CHAPTER 1. WRITING PROCESS.

1. What are the key differences between speaking and writing? By analyzing
the spoken text and the written text below, both of which focus on the same subject
matter, complete the column on the right.

Spoken text: Speaking is [pause] er Written text: Speaking is a skill

something we learn without really thinking
about it [volume drops] usually from our
mums and dads, but writing is something we
really have to think about. It is [pause] um
an exparexpertise not everybody has.
[intonation rises] Understand? Let me put it
another way. Loads of people still can’t
write [points finger]. Now.
which we develop subconsciously
(usually from our parents). Writing,
however, has to be consciously
developed. It is an expertise which,
surprisingly, many people still do not
possess. This is true even in the 21st
century!

Question Speaking Writing

How is the skill Natural, unconscious process, Conscious, time-
acquired? usually from parents. intensive process, mainly
at school.
How is the language joined Simple linking devices (e.g., Use of conjunctions,
together? and/but). punctuation, and sentence
structures.
How formal is Flexible. Generally follows formal
the grammar? grammatical rules.

How can extra meaning be E.g., body language, including Through careful word choice,
communicated? hand movements. tone, and punctuation.

How is emphasis created? Changes in volume/tone. underlining in written text.

Is variety possible? Different accents acceptable. writing styles, such as formal,
informal, academic
How do you interact with Audience is often known; can Interaction limited to written
the audience? clarify meaning instantly. responses or feedback.

Can you change what you No you cannot delete speech. Yes, revisions and edits are
said? possible.

2. The sentences below are all examples of spoken English. Rewrite them to
make them more typical of written English.
1. ‘Speaking and writing are really really different skills ... um ... there are three
ways this is true – how they’re learnt, what they contain, and how they’re
done.’ 2. ‘It’s clear, isn’t it, that yer grammar has gotta be better in writing.’

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3. The main differences in speaking and writing [intonation rises]'? Difficult
question.’
4. Things don’t really change in writing, wherever you are, but in speaking they
can change loads.’

1"Speaking and writing are markedly distinct skills. There are three ways this is
evident: how they are acquired, their content, and their execution."
2"It's evident that proper grammar is essential in writing."
3"What are the main differences between speaking and writing? It's a difficult
question."
4 "Things remain relatively constant in writing, regardless of location, whereas in
speaking, they can vary significantly."

Academic vs Non-academic

3. Consider eleven pieces of advice from the list below. Place a check mark (V)
before the five most important of them (in your opinion) for a writer of academic
texts. Discuss your preferences with a partner or in a small group and support
them with appropriate arguments.
1. Use correct spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Mistakes in spelling, grammar, or punctuation can distract the reader and
undermine the authority of the writer.
2. Write in an objective, neutral manner.
3. Accurately use the terminology of your discipline.
4. Ensure that your language is rich enough.
5. Write in an academic style, avoid colloquial language, jargon, and slang.
Academic writing should adhere to formal language conventions, avoiding
informal expressions, colloquialisms, or slang. This maintains professionalism
and ensures clarity and precision in communication.
6. Arrange your ideas in a strict logical order.
7. Pay special attention to the introduction of your text.
The introduction sets the tone for the entire paper and provides readers with an
overview of what to expect.
8. Incorporate visual support (tables, diagrams, graphs) for your ideas.
9. Cite leading papers in your field.
Academic writing relies heavily on existing research and scholarly literature to
support arguments and provide evidence.
10. Think about the general presentation (chapters, sub-chapters, paragraphs, etc.)
of your text.
11. Pay special attention to the conclusion of your text.

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4. Compare and contrast the following pieces of writing. On the left is an e-
mail written by a student. On the right is an essay extract about the same topic.

E-mail (standard writing) Essay (academic writing)

Dear Professor Plum,
Please find below my answers to your
questions.
I believe academic English and general
Englishare different for the main reason
that they have very different goals.
Lectures and seminars need a different
approach to general spoken English.
And, of course, academic essay writing
is not the same as standard writing.
I think there are 4 main areas where I
can see big differences between
standard writing and academic writing.
They are:
• You should not be subjective.
• You should be more complex.
• You should have more structure.
• You should use academic style
and systems. Best wishes,
Sophia
Characteristics of academic English
‘Academic English’ is differentiated from
‘general English’ in its focus on ‘those
communication skills in English which are
required for study purposes in formal
education systems’(Jordan, 1997: 1).
Within these systems, there are three main
areas of focus: the lecture, the seminar and
the essay, each of which has a specific set of
sub-skills which are required for successful
performance. It is essays where the most
significant distinction between academic
English and general English is made.
Generally speaking, there are four main
areas where differences between standard
writing and academic writing can be seen:
the inherent objectivity of academic writing,
its complexity, its formality of structure and
its adoption of academic style.

