Universidade de A Coruña Facultade de Filoloxía

Marta Iglesias González February 26th, 2021

Filoloxía 2º

ENGLISH LANGUAGE 4. FILOLOXÍA 2º

Unit 2: "Academic Writing”

2.1. The importance of academic writing.

Learning how to write a paper, or an essay, is one of the most important skills you will learn
in your life, etch these words in your memory. It is important to write well and to use
punctuation —which is often misused, in newspapers, on TV, etc.— well. It takes you to:

1. do research, focus, and reflect on a topic.

2. select the most relevant and reliable information.
3. focus —learning to focus implies not to beat around the bush and concentrate on the
essay’s topic and the thesis you want to prove— and ponder over a particular thesis
that you want to demonstrate. It is not a melange of ideas.
4. theorize, develop, and argue ideas in order to prove your thesis.
5. support your thesis with other people’s ideas, by quoting from secondary sources.
6. draw a rounded-off conclusion.

All of these will help to be more selective, to be more critical and to do reflection —it is very
important to reflect in life about important issues, and not just behave at random. And we
nowadays have less and less time to do it, because of how fast-paced our lives go, and
reflection is something that takes time—, in the future.

In order to write well, to write essays, to write formal pieces, it’s pretty important to have a
good grammar book and good dictionaries by your side. Some great examples are Practical
English Usage, by Michael Swan (Grammar); the Collins English Dictionary (Monolingual
dictionary); and the Oxford Spanish Dictionary (Bilingual dictionary). There are also very
useful resources on the web, e.g.: the BBC website, the Cambridge mobile app, the Learn
English-British Council website, and the Word Reference dictionary and forums.
2.2. What is to speak and write well?

To speak and write well means to use the right register on every occasion. To do that, you
need to take into account the context:

● the setting: time and place (e.g.: a cafeteria vs. an office).

● the audience: (e.g.: your workmate vs. your boss).
● the topic: (e.g.: movies vs. the working schedule).
● the purpose: (e.g.: asking a friend to go to a party with you vs. asking your boss for a
raise).

2.3. What is a word?

The definition that the dictionary provides is the following one: ‘a word is a single distinct
meaningful element of speech or writing, which is used to form sentences with others’. From
a philological point of view, from a critical studies point of view, you shouldn’t be satisfied
with that definition, there is definitely more to be said. Words are powerful. Why? Well, the
verb to spell has two meanings: ‘to name or write in order the letters constituting a word’,
and ‘to put someone under a spell, to bewitch’; and, thus, spell, as a noun, means ‘a word or
formula believed to have magic power’. Think of the connection between sentence (‘a group
of words’) and a death sentence. Seems powerful, right? Even the word grammar is
etymologically related to glamour or ‘magic enchantment’, according to the Online Etymology
Dictionary. These curious connections between language and power demonstrate the fact
that words are definitely powerful.
Thus, you need to beware of your use of language. When writing an essay, don’t write the
first word/expression that comes to mind. Look for alternatives and choose the one that is
closer to the formal register.

2.4. Connotation and Denotation.

Are words dangerous? Well, using some words and others definitely has consequences, and
this has to do with connotation and denotation. And what do these terms mean? One might
say a word’s denotation is just its dictionary meaning. A word’s connotations are the extra
meanings implied in the use of that word, which is why the use we make of language is so
important. These can be positive or negative. For example, whereas house and home both
mean ‘dwelling’, home connotes extra meanings of warmth and welcome. Other words have
pejorative connotations, e.g. black vs. *nigger —which can be an insult, if used by white
people—. Many dictionaries use asterisks (*) and abbreviations (pej.) to mark extra
connotations of words.

Therefore, words are ideologically charged —etch this clause in your memory too—, they
are like batteries, positively charged or negatively charged. Some words might be used to
hurt you or other people (e.g.: *spic, *homo, *slut). Words are a form of symbolic violence.
Psychological violence is harder to be cured than physical violence. As a
language-and-literature student, it is your responsibility to be critical with language use.
Consider the language that you use, even to yourself, every day.

2.5. Style.

In life, personal style is that essential je ne sais quoi (no sé qué) that distinguishes Kurt
Cobain from Luis Miguel, Princess Nokia from Taylor Swift. Personal style is the way you
dress, walk, and talk to make an impression on those you meet.
Writing style is the words you choose for your writing, how you connect them, and the
impression they make on your audience.
To put it even more clearly, style is how you look (either in person or on the written page).
In writing, style is an author’s distinctive way of writing. Style is made up of elements such as
word choice, sentence length and structure, figures of speech, and tone. Writers may
change their style for different genres of writing and to suit different audiences. In poetry, for
example, writers might use more imagery than they would use in prose.

