuss with my students that the true power of a strategy such
as Cornell Notes is not dividing the paper in two parts. The benefit of that
strategy comes from writing the questions on the left side of the paper
while reviewing their notes, and then taking the time to summarize what
they learned. You have a learning philosophy that guides your teaching
style; teach it to your students. Clearly map out for your students what you
do to help them learn so that when you do it, they know what you are
doing and why, and they will be more willing to help.

3. PROTECT AND LEVERAGE YOUR TIME

An effective classroom manager must be prepared with materials and
know how to transition students from one activity to another without
wasting time. The number one thing we could do to increase our students'
academic performance is to increase the time spent on learning. Time is
chipped away by taking attendance, announcements, summons to the
office, restroom breaks, pep rally schedules, class meetings, special
presentations, awards ceremonies, celebrations, and a myriad of other
things. 

Some disruptions and time stealers we cannot avoid, but being successful
at managing the classroom also includes managing the time, protecting it,
and leveraging it to your best advantage. In Teach Like a
Champion, author Doug Lemov effectively demonstrates how to use
routines to minimize lost time in activities like handing out papers; he also
demonstrates routines to help students train their minds to adopt useful
habits and skills, like being able to quickly answer and ask questions.

4. ANTICIPATE YOUR STUDENTS' BEHAVIORS IN WELL-

WRITTEN LESSON PLANS
Channeling student behaviors, interests, and attention into productive
learning paths requires intuitive lesson planning. First, focus on how
students will be able to demonstrate that they understand and have
achieved the learning objective, emphasizes Grant Wiggins, coauthor with
Jason McTighe of Understanding by Design. Then build learning activities
that lead students to that point. 

According to Robert Marzano, an education researcher, the focus of our

lesson planning efforts should be getting students to ask and answer their
own questions. Coming up with those types of questions on the spur of the
moment can be difficult, but with a little advanced thought, you can
incorporate those types of questions into your lesson plans.  Ultimately, the
best discipline management plan is a good lesson plan.

5. ESTABLISH BEHAVIORAL STANDARDS

These standards should promote learning, as well as consequences that
diminish or eliminate behaviors that impede learning. They shouldn't be so
detailed as to list every behavior and the corresponding consequence for
failure to comply, but they should hit the main points regarding showing
respect, communicating correctly, and coming prepared to learn. The
standards should also interact smoothly with the other four components,
especially teaching your students how learning takes place in your
classroom.

Q.2 Explain the meaning of attention deficit ayperactive disorder. Also

suggest teaching strategies for teaching the ADHD students.

ADHD is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders of childhood. It

is usually first diagnosed in childhood and often lasts into adulthood. Children with
ADHD may have trouble paying attention, controlling impulsive behaviors (may
act without thinking about what the result will be), or be overly active.
Signs and Symptoms
It is normal for children to have trouble focusing and behaving at one time or
another. However, children with ADHD do not just grow out of these behaviors.
The symptoms continue, can be severe, and can cause difficulty at school, at home,
or with friends.

A child with ADHD might:

 daydream a lot
 forget or lose things a lot
 squirm or fidget
 talk too much
 make careless mistakes or take unnecessary risks
 have a hard time resisting temptation
 have trouble taking turns
 have difficulty getting along with others

Get information and support from the National Resource Center on ADHD

Types
There are three different ways ADHD presents itself, depending on which types of
symptoms are strongest in the individual:

 Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: It is hard for the individual to

organize or finish a task, to pay attention to details, or to follow instructions
or conversations. The person is easily distracted or forgets details of daily
routines.
  Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Presentation: The person fidgets
and talks a lot. It is hard to sit still for long (e.g., for a meal or while doing
homework). Smaller children may run, jump or climb constantly. The
individual feels restless and has trouble with impulsivity. Someone who is
impulsive may interrupt others a lot, grab things from people, or speak at
inappropriate times. It is hard for the person to wait their turn or listen to
directions. A person with impulsiveness may have more accidents and
injuries than others.