In the email, the student communicates directly with their professor, providing a
concise response to the professor's questions. The tone is informal, as evidenced
by the salutation ("Dear Professor Plum") and the closing ("Best wishes,
Sophia"). The student outlines four main areas where they perceive differences
between standard writing and academic writing, using bullet points for clarity
and brevity.
On the other hand, the essay extract adopts a more formal and structured
approach. It begins with a definition of academic English and its purpose, citing
a source to support the statement. The essay then discusses the specific contexts
within formal education where academic English is applied, such as lectures,
seminars, and essays. Each of these contexts is examined in detail, highlighting the
specific skills required for successful performance. The essay concludes by
summarizing the main areas where differences between standard writing and
academic writing are evident.

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5 Look at the following pairs of sentences. In each case, decide which is more
typical of academic English, and explain why.
1a. I think that the first-person pronoun is not commonly used in academic
English.
1b. The first-person pronoun is not commonly used in academic English.
Reason: The second sentence is more typical of academic English. Academic
writing often strives for objectivity and formal tone, which is achieved by
avoiding the use of first-person pronouns like "I" or "we." __________________
2a. There are a lot of scholars who argue that structure is important in academic
writing.
2b. Scholars such as Shih (1986) and Canagarajah (2002) argue that structure is
important in academic writing. Reason: The second is more typical of academic
English. Academic writing requires the use of evidence and citations to support
arguments. ___________________
3a. ‘Hedging language’ is never found in standard written English.
3b. ‘Hedging language’ is more likely to be used in academic English than
standard written English.
Reason: The second is more typical of academic English. Academic writing often
involves expressing ideas tentatively or hedging claims to acknowledge
uncertainty or alternative interpretations. This is particularly common in fields
where research findings may be subject to interpretation or revision.
___________________
4a. Academic English has a higher lexical density and grammatical complexity
than standard English.
4b. Standard English uses simpler grammar and fewer long words than academic
English.
Reason: The first is more typical of academic English. Academic writing typically
employs a more formal and precise vocabulary, leading to higher lexical density.
____________________

6. Put each sentence into its appropriate place depending on whether it is

academic or not.
• It probably won’t happen. The word should…
• Possible reasons include earthquakes This proves that… and other natural events.
It is argued that…
• Renwick (2018) states that climate There are a couple of reasons for it.
change is impacting the environment This essay will discuss… in four
main ways.

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 Non-academic
In this essy I will talk about…
The word should…
I think climate change is hurting the
environment.
Possible reasons include earthquakes
… and other natural events
I think…
Renwick (2018) states that climate
change is impacting the environment
in four main ways.
There are lots of reasons including
earthquakes etc.
This essay will discuss…
Academic
This proves that…
The literature suggests a variety
of explanations.
It is argued that…
There is a strong argument for… However,
there are also valid counterarguments
There are a couple of reasons for it.
It is unlikely to occur.
It is suggested that one solution may be to…

7. Compare the following two paragraphs. Which paragraph is more objective?

Paragraph 1
Marketers may sometimes face dilemmas when seeking to balance consumer needs
and social responsibility. For example, no amount of test results can guarantee product
safety in cars if consumers value speed and power more than safety features. Buyers
may choose a less expensive chain-saw without a safety guard, although society or a
government regulatory agency might deem it irresponsible and unethical for the
manufacturer to sell it.
Paragraph 2
Marketers have a responsibility to society and they often don’t know how to
balance that with what customers might need. Why should someone care about the
safety features of a car for example, if they like speed and power more? And even
though society or the government should not allow shops to sell chain-saws without
safety guards, what about if I want a cheaper product which doesn’t include the
guards?
Paragraph 1 is more objective. It presents the situation in a neutral tone, discussing
dilemmas faced by marketers in balancing consumer needs and social responsibility. It
provides an example without expressing personal opinions or judgments. In contrast,
Paragraph 2 contains more subjective language, such as "they often don't know," "Why
should someone care," and "what about if I want," which reflects the writer's personal
perspective and biases. Additionally, Paragraph 2 seems to pose rhetorical questions
rather than objectively discussing the issue at hand.
8. Rewrite the underlined parts of these sentences. Instead of using ‘we’, ‘the
researchers’, or ‘they’, write a passive sentence with an appropriate verb form.
Example: We can solve the problem. The problem can be solved.