2.6. Register.

Thus, what is the difference between style and register? Well, as 2nd-year students, you
should of course aim to write grammatically correct English. However, is that enough? For
example, it is grammatically correct to write “Give me a job!” but that is not the way to write a
successful job application. In fact, the employer is more likely to forgive a number of
grammar or spelling mistakes than to employ an applicant whose letter was too rude or too
informal. Here is where we start speaking about register, or the style which is appropriate to
a particular kind of speech or writing.
One of the most important areas to know in terms of register is the difference between
formal and informal English. Of course, there are many degrees of formality, and most
written English (including newspapers, magazines, and novels) is situated somewhere
between the two extremes. Therefore, how can you distinguish between formal and informal
vocabulary in English? Well, in 1066, the Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of Britain were conquered
by the French-speaking Normans (who remained there until 1087, although their influence
lasted much longer). Then, French was the language of the court and the ruling classes, and
Latin the language of education and the church. Because of this, words derived from French
or Latin have been considered more formal than those derived from the Anglo-Saxon dialect.
2.7. Informal vs. formal conversations.

Here are some informal and formal words that are used in conversations:

INFORMAL FORMAL

Hey / Hi / Hello / Hello there Good morning

How are you? / What’s up? How do you do? (the answer to this would
be repeating the question)

How’re you doing? / How’s it going? ---------

See you later / Cheerio! Good bye / Have a nice day

2.8. Informal vs. formal words, expressions and constructions.

The following words, expressions, and constructions are informal:

1. Words of Anglo-Saxon origin (e.g.: put off, call off).

2. The word thing. Do not use it in an essay, use synonyms.
3. Phrasal verbs & idioms with get (e.g.: get on my nerves, get in touch with…).
However, they are still acceptable in an essay if scantily used.
4. Informal connecting words (e.g.: and, but, so...). In an essay, don’t use these
connectors after a full stop (.).
5. Personal constructions (e.g.: They say that, They have put the price up, You never
know, etc.). However, they are still acceptable in an essay when scantily used, (e.g.: I
consider that).
6. Modal verbs, adjectives, clauses, etc. (e.g.: Can people be chuffed to bits when they
haven’t got a job?).
7. Ending with a preposition (e.g.: Who are you speaking to?).
8. Simple sentences.
9. Lack of inversion in emphatic constructions (e.g.: Only then I realized…).
10. Contractions. Do not use contractions in an essay (e.g.: I’ll, we’d).
11. Suspension points (...). Do not use suspension points in an essay either.

These are the formal equivalents for the previously mentioned informal words, expressions
and constructions:

1. Words of Latin origin (e.g.: postpone, cancel).

2. Using issue, question, aspect, point, topic, etc., and not thing.
3. Single-word verbs, especially those of Latin or French origin (e.g.: despair,
contact…).
4. Formal connecting words (e.g.: moreover, nevertheless, therefore...). Use these
connectors in your essays after full stops, and also after semicolons (;).
 5. Impersonal constructions (e.g.: It is said that, The price has been increased, One
never knows, etc.).
6. Abstract nouns (e.g.: Is happiness possible during unemployment?).
7. Not ending with a preposition (e.g.: To whom were you speaking?).
8. Complex sentences.
9. Inversion used for conditionals and emphasis (e.g.: Only then did I realize…).
10. No contractions in writing (e.g.: I will, we would…).
11. Don’t use suspension points in an essay. Instead, use etc. (with a full stop at the end,
since it’s an abbreviation), and so on, and so forth, and among others. E.g.: There
are several academic styles of writing: MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, and Vancouver,
among others.

2.9. Informal vs. formal verbs.

INFORMAL FORMAL

say sorry apologize (US), apologise (UK)

go up increase

go down decrease

set up establish

look at examine

blow up explode

find out discover

bring about cause

put off postpone, delay

rack up accumulate

make up fabricate

stand for represent

find out discover, ascertain

leave out omit

point out indicate

go against oppose

get in touch with contact

It’s about It concerns, It’s in regards to

need to require

think about consider

get obtain

put up tolerate

deal with handle

seem appear

show demonstrate, illustrate, portray

start commence

keep retain

free release

get on someone’s nerves bother

ring up call

show up arrive

let permit

fill in substitute, inform

block undermine

give the go ahead, give the greenlight authorize (US), authorise (UK)

2.10. Informal vs. formal transitions.

INFORMAL FORMAL

Anyways Nevertheless

Plus/Also Moreover/Furthermore

But However

So Therefore/Thus

Also In addition/Additionally

ASAP as soon as possible/at your earliest

convenience

Okay, OK acceptable
In the meantime In the interim

I think In my opinion,

In the end, Finally

To sum up, In conclusion,

In a nutshell/Basically, To summarize,

Anyway, Notwithstanding

All right Acceptable

Well, ------

To top it all off, ------

On top of it all, ------

------ In order to

2.11. Informal vs. formal emphasis words.

INFORMAL FORMAL

lots of/ a lot of much/many

tons of, heaps of large quantities of, a number of

totally completely, strongly

really, very definitely

2.12. Informal vs. formal letter expressions.

INFORMAL FORMAL

Hi Robert, Dear Sir or Madam,

Just wanted to let you know... I’m writing to inform you...