 Combined Presentation: Symptoms of the above two types are equally

present in the person.
Because symptoms can change over time, the presentation may change over time
as well.

“Is It ADHD?” in ASL

 Learn about symptoms of ADHD, how ADHD is diagnosed, and treatment

recommendations including behavior therapy, medication, and school support.

Causes of ADHD
Scientists are studying cause(s) and risk factors in an effort to find better ways to
manage and reduce the chances of a person having ADHD. The cause(s) and risk
factors for ADHD are unknown, but current research shows that genetics plays an
important role. Recent studies link genetic factors with ADHD.

In addition to genetics, scientists are studying other possible causes and risk factors
including:

 Brain injury
  Exposure to environmental risks (e.g., lead) during pregnancy or at a young
age
 Alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy
 Premature delivery
 Low birth weight
Research does not support the popularly held views that ADHD is caused by eating
too much sugar, watching too much television, parenting, or social and
environmental factors such as poverty or family chaos. Of course, many things,
including these, might make symptoms worse, especially in certain people. But the
evidence is not strong enough to conclude that they are the main causes of ADHD.

Diagnosis
Deciding if a child has ADHD is a process with several steps. There is no single
test to diagnose ADHD, and many other problems, like anxiety, depression, sleep
problems, and certain types of learning disabilities, can have similar symptoms.
One step of the process involves having a medical exam,
including hearing and vision tests, to rule out other problems with symptoms like
ADHD. Diagnosing ADHD usually includes a checklist for rating ADHD
symptoms and taking a history of the child from parents, teachers, and sometimes,
the child.

Treatments

In most cases, ADHD is best treated with a combination of behavior therapy and
medication. For preschool-aged children (4-5 years of age) with ADHD, behavior
therapy, particularly training for parents, is recommended as the first line of
treatment before medication is tried. What works best can depend on the child and
family. Good treatment plans will include close monitoring, follow-ups, and
making changes, if needed, along the way.

Managing Symptoms: Staying Healthy

Being healthy is important for all children and can be especially important for
children with ADHD. In addition to behavioral therapy and medication, having a
healthy lifestyle can make it easier for your child to deal with ADHD symptoms.
Here are some healthy behaviors that may help:

 Developing healthy eating habits such as eating plenty of fruits, vegetables,

and whole grains and choosing lean protein sources
 Participating in daily physical activity based on age
 Limiting the amount of daily screen time from TVs, computers, phones, and
other electronics
 Getting the recommended amount of sleep each night based on age

If you or your doctor has concerns about ADHD, you can take your child to a
specialist such as a child psychologist, child psychiatrist, or developmental
pediatrician, or you can contact your local early intervention agency (for children
under 3) or public school (for children 3 and older).

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) funds the National
Resource Center on ADHD, a program of CHADD – Children and Adults with
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Their website has links to information
for people with ADHD and their families. The National Resource Center operates a
call center (1-866-200-8098) with trained staff to answer questions about ADHD.
ADHD in Adults
ADHD can last into adulthood. Some adults have ADHD but have never been
diagnosed. The symptoms can cause difficulty at work, at home, or with
relationships. Symptoms may look different at older ages, for example,
hyperactivity may appear as extreme restlessness. Symptoms can become more
severe when the demands of adulthood increase.
Q.3 Discuss the benefits of effective learning environment with examples.

Have you tried different things to make your students study better but have had
little success? The reason is not always you, the subject, or the teaching process;
sometimes, it is something as unexpected as the space kids are learning in.
Teachers must consider changing their habits and approaches since kids need a
positive learning environment.

A positive learning environment is more than elements in a classroom; it refers to a

place where children are encouraged to learn from the teachers and each other. To
study adequately, a child must be able to share ideas with peers in the class without
the fear of intimidation.