5
 (a) Prices are stable and we have maintained them in this way over
generations.
(b) We define tropical forests here as ‘evergreen or partly evergreen forests’.
(c) We will confine the discussion to general principles of treatment.
(d) The researchers transcribed many genes and synthesised many proteins.
(e) They replicated these findings.
(a) Prices are stable, and this stability has been maintained over generations.

(b) Tropical forests are defined here as 'evergreen or partly evergreen forests'.

(c) The discussion will be confined to general principles of treatment.

(d) Many genes were transcribed, and many proteins were synthesized.

(e) These findings were replicated.

9. Rewrite the following sentences using any of the passive sentence constructions.
1. People consider that this surgeon is a brilliant practitioner.
2. Somebody claims that the drug produced no undesirable side effects.
3. Most people now think that only a small fraction of the nitrous oxide emitted to
the atmosphere each year comes from fossil fuel use, primarily coal.
4. Researchers believe that the only problem with daytime sleep is that it is too
short.
5. Although the government expects the patient to pay for his treatment, he will be
reimbursed via the state medical insurance scheme.

10. Remove the questions from the following paragraphs and make any
necessary adjustments to the texts.
Example: Increasing numbers of students are choosing Business Studies as their
university subject. What is the reason for this? Many students believe ... Increasing
numbers of students are choosing Business Studies as their uni- versity subject. The
reason for this is that many students believe ...

1. What is the symbolic importance of the jury? Jury trial represents judgment by
one’s peers. The jury is therefore seen as a major control over abuse of state
power.
2. Suctioning is associated with several complications. What can be done to
minimise or decrease these complications? There are several techniques which
can be used, such as hyperinflation and hyperoxygenation.
3. What is the overall variation of the impedance? As can be seen, for frequency f1,
the inductive reactance AB and the capacitive reactance AC are equal in
magnitude so that the resultant reactance is zero. Consequently, the impedance
is then only the resistance AD of the circuit.

6
 4. What is the financial objective of a business? A business is normally set up with
a view to increasing the wealth of its owners.
The symbolic importance of the jury lies in representing judgment by one’s
peers. The jury is therefore seen as a major control over abuse of state power.

Suctioning is associated with several complications. Several techniques can be

used to minimize or decrease these complications, such as hyperinflation and
hyperoxygenation.

The overall variation of the impedance can be observed. For frequency f1, the
inductive reactance AB and the capacitive reactance AC are equal in magnitude
so that the resultant reactance is zero. Consequently, the impedance is then only
the resistance AD of the circuit.

The financial objective of a business is to increase the wealth of its owners.

11. Underline the instances of a cautious style of writing that you will be able to
find in the text below.

The America that greeted the first Europeans was far from an empty wilderness.
It is now thought that as many people lived in the Western Hemisphere as in Western
Europe at that time—about 40 million. Estimates of the number of Native Americans
living in what is now the United States at the onset of European colonization range
from two to 18 million, with most historians tending toward the lower figure. What is
certain is the devastating effect that European disease had on the indigenous
population practically from the time of initial contact. Smallpox, in particular, is
thought to have been a much more direct cause of the decline in Indian population in
the 1600s than the numerous wars with European settlers.
Indian customs and culture at the time were extraordinarily diverse, as could be
expected, given the expanse of the land and the many different environments to which
they had adapted. Some generalizations, however, are possible.
Most tribes, particularly in the wooded eastern region and the Midwest, combined
aspects of hunting, gathering and the cultivation of maize and other products for their
food supplies. In many cases, the women were responsible or farming and the
distribution of food, while the men hunted and participated in war.
By all accounts, Indian society in North America was closely tied to the land.
Indian life was essentially clan-oriented and communal, with children allowed more
freedom and tolerance than was the European custom of the day.
Although some North American tribes developed a type of hieroglyphics to
preserve certain texts, Indian culture was primarily oral. Clearly, there was a good
deal of trade among various groups and strong evidence exists that neighboring tribes
maintained extensive and formal relations – both friendly and hostile.