Love, Yours sincerely, Yours faithfully,

Cheers, Yours truly, Best regards, Kind regards,

(they are actually between the formal and the informal

registers)
Hope to hear from you soon I look forward to hearing from you

You can call me if you need anything Please do not hesitate to contact me

2.13. Informal vs. formal abbreviations.

INFORMAL FORMAL

ASAP as soon as possible

T.V. television

photo photograph

cell cell phone

net Internet

2.14. Informal vs. formal common terms.

INFORMAL FORMAL

kids children

bad negative

good positive

really big considerable

right correct

wrong incorrect

smart intelligent

cheap inexpensive

loaded rich

2.15. The connection between language and reality.

Does the language we speak influence the way we see the world and think about it? In
Ludwig Wittgenstein’s words, “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world”.
Wittgenstein thought that language created reality, that is, our vision of the world.
Language isn’t a transparent carrier of meaning —etch this in your memory too—. Language
is infected with social prejudices that can perpetuate inequalities (e.g.: *faggot, *bitch, etc.).
At the same time, language does not determine but definitely influences the way we perceive
reality. For example, consider how the media manipulate people through language.
Language in the news, a book by Roger Fowler, perfectly describes this; how, for instance,
two newspapers, one left-leaning, the other one right-wing, describe the same event in
completely different terms, creating two stories that have actually nothing to do with each
other. This is, actually, a way of manipulating people.

Moreover, it is not acceptable to use derogatory language in essays.

There are several research studies that prove how language truly does shape the way we
see the world (and if it shapes the way we see it, it can also shape changes in it). Precisely,
one of those many research studies is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. According to Sapir and
Whorf, rather than simply reflecting society, language actually brings about and shapes
changes in the way we see the world and think about it. Another research study, this one by
Verveken was carried out analyzing children, and resulted in the following: When children
are introduced to the world of professions without linking them exclusively with a particular
gender (e.g.: executive instead of businessman), little girls show more interest in having
stereotypically masculine careers. Moreover, a research study about job seekers, carried out
by Gaucher and Friesen, showed that, when the description of a job announcement uses
terms traditionally related to men (e.g.: competitive, leader), few women apply for it; at the
same time, the use of feminine-related language (e.g.: support, understanding) puts men off
from applying. Finally, another study, this one by García and Collado, has proved that, when
using the generic masculine, we tend to think exclusively of men and not of both women and
men. This makes sexist language a huge problem.
2.16. Sexist language VS gender-free language.

Sexist language reflects prejudiced attitudes and stereotypical thinking about the roles and
traits of both men and women. As a result, sexist language lies (e.g.: Men have been on the
Earth for about 2.5 million years), annoys and alienates readers (e.g.: Spanish newspaper
headline: Todos los niños quieren ser Ronaldo —girls too?—), can cause legal problems
(e.g. if women are not mentioned in law texts), and perpetuates sexist attitudes, as proved
by the previously-mentioned scientific studies.

Sara Mills, in her book Feminist Stylistics, urges us to use gender-free language and says,
“Gender-free language is a conscious choice by speakers [and writers] to assure readers
and listeners that they do not view the world as the male domain that it may appear to be. By
their language-use, writers and speakers can demonstrate an acceptance of the validity of
women’s experiences and contributions” (e.g.: Human beings have been on the Earth for
about 2.5 million years).

University College Cork advises us to use gender-free language, while being concerned
about the following:

1. Man as false generic

It is often claimed that man is a generic term, i.e. that it refers to all humans, male
and female. Whatever the intention, the use of man obscures the presence and
contribution of women.

Instead of... Try these expressions:

Man is a species who suckles his Humans are a species who suckle their
young. young.

The man we want for the job. The person we want for the job.

The man on the street. The average person.

The ordinary person.
People in general.

2. Use of masculine pronouns

This can be solved by either changing to the plural form (e.g.: Each student must
complete his assessment by Friday → Students must complete their assessments by
Friday) or by using indefinite pronouns and articles, such as one, each, anyone,
nobody, somebody, someone (e.g.: A student who wants his essay returned… →
Anyone who wants an essay returned…).