Kids must know that they can question every answer they get from solving a
problem and learn by seeing things from the perspective of other students. In a
positive learning environment, the teaching process is participatory in that teachers
carry the students along instead of making them listen, accept, and regurgitate what
they have learned.
The difference between a positive classroom environment and a negative
learning environment

One of the characteristics of a positive learning environment is that it completely

changes the way students apply the ideas they have learned. If your children
reiterate everything they have learned from you instead of assimilating the ideas in
ways they understand better, the learning environment isn’t the best.

Negative learning environment stifles creativity and promotes strict conformity,

while a positive atmosphere inspires trust, making children feel supported and
showing them that failure is not necessarily bad. Children are afraid to discuss
ideas, solutions, and creative approaches in a hostile learning environment.

Positive classroom environment important

You may be wondering why you have to care about creating a positive learning
environment for a child rather than just teaching them. The answer is you are
responsible for mental, academic, and emotional development of the children you
teach. The metrics of measuring your success as a teacher start from your students’
test scores and end at the level of their emotional wellbeing.

To provide the best learning experience for your students, you must create a
suitable environment. Here are a few reasons why a positive classroom
environment is essential:

A positive learning environment helps a child learn

A child learns to question everything around them in the proper environment, thus
developing critical thinking. In this atmosphere, they learn to build conversations
around concepts they have learned in class. The confidence kids build makes it
easier to understand formulas and ideas.

A positive learning environment helps you grow as a teacher

You grow as a teacher when the children under your guidance are progressing.
Your reputation soars as your students get through difficulties and make better
grades. Sometimes, there is no reason to rebuild your portfolio after each job if
your success speaks for you.

Creating a positive learning environment requires more than improving everyday

interactions with students. You may need to overhaul existing processes to
transform the learning environment.

But before making changes, you must realize that each child is unique, so you may
need to apply individual approaches to improve their experience. Here are 13
strategies detailing how to create a positive learning environment.

Address the needs of your students

Your job as a teacher does not end with just teaching the subject you were paid to
teach. Each student in your class has emotional, and mental needs that should be
addressed by someone. Removing yourself from this equation will leave your
students believing that you do not care about their wellbeing.
Students come to class and expect you to address their needs and would only be
happy if you pay enough attention to them. It takes a village to raise a child. So,
don’t think that the onus of helping your students grow rests only with parents.

Treat each child personally, find out their needs, and endeavor to meet these needs
to the best of your ability. Reach out to someone who can address those needs you
cannot handle. The bottom line is that your students should never think that you
don’t care about them.

Create a sense of order

While children love the freedom to be themselves without restraint, they still need
to work under your guidance. Kids may not love you for it initially, but as time
goes on, they will learn to appreciate the order you create. An easy way to develop
a sense of order is to list expectations from your students by creating a workable
routine.

For example, once you come into the class, after niceties, your first task should be
to find out about assignments they may have missed. Demand an explanation for
each homework that a student misses and put structures in place to ensure that the
situation does not reoccur. Your interest in their academic success will make
students ask about the lesson they may have missed.

Creating a routine that works teaches children to follow the same behavior. When
they come to class, they know what to expect based on the pattern you’ve created.
You can also engage students in a learning activity every morning so that it
becomes second nature to them.
Invent a unique greeting method

You may not know this, but greeting your kids every morning creates a positive
learning environment. Greeting goes beyond coming into the class and saying
‘good morning, kids.’ Instead, walk into class, call each child by their name and
greet them by either fist-bumping, high-fiving, or hugging them.

While welcoming them, you can chat with students who seemed out of sorts the
previous day. Alternatively, you can stand at the door and repeat welcoming,
encouraging words as kids walk into class. Starting the day with positive moments
would make kids want to come to class every day.

You do not necessarily have to become a favorite teacher from the first day
because that takes time. However, you can be a teacher who makes their kids come
to school looking forward to classes every day. If you were mad at a child for
being a pain the previous day, greeting that child the next day reminds them that
every day is a new day.