7
12. Below you will find a list of ten features characteristic of academic writing.
According to several findings, five of them are relatively prominent in
AngloAmerican research texts. Try to find these features in the list.
1. Impersonal style of writing (i.e., without using the personal pronouns "I" or
"we").
2. )Intensive use of logical connectors (words like "therefore" or "however").
3. Heavy load of terminology and specialized jargon.
4. )High degree of formal text structuring (i.e., division of the text into sections
and subsections with appropriate headings).
5. )Tendency to cite and to include into the lists of references the most recent
publications in the field.
6. Frequent occurrence of the phrases which provide reference to the text itself
(e.g., "This paper discusses ...").
7. Use of long sentences with complicated grammar.
8. )Strong emphasis on generalizations and highly theoretical issues.
9. Frequent use of footnotes and long remarks in parentheses.
10. )Tendency to follow a certain pattern of textual organization (e.g.,
problemsolution).

13. Make the following statements academic by using strategies listed above
(see Ex. 12). Be careful to use appropriate choices for each situation.
1. Supervision is a critical link between top managers and workers.
2. The expansion of the Universe continues.
3. Monetary policy is not effective.
4. Diseases are the results of the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
5. The most influential component of a computer is a central processing unit.
6. Genetic differences in alcohol metabolism between American Indians and
other races caused the death of a Navajo teenager.
7. Errors are the indicators of the learners' stages in their foreign language
development.
8. Economists think that statistical methods have a profound impact on process
involvement, production costs, quality, and competitive position.
9. A drop of nicotine kills the horse.
10. Ecology is defined as a study of the relations of living things with their
environment.
The expansion of the Universe is an ongoing phenomenon.
The effectiveness of monetary policy is questionable.
Diseases result from the complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors.
The central processing unit (CPU) is widely regarded as the most influential
component of a computer.

8
 Genetic differences in alcohol metabolism between American Indians and other
races have been implicated in the death of a Navajo teenager.
Errors serve as indicators of learners' stages in their development of a foreign
language.
Economists argue that statistical methods significantly impact process
involvement, production costs, quality, and competitive position.
It is widely acknowledged that a drop of nicotine is lethal to horses.
Ecology is commonly defined as the study of the relationships between living
organisms and their environment.

14. Look at the writing below. Are there any aspects of it which are not
‘academic’? How could you improve any of the ‘non-academic’ elements?
Identify examples of characteristics of academic writing (the passive voice,
formality, hedging language, etc.).
Reading for writing vs. reading for pleasure
I couldn't figure out if this question would be allowed or not. I've seen so much
advice for writers saying "read read read read and read some more!" And read outside
your genre! I have learned so much doing this. However...
How do you turn it off? How do you turn off dissecting books and looking at
stories in such a way that you can only see inciting incidents and second acts and plot
maneuvers? How do you just stop being a writer for a couple hours and just... Read a
story? Will books and I not be able to stay friends? Are we always gonna be awkward
and hang out only because we have too many mutual friends but have this
uncomfortable /knowing/ between us?
Maybe I'm not reading good enough books, or maybe it's because I'm reading
outside my typical favorite genre. But I feel like I've lost my ability to immerse myself
in a story since I started writing. I haven't disappeared into something in over a year.
Where is the magic of "one more chapter" then you look up and it's 4 days later and
you haven't showered or slept, and you think, "man, I should really maybe eat some
food"?
Is this something you give up when you decide to write? Something you sacrifice?
Non-academic elements:

Informal tone and language: The use of contractions ("couldn't," "I've," "I'm"),
colloquial expressions ("read read read"), and informal phrasing ("How do you turn it
off?").
Personal perspective: The writer shares personal experiences and concerns without
providing empirical evidence or scholarly references.
Lack of formal structure: The writing lacks clear headings, subheadings, or structured
paragraphs typical of academic writing.
Academic elements:

Hedging language: The writer expresses uncertainty with phrases like "Maybe I'm not
reading good enough books" and "I feel like I've lost my ability to immerse myself."