3. Terms of address
 Parallel terms of address should be used when referring to males and females (e.g.:
girls and boys, women and men, ladies and gentlemen). Moreover, it is common for
people to refer to women by their first name, while men of similar status are
addressed by their proper title or their last names. Similar standards should be used.
In addition, in correspondence with people whose sex is unknown, do not make
assumptions about their sex (e.g.: Dear Madam or Sir, Dear Sir or Madam could be
used). Finally, instead of Miss or Mrs., try Ms.

4. Job titles

Instead of... Try:

Maintenance man Maintenance staff

Cleaning woman/women Cleaner/cleaning staff

Female electrician, woman doctor, Electrician, doctor, poet, nurse

female poet, male nurse

Poetess, actress, usherette (the ending Poet, actor, usher

-ess and -ette used to be diminutives
—and still are today, if we think of
kitchen and kitchenette, for example—).

Stewardess, steward, air hostess Flight attendant

Together with this, other scholars encourage us to use both male and female terms,
while going against the generic masculine, for instance to give more visibility to
women in certain professional sectors (e.g.: Spanish médica).

5. Patronizing and demeaning expressions

Instead of... Try:

The girls in the office The secretaries/typists/administrative

assistants

Two men and three girls work in that lab Five people work in that lab or two men
and three women work in that lab

Las chicas de inglés (it infantalizes their Las profesoras de inglés

job, it diminishes their authority)

6. Sex role stereotyping

Sex-role stereotyping is assuming that certain ways of behaving are naturally

associated with each sex. However, if we are to accurately represent the reality and
diversity of people’s lives we need to move away from narrow and limiting
vocabulary.
 Instead of... Try:

She’s a tomboy She’s a brave/daring girl

He’s a sissy He’s a sensitive/caring boy

She’s very masculine She’s a strong/independent/assertive

woman

What is needed is the feminine touch What is needed is a caring/considerate

attitude

In addition, objects which are strong or powerful are generally personified as male,
while those which are weak, passive or receptive are personified as female. Thus the
Sun is seen to be male while the Moon —which receives light from the Sun— is seen
to be female. Moreover, objects which are containers are personified as female.
Since objects do not have a gender, it is more appropriate to refer to them as it.

Instead of... Try:

The ship set forth with her sail blowing The ship set forth with its sail blowing in
in the wind the wind

That car is hard to start, but just give That car is hard to start, but just give it a
her a shove and she’s up and running shove and it’s up and running

7. Word order

When listing pairs of nouns and pronouns, we usually put the male before the female.
This suggests a hierarchy of importance and status. Varying the word order can help
to challenge this. When writing a long document, use them alternatively, just to be fair
to both sexes.

Instead of... Try:

Men and Women Women and Men

Boys and Girls Girls and Boys

Husbands and Wives Wives and Husbands

Fathers and Mothers Mothers and Fathers

Sir or Madam Madam or Sir

Thus, to sum it all up, here are some sexist words and expressions and their gender-free
equivalents:

SEXIST GENDER-FREE

a male secretary secretary

barman, barmaid bar person, bar staff

businessman executive, business executive

chairman chairperson, convener, coordinator

delivery man deliverer, delivery clerk, courier

draughtsman draughter

fireman fire-fighter

foreman foreperson, manager

founding fathers founders (for instance, Aphra Behn was the

founder of the novel genre in English, the
first novel even written in English was an
epistolary novel written by her), ancestors

gentleman’s agreement unwritten agreement, agreement based on

trust

housewife, househusband homemaker

laymen lay people, laity

man of letters writer, intellectual, scholar, author

man of science scientist, biologist, chemist, etc.

man on the street, ordinary man ordinary person, average person

man person

mankind humanity, human beings, people

manmade synthetic, artificial

manning levels staffing levels

Miss, Mrs. Ms.

maintenance man maintenance staff

spokesman spokesperson, representative

stone age man stone age people

 the girls in the office the secretaries, office assistants, typists

workmanship quality of work, work still

he he/she or s/he

his his/her or her/his

The University College Cork ends the document as follows: “This [list] has primarily focused
on the question of sexism in our language. However, the principles which apply in countering
sexism, also apply to countering bias on the basis of race, religion, sexual orientation, age,
physical ability, class, etc. We need to make a conscious decision to try to eliminate
offensive and derogatory language and to make our language inclusive for all people”.

Inclusive language is not frightening. Do not be afraid of linguistic change, because “People
have the power”, as the song by Patti Smith goes.