Show kids a bit of yourself

Sometimes, students know teachers as just teachers, which should be fixed. We do

not suggest you do a tell-all series about yourself to your students, but let them see
you as more than a teacher. Have a day when you tell them your favorite color,
food, or movie.

If you are teaching Pre-K children, you can show them pictures of you when you
were young. Children need to understand that you are human like them, just a lot
bigger. If you plan to counsel kids, you will need to share your own relatable
stories from the times when you were their age or in their current shoes.
Let students know you like waffles, gummy bears, and ice cream. Making kids feel
understood is essential to their emotional and mental well-being. At the same time,
your students must know your values and principles. Teaching kids your personal
values will encourage them to create theirs.

Be generous with praises

When a child succeeds at a task, academically or behaviorally, it is essential to let

them know how you feel about that win. Sometimes, what a child may have
achieved could be as simple as getting through a class without disrupting or
yelling. As a teacher, you know how relieving it was for you to have not turned
into a crisis control expert for that child, so let a kid know that as well.

Rewarding good behavior enforces that action. The effects of praising people are
evident in children. Instead of only expressing displeasure when your students do
something wrong, praise their good deeds.

You should use creative approaches to express your pleasure instead of limiting
your system to positive words. When a child hits an educational goal, roll out the
sirens and praise them. Let them know they did well by rewarding them.

Teach children to see failure as a learning tool

Children will encounter failures and losses as they grow, but they mustn’t see them
as a terrible thing. Sometimes, teachers drive children towards sadness when they
fail because of their reaction to the failure. It is not right to make a child feel like a
failure because they flunked a task.
Instead of letting kids wallow in self-doubt, teach your students the place of failure
in every success story. Let them see every test as a chance to learn something new
irrespective of grades. You can also discourage classroom bullying and segregation
that may develop between the students who typically get higher scores and those
who don’t.

Children need to be confident in their losses as they are in their successes, and it is
your duty as the teacher to make sure of this. When students do not get things
right, have them walk you through their thought processes and see all the points
where they may have faltered. Correct the wrongs that led them to that failure,
ensuring they learn from the mistake.

Encourage learning through games and hands-on activities

Many adults cannot stand math today because they struggled with some teaching
methods being kids. These days, more children like math because of the
availability of games and math activities that interest and keep kids glued to math
concepts. Games and exercises are perfect for bonding and making sure your kids
learn the things you teach them.

You can also use technology to boost your students’ love for learning. These days,
you can get tablets designed for kids. They contain video lessons, puzzles, and
apps that make learning more enjoyable; so, introduce suitable digital tools to your
kids.

The students in your class should know more than basic things about each other. If
your classroom is that space where students come to learn only and then go home,
kids won’t have wholesome relationships with each other. With games in the mix,
children can bond better and grow friendships that will last long and make them
look forward to coming to class.

Limit the prevalence of cliques

You cannot do much to stop your students from forming cliques in the classroom
because some kids will bond better, but you need to limit the prevalence of such
groups. Children can be mean to kids they do not like, especially when they have
support from peers. Find ways to make every child in the class form a relationship
with others so that nobody ends up isolated.

Your job is to ensure that none of your students dread coming to school because
they do not belong to any cliques. An excellent strategy is to create exercises that
encourage students to work together to succeed. Always use random selection
methods when pairing students for those activities.

A classroom where children feel left out is a hostile learning environment. So, pay
attention to their cafeteria moves, the way they spend time during lunch break, and
how they huddle together during free periods. Watching them lets you know who
belongs to the clique and who is left out.

Don’t openly criticize your students

Teachers should already know that they are not allowed to criticize their students
openly, but we are humans, and sometimes, our biases find a way to come through.
Consider this a reminder never to judge your children before knowing all the facts.
What you feel about one’s actions is immaterial if you cannot explain those
feelings without judgment. You are meant to admonish students, correct their
wrongs, and even scold them when there is a need for that, but be mindful about
the way you present your thoughts.

