Essay Question, Module 1: With reference to EITHER the Aztec, Inca, or Maya society,

examine the advanced economic and agricultural practices of one advanced indigenous group

in the pre-Columbian era.

THE MAYA

The Maya civilization was one of the most advanced indigenous groups in the pre-Columbian

era. The Maya society had a “culture of agriculture,” and developed advanced agricultural

and economic practices that allowed them to sustain their population and build a complex

society. In this essay, we will examine the advanced economic and agricultural practices of

the Maya society.

Agriculture was the foundation of the Maya civilization. The Maya were arguably one of the

most successful agricultural groups in the pre-Columbian era. They produced food in

abundance and grew fields of maize, manioc, chilli pepper, cotton, beans, squash, cocoa and

many others. As a result of this abundant production, the Mayans were able to produce food

for almost 10 million people living in the lowlands alone. However, the Mayans were faced

with numerous problems such as seasonal flooding, plots waterlogged, marshy and swampy

and droughts which left the soil arid and destroyed crops.

The Maya civilization's advanced agricultural practices included a technique called drained

and raised fields, which was used to combat floods and excess water in the fields. This

technique involved cutting drainage ditches throughout the fields and piling up the dirt to

create raised fields above the swamp or floodplain. The canals formed by the ditches
effectively controlled the water and helped to preserve the soil's fertility. Maya farmers

developed this technique to ensure that their crops were not destroyed by floods and excess

water, allowing them to maintain their food supply and sustain their population. The drained

and raised fields were an essential component of the Mayans’ sophisticated agricultural

system and a testament to their ingenuity and resourcefulness.

Another technique was the milpa or swidden practice. This agricultural practice involved the

burning and clearing of fields followed by long fallow periods. The Maya lowlands were

distinguished by tropical rainforests which were often impenetrable and poor in soil quality.

Farmers cut down the forest areas and left the trees in the sun to dry which were then burnt.

The ash left behind was used as a natural fertilizer for the soil. The milpa practice was

important because it removed excess trees from planting areas and helped to maintain the

fertility of the soil.

The Maya civilization utilized the practice of terracing to cultivate crops in sloped areas,

alongside rivers, and in drainage systems. Maya farmers piled up the dirt to tunnel water, and

the terraces were often extensive and well-built with stone walls. This technique allowed for

the continuous production of staple crops such as maize, corn, and beans. The development of

terracing was a testament to the Mayans’ advanced agricultural practices and their ability to

adapt to challenging terrain. By utilizing terracing, the Maya were able to increase crop yields

and ensure a stable food supply for their population.

Similarly, the economic practices of this society ensured their continued survival. Whilst, this

was true, their economy was very loose and unorganised.

Essay Question, Module 2 – 2019 "Examine the effectiveness of the strategies used by

enslaved men and women to resist their enslavement in West Africa and during the middle

passage journey and non-insurrectionary strategies used to resist and escape their

enslavement in the colonies."

The transatlantic slave trade remains one of the most horrific periods in human history,

characterized by unimaginable brutality, dehumanization, and exploitation. Enslaved men and

women faced numerous challenges in their bid to resist their enslavement, including

oppressive laws, harsh working conditions, and the constant threat of violence from their

masters. However, despite the odds stacked against them, they found innovative ways to

resist their oppression. This essay examines the various strategies used by enslaved men and

women to resist their enslavement in West Africa, during the middle passage, and in the

colonies. Specifically, it explores physical resistance, escape, suicide, self-harm, economic

resistance, and sabotage.

Physical resistance was one of the most common strategies used by enslaved men and women

in West Africa. It took various forms, including revolts, uprisings, and armed conflicts.

Historical evidence shows that many West African societies had a long history of resistance

against external aggressors, including European slave traders. For example, the Haitian

Revolution of 1791-1804 was a major uprising by enslaved Africans who successfully

overthrew their French colonial oppressors. Another example was the Amistad Rebellion of

1839, in which a group of enslaved Africans seized control of a ship and attempted to return

to their homeland.
Escape was another popular strategy used by enslaved men and women in West Africa.

Fleeing to neighboring communities or countries, or taking refuge in the wilderness was a

common means of resisting enslavement. Historically, many enslaved Africans escaped their

captors and found refuge in the wilderness or among sympathetic neighbouring communities.

The middle passage, the journey across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to the Americas, was

characterized by extreme brutality and inhumane conditions. Enslaved Africans were packed

like sardines in the ships' holds, and many died from disease, starvation, or suicide. Suicide

and self-harm were common strategies used by enslaved men and women to resist their

enslavement during this journey. Some of them jumped overboard, while others refused to eat

or engaged in self-mutilation to avoid being sold into slavery.

Physical resistance and revolting were also common strategies used by enslaved men and

women during the middle passage. Mutinies and rebellions on the ships were a form of

resistance, and they often resulted in the deaths of both the enslaved and the crew. The

Amistad case of 1839 is indeed a notable example of enslaved people resisting their

enslavement. The Amistad was a Spanish ship that was transporting a group of enslaved

Africans from Sierra Leone to Cuba. On July 1, 1839, the enslaved Africans seized control of

the ship, killing the captain and the cook but sparing the lives of the rest of the crew.

The enslaved Africans demanded to be taken back to Africa, but the ship was eventually

captured by the US Navy off the coast of Long Island, New York. The case went to court, and

the enslaved Africans were initially charged with murder and piracy. However, abolitionists
and other sympathetic individuals rallied around their cause, arguing that they were not slaves

but instead had been illegally kidnapped and sold into slavery.

Non-insurrectionary strategies of resistance were forms of resistance that did not involve

armed rebellion or violence but instead relied on covert and passive means of subversion.

One such strategy was economic resistance, which involved slowing down work, stealing

from plantation owners, and running away. Another included sabotaging plantation

equipment. Enslaved people would sometimes damage or destroy tools and equipment, such

as hoes and ploughs, to slow down the pace of work and reduce the amount of labour they

were forced to perform. Additionally, enslaved people would sometimes pretend to be sick or

injured, slowing down their work and reducing their productivity.

Going slowly as a form of resistance was also utilized by enslaved people in the colonies.

This method involved working at a pace that was intentionally slower than what was

expected of them, without being overtly disobedient or confrontational. By working at a

slower pace, enslaved people were able to slow down the pace of production, which could

ultimately impact the profits of slave owners.

In conclusion, enslaved people in West Africa, during the middle passage, and in the colonies

used a range of strategies to resist their enslavement, both insurrectionary and non-

insurrectionary. Physical violence, escape, suicide, self-harm, physical resistance, and

revolting were all used during the middle passage. In the colonies, non-insurrectionary

strategies such as economic resistance, sabotage of plantation equipment, and going slowly

were also used. These methods of resistance highlight the ingenuity, resilience, and
determination of enslaved people to resist their enslavement and assert their agency in the

face of overwhelming oppression.