9
Passive voice: The passive voice is used in sentences like "Is this something you give
up when you decide to write?" and "Will books and I not be able to stay friends?"
Formality: Despite its informal tone, the writer explores a topic with a reflective and
analytical approach, similar to academic inquiry.

Formal vs Informal

15. Fill in the blank spaces in the table below, which emphasizes specific
differences between informal and formal English.

Informal English Formal English Rule

you can see from this this graph shows Pronouns – especially first- and
graph that... that... secondperson pronouns - are associated
with less formal English.
a bit; a lot of to a certain extent; Formal language should be more precise
a considerable and of an appropriate academic register.
amount
!– ; In formal writing, exclamation marks
should be avoided unless absolutely
necessary.
not many few Often there is a more formal negative
expression which can be used.
kids children Use the formal term for the group being
discussed.
don’t; there’s do not; there is Full forms, rather than contractions, are
used in academic writing.
do again; look into repeat; investigate Use formal, precise language in
academic writing.
A1 excellent, first-rate Avoid abbreviations and informal
expressions in formal writing.
Why did this happen? Why, therefore, did In academic writing, avoid rhetorical
[question expecting this happen? [no questions unless used for emphasis or
an answer] answer expected] effect
at the end of in conclusion Cliches should be avoided in academic
writing.

16. Find more formal words or phrases to replace those underlined below:
1. Research shows ...
_______________________________________________
2. Three problems have been found. ___________________________________
3. The changes he made were bad. ____________________________________

10
 4. Lots of people think ...
____________________________________________
5. There were many reasons for this.
___________________________________
6. Scientists have tried to prove ...
_____________________________________
7. £100,000 was given to charity. _____________________________________
8. He discussed issues like famine and poverty. __________________________
9. She has got to find alternatives.
_____________________________________
10. We do not have enough resources. _________________________________

17. Find suitable synonyms to replace the underlined multi-word verbs below:
1. There are many issues to think about. ________________________________
2. They carried out an investigation. ___________________________________
3. The situation got worse. __________________________________________
4. The research tried to find out these causes. ___________________________
5. Many areas were looked into. ______________________________________
6. Interest rates are going up. ________________________________________
7. This has been going on for a while. _________________________________
8. The information is broken down into sections. ________________________
9. He managed to get by on very little food. ___________________________
10. Five candidates showed up at the interview. __________________________
There are many issues to consider.
They conducted an investigation.
The situation deteriorated.
The research attempted to identify these causes.
Many areas were examined.
Interest rates are increasing.
This has been ongoing for a while.
The information is divided into sections.
He succeeded in subsisting on very little food.
Five candidates appeared at the interview.

18. Compare four pairs of sentences. It will not be difficult for you to decide which
are written in formal style and which in informal. What features of formality
or informality can you find in the sentences?

11
Thanks a lot for the invitation, but 1. Thank you very much for your kind invitation.
I'm afraid I can't come. I regret it will not be possible for me to come.

I really can't comment on the 2. I am not currently in a position to provide any

findings of this paper. comments on the findings of this paper.

Will you write me back as soon
as possible? I am waiting for
your reply.
If you need any further details,
please let me know. With best
wishes, Alex.
3. I would greatly appreciate hearing from you at
your earliest convenience.
4. I should be pleased to provide any further
details you request. Sincerely yours, Alex
Brown.

19. Reduce the informality of each sentence.

1. The investigation of the origin of the Universe will go on.
2. What are the effects of pollution on the population of birds in large urban
areas? Several assumptions can be made.
3. You can clearly see the difference between these two sets of data.
4. The experiment will be over in three months.
5. We can't tell whether electricity is some peculiar kind of substance or motion
of ordinary matter.
6. This approach does not promise many innovations.
7. Our new research assistant is a nice guy.
8. 7 out of 25 students had difficulty with the task.
9. Each statement in a high-level programming language is translated into many
machine-code instructions generally.

The investigation into the origin of the Universe will continue.

What are the impacts of pollution on the bird population in large urban areas?
Several hypotheses can be formulated.
The difference between these two sets of data is clearly evident.
The experiment will conclude in three months.
It is unclear whether electricity constitutes a distinct form of substance or motion
of ordinary matter.
This approach does not hold significant promise for innovation.
Our new research assistant exhibits positive qualities.
Seven out of twenty-five students encountered difficulty with the task.
Each statement in a high-level programming language is generally translated into
multiple machine-code instructions.