If you have preconceived biases, nip them in the bud and remember that you are
dealing with kids. A place where a child feels judged is not a positive learning
environment. So, endeavor to address the wrongs of children without ridiculing
them.

Encourage interactions

Instead of merely teaching a lesson, encourage peer-to-peer interactions in the

class. Whether you are in the class or not, your students should be able to interact
with their classmates about the things they have learned in class or outside class.
Peer interactions help them see things from the perspective of people other than
themselves.

You can foster collaboration between students by setting up group assignments and
projects. Encourage students to share their methods in front of the class while peers
ask them questions.

If you build a culture of understanding, interaction between children will make

things easier for you. To push these interactions to the point where kids hold them
in your absence, you have to host students in round-table-style discussions.

Q.4 How can a teacher organize his routines? Give suggestions

For many years, my organizational system was essentially nonexistent. It consisted
of piles of papers covering my desk and colorful Post-it Notes stuck to every
available surface.

I often felt overwhelmed and stressed out—like I was never able to catch up.
Learning how to organize my classroom helped me regain precious time, valuable
energy, and a sense of control. If your classroom needs an overhaul, these tips can
help you learn how to organize your classroom and simplify your life.

1. Utilize Checklists

Checklists were my first step toward organizing my classroom. Checklists reduce

anxiety, create structure, and offer a sense of accomplishment—all of which I
desperately needed.

Effective checklists should contain no more than seven items and be prioritized to

help you choose what you ought to be doing. Scheduling time to address items on
your checklist is critical to ensuring things get done. Additionally, adding easy-to-
complete items to your checklist allows you to cross off items, which is both
rewarding and motivating.

While I still handwrite my daily to-do lists, there are many apps available that can
help teachers create personal to-do lists.

2. Use Technology

Kate Humpherys understands the importance of getting organized. In 15 years of

teaching secondary science, she's learned that effective organization can make all
the difference in a teacher's life. Humpherys said technology has been key to
helping her get organized and simplify her lesson planning and grading. Here are
some of her favorite tools:

 Edpuzzle is a tool that allows you to make lessons and assignments out of
online videos. Humpherys uses it almost daily to assign homework. The
website also provides opportunities for assessment and feedback, and can
grade student homework and assignments, which Humpherys calls a
"massive time saver."
 For tracking student information and planning, Humpherys calls Idoceo "a
great all-around tool." This app allows teachers to keep their schedules,
gradebooks, planners, and seating charts all in one place. Teachers can also
email personalized reports or resources to students or parents.
 Humpherys uses Google Keep or OneNote to quickly jot down notes and
reminders. She finds this to be a much more efficient way to organize her
thoughts.

3. Group Similar Tasks

Teachers who teach multiple classes often prioritize by completing all tasks for a
certain class before moving on to tackle the next one. While this may feel like a
faster way to cross items off your to-do list, Humpherys has found that this isn't the
most efficient approach. She has improved her efficiency by grouping tasks by
type rather than subject.

"When completing tasks, batch similar tasks together and your productivity will
sky rocket, rather than jumping from one task to another," Humpherys said. "If you
are grading assessments, work for a set amount of time, turn off notifications on
your phone, and power through as many as you can in the set time."
4. Declutter Your Email

A massive email inbox can make any teacher feel disorganized and out of control.
While managing the constant inflow of emails can feel impossible, creating and
utilizing an organized system will help you feel more productive and efficient.

Humpherys recommends setting certain times during the day to check emails. She
suggests dealing with each email as you read it, and adding it to a folder or action
list right away. Delete emails or add them to a saved folder if you may need to
refer to them in the future. Letting your inbox become unruly is a sure way to feel
overwhelmed and disorganized.

5. Get Creative About Repurposing

Organizing doesn't have to be expensive. Kathryn, creator of the Do It on a Dime

YouTube channel, is a Spanish teacher who posts helpful and cost-effective
suggestions for fellow educators. Her video Cheap Classroom Organization
Ideas offers some handy tips for transforming common household items—
including wine racks, baby wipe containers, and CD holders—into inexpensive and
useful organizational tools.

Teaching can be a time-consuming and stressful job. Being disorganized is a sure-

fire way to feel overwhelmed, anxious, and unproductive—I learned that the hard
way. Learning how to organize your classroom is the key to reducing stress so you
can thrive as a teacher.

Q.5 Elaborate the problems face by the less experienced teachers while
putting theory into practice.
Many schools and preschools have a shortfall of qualified teachers, and this will
continue for the foreseeable future. Therefore, it is important to retain the students
in teacher education programs. In Sweden, the Swedish Higher Education
Authority (2016) has urged the universities, in light of the statistical analysis of
students’ early termination, to enact measures to support retention. For these
efforts to be successful, it is crucial that teacher educators work toward including
and engaging learning processes interpreted 295 students’ perceptions of their
teacher education. Their findings showed an association between teacher
education, a positive development in skills and performance, and interaction which
is important to reduce and manage.

In Sweden, teacher education has been scrutinized since the latest efforts to
strengthen the teaching profession through reforms in 2001 and in 2011. These
reforms aimed to improve the status of the profession through a stronger emphasis
on the teacher student’s subject skills and age group specialization. In relation to
this approach to teacher education, the study referred to in this article will show
how new teacher students experience and react to their first experiences of their
programs in terms of what challenges they need to master. A deeper understanding
of such perceived challenges might bring forward ways to improve retention as
well as facilitate students’ enculturation into academic studies and their future
profession.

The aim of this study is to identify and describe qualitative variations in how
students experience the beginning of their teacher education. The research question
is “What challenges do students meet during their first semester in teacher
education?” By applying the concept of enculturation to their narratives, we search
for an understanding of their reasoning.
Swedish Teacher Education Programs
Teacher education programs consist of three parts: (a) educational science, (b)
school placement, and (c) subject studies and subject didactics. This content is
varied throughout the education and based on progression. Graduation from
secondary school and extracts from criminal records are the requirements for
eligibility. Competition is low, so almost all applicants are admitted to the
education.

A report from the Swedish Higher Education Authority UKÄ shows student
completion rates for different professional higher education (HE) degrees. Teacher
students tend to stay in their studies to a lower degree than others in professional
degree programs, such as nursing and other medical educations, legal education, or
social worker training. It is difficult to draw conclusions from this without studying
the individual level, as a student can change from one teacher program to another,
or leave HE altogether. Even so, HE settings are supposed to analyze the causes of
students’ dropping out and work for a higher throughput.

Earlier Research on Teacher Education Challenges and Possibilities

The importance of quality in teacher education is often discussed in Sweden—not
only in the light of recent reforms, but because the concept of quality in education
is as multifaceted as the idea of what constitutes good teaching. Below, we draw
on some issues from international research that are of importance to our analysis of
the students’ narratives in our study. We use three themes from earlier research:

(i) The effects and results of different ways of structuring teacher education in
relation to both academic and vocational training.

(ii) The students’ previous resources and their preconceptions of education, as well
as the teacher educators’ preconceptions of the students.
(iii) How epistemological beliefs color students’ expectations.

(i) Teacher education matters in several ways other than subject

knowledge. Darling-Hammond (2000) states that teachers with short preparation
programs, as in Teach for America, are aware of their lack of knowledge about
teaching practices. Even if good subject knowledge is important, in the long run,
pedagogical skills make a huge difference. An important skill is the ability to take
another person’s perspective, which can be developed through “study, reflection,
guided experience, and inquiry”. The enlargement of perspectives is thus crucial
for succeeding in teaching. Darling-Hammond (2006) mentions three major factors
that are required for an effective teacher education program: (a) coherence and
integration among courses and “clinical training”; (b) training where theory and
practice are linked has to be extensive and closely supervised; and (c) close contact
with teaching practices to learn to serve a diverse range of learners and develop
“good teaching”.