12
20. The following passage contains several instances of informal language.
Rewrite it in a more formal, academic style.

You might think that the sort of words you use in academic writing is not
important. But nowadays, its becoming really important for you to choose your
language and grammar carefully. The fact of the matter is that many students are
influenced by the writing style of mags and papers! They just do the same.

21. Find examples of the following features in the table in excerpts 1, 2, 3 below
and write them in the appropriate column. (Some squares will remain blank.)
Excerpt 1
A clear problem in academic writing is that of the assessor or ‘assignment setter’, as
described by Ivanic and Simpson (1992:146). ‘This person is posing a challenge
and a threat to the student, and positioning him as a writer, and exercising control
over him. However stimulating the assignment may be ... it is also facethreatening
because it will be judged.’ Students’ knowledge that the work they have written
will be assessed may oblige them to consider their writing from different
perspectives, namely what they deem acceptable and what their tutors deem
acceptable. This is often difficult for students to achieve.
Excerpt 2
?4U. Who 8 my pizza? CYAL8R. <3
(Retrieved 25 June 2008 from http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/textmessageabbreviations.asp)
Excerpt 3
I don’t think there is a case for this argument at all. How could anyone imagine
putting such a proposal forward when it’s so clearly ludicrous? I believe that the
more people are aware of this issue, the better off we would all be.

Excerpt 1 is a formal text Excerpts 2 and 3 are

informal texts
Formal vocabulary
Passive voice
Cautious language
Objective language
Subjective language
Emotive language
Use of questions
Contracted forms
References
Formal vocabulary

13
 Academic Genres

22. Match the names of the English academic genres in the left column with
their definitions (descriptions) in the right column. Translate the names of the
genres into Ukrainian. Do you see any English-Ukrainian mismatches? Can you
translate into English the word "реферат "?

1. Summary-5 1. An article that critically examines a new

book or any other piece of writing.
2. Abstract -3 2. A research project proposed for funding.
3. Review -1 3. A short account of a research paper placed before it.
4. Conference 4. A relatively short piece of research usually
abstract -6 published in a journal or a volume.
5. Research-4 5. A shortened version of a text aimed at giving the
paper most important information or ideas of the text.
6. Grant proposal-2 6. A short account of a conference paper.

23. Match the type of writing (on the left) to its description (on the right). Then
look again at the titles in part A and decide which title relates to each type of
writing.

An argumentative essay ... is writing which you do yourself (not for

A critique ...
A descriptive essay ...
A dissertation ...
An exam essay ...
An evaluative essay
Reflective writing ...
assessment) to remember information and
develop your own learning skills.
... is a piece of writing, often used in the
sciences, which tests your knowledge about a
particular concept.
... is a much longer piece of writing (usually
>3,000 words) which tends to be used at
Master’s level.
... both summarizes and offers critical analysis of
an academic article or book.
... tends to be relatively short and very focused,
testing your ability to recall key information.
... is often set by teachers to test your
understanding of a particular topic - e.g., a
process, idea or theory.
... tries to persuade the reader that a particular
point of view (i.e., your opinion) is correct.

14
 A short-answer question ... compares and contrasts the different sides of
a topic. It may support one side or another, or
else take a balanced overview.

Organising writing
24. Look at the text extracts (see Appendix A) and identify which of these elements
are included.
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Appendix
Author
Blurb
Date of publication
Details about author
Edition
Foreword
Glossary
Index
ISBN
List of contents
List of references
Place of publication
Preface
Publisher
Reviewers’ comments
Sub-title
Title

25. Organisation of texts.

a) Explain the following terms in italic:
Shorter texts, e.g. essays, are normally organised in the form:
Introduction > Main Body > Conclusion
Longer texts, e.g. dissertations and articles, may include (depending on subject
area):
Abstract > Contents > Introduction > Main Body > Case Study >Discussion >
Findings > Conclusion > Acknowledgements > Bibliography/References >
Appendices
Books may also contain:
Dedication > Foreword > Preface > Index

15
b) Match the definitions below to one of the terms in (10a).
1) Short summary (100–200 words) of the writer’s purpose and findings ( . . . . )
2) Section where various