A strong link between HE and schools is therefore essential. Darling-Hammond

has called the lack of connection between courses on campus and field experiences
“the Achilles’ heel” of teacher education. High coherence and integration between
courses mean that, ideally, they are “aggregated into a well-understood landscape
of learning”, which includes consensus about the mission of the school and the role
of the teacher. In contrast, unrelated courses do not generate a deeper
understanding of the teaching profession or subject matter.

Zeichner (2010) also scrutinizes the relationship between the campus courses and
field experiences based on aspects of teacher education. To close the gap between
them, he uses the concept of a “third space” as a way to find new methods of
“boundary crossing” between the different arenas. He also suggests that this new
space can be shaped by three elaborative co-operations: school teachers are more
clearly used in the courses and in the field experiences; other representations of the
teaching practice are used in the course; and other parts of the community are
involved in the teacher education program, in what can be understood as a
broadening of perspective for a more pluralistic worldview. Zeichner, Payne, and
Brayko (2015) later revise the idea of a third space as being too romantic, finding
that the power relations between different settings do not change. Nonetheless,
trying to cross boundaries can start processes of shaping a more democratic and
inclusive teacher education.

(ii) It is well known that learning is facilitated if the students are met where they
are, which is also the case in HE. In a Swedish study conducted by Beach and
Puaca (2014), the different motives behind students’ educational choices are
discussed. It is suggested that students’ different backgrounds, ages, gender, and
socioeconomic situation influence what they consider to be feasible choices.
Drawing on concepts from Pierre Bourdieu, the article concludes that the students’
cultural capital “creates expectations and aspirations regarding social and
educational trajectories”. It is important, they state, to get to know the “educational
goals” (p. 76) of the category of “new students” lacking a family tradition of HE
(in terms of habitus). Students who are fostered by families with less access to
social or cultural capital still tend to primarily attend vocational education
programs. Carlhed notes, by referring to different studies, that students with less
inherited educational capital—for example, those with parents with no HE—tend
to drop out more frequently than others.

The report written for the Swedish Higher Education Authority shows that the risk
of leaving a program of study increases for students with low high school grades.
Social background, which is difficult to measure, does not generally affect dropout
rates. There is no indication that students from nonacademic families experience
disadvantage at college that causes them to dropout to a greater extent.

Regardless of the teacher students’ social or cultural capital, their initial motivation
is of importance for how they handle their studies. A study of German students
(not in teacher education) indicates decreased enjoyment of studies over time. Too
many challenges or, as Busse calls it, “a not optimal level of challenge” leads to a
decrease in motivation. The question posed in this article’s discussion section
addresses how universities can respond to students’ difficulties in studying at this
new level; some changes in classroom assignments and a formative feedback
approach are suggested, but the author also suggests a change in attitude on the
part of the university to encourage a deeper approach to learning. This leads us to
the third theme: epistemological beliefs.

(iii) Brownlee, Walker, Lennox, Exley, and Pearce (2009) look at HE students’

(not only teacher education students) personal epistemological beliefs and how
these change throughout the first year of study. In their interviews, the students
describe their own personal learning either as a qualitative change or
by quantitative conceptions used by the authors. Students’ expressions of learning
as qualitative change relate to analyzing and synthesizing, as well as to an
inventive use of knowledge. Students’ expressions of learning as
a quantitative change, however, relate to reproducing or applying acquired
information. Within the first category, the students make it possible, in a meaning-
making process, to understand the issues at hand, to “make links between new
information and one’s pre-existing information—they can see “something in a
different way”. Within the second category, students see learning as “taking in
information” individually from the teacher and being able to reproduce it, and
consequently the subject becomes “fragmented and often meaningless”. This
approach is seen as the intention of “increasing one’s knowledge, memorizing and
reproducing and applying”. The metaphor of learning as
either acquisition or participation is also used for investigating how teacher
students reason about educational assignments. Epistemological beliefs have an
impact on what the students will expect, and how they will subsequently handle
their studies.

To summarize, the aspects of coherence and integration mentioned by Darling-

Hammond (2006) clearly concern the challenges discussed by the students in our
study—as do the teacher students’ and teacher educators’ expectations of the
educational goal and resulting possibilities. What is unique about teacher training
is that the epistemological beliefs matter—not only for one’s own performance, but
also for the understanding of the future professional assignment.

Enculturation as an Analytical Tool

Different educational settings build on different concepts or metaphors of learning.
According to Wegner and Nückles , knowledge can be seen either as an entity the
individual constructs, or as something people do together “as a process of
enculturation into a community,” and they state that both metaphors are present in
HE. By using the concept of enculturation, they clarify relationships between
different actors and show that teachers, as well as learners, are participants.

To get a broader understanding of students’ challenges in the context of Swedish

teacher education, we use the theoretical framework from Lave and Wenger
(1991) regarding community of practice and legitimate peripheral participation.
During their teacher education, students receive vocational training and acquire
subject knowledge both at university and during the school placement. Different
pedagogical practices create opportunities to develop knowledge, norms, and
values embedded in the context. From this perspective, learning can be seen as a
social phenomenon where students learn and develop directly or indirectly through
interaction with other students, preschool teachers, teachers, senior lecturers, and
artifacts. Each practice contains sociocultural resources or “tools,” which are both
intellectual and physical. The students gain appropriate knowledge by learning to
use these tools for certain purposes in certain situations. Learning from this
perspective is seen as increasing participation in the community, which leads to
enculturation. Communities of practice are created in groups where people with
similar interests and practices interact.

Learning thus takes place in social practices where the social and individual
aspects are interdependent. The students and the context relate to each other in a
dialectical process. The activities, tasks, functions, and understandings do not exist
in isolation, but are part of broader systems of relations in which meaning is
created . The students learn to act and pay attention to different things through the
activities the environment allows and encourages. Learning implies, according
toLave and Wenger (1991), being involved in new activities, performing new tasks
and functions, and mastering new understandings. Students develop skills and
attitudes depending on the type of knowledge formation processes in which they
participate.

Learning is a social practice, which changes as new members enculturate. Wegner

and Nückles (2013) question the idea of teachers as facilitators, and learners as
recipients or knowledge constructors. Instead, they see the teachers as full
participants and the learners as legitimate peripheral participants. The learning
process thus leads the learner toward fuller participation. Wegner and Nückles
(2013) explain the choice of the concept of legitimate participant, given that all
learners “inevitably participate in communities of practitioners” (p. 3); important is
that if academics promote the idea of participation, while the students focus on the
idea of knowledge as something to acquire, it “might explain why students often
demand that the lecturers should lecture themselves rather than let the students
give presentations”.

To go through an enculturation process means that the students learn to act as

productive members of their department, wherein different organizational
influences, embodied by procedures and practices, may either facilitate or hinder
the enculturation process. Boyle and Boice (1998) examine what they define as
“exemplary departments’ organizational cultures and program structures,” finding
that such successful departments distinguish themselves in three ways: (a) they
foster collegiality among the first-year students; (b) they support both mentoring
and collegial, professional relationships between the first-year students and the
faculty; and (c) they provide the first-year students with a clear sense of the
program’s structure and faculty expectations. To reach this kind of good
practice, Boyle and Boice (1998) argue for clarity of department culture, toward
which students can orient themselves. Teaching in small groups fosters group
interaction and collegiality and supports the students’ interaction. Students can
informally socialize and interact over, for example, homework problems and
course requirements. Also, mentoring is seen as important to academic success, for
example, when new students meet advanced graduate students with whom they can
discuss course-related questions. Hence, the program structure becomes
transparent. An open and friendly environment within the department comes into
being, with clear short-term goals, structured assignments, and timely feedback, all
of which help students to complete degree requirements sooner and with higher
quality than would otherwise be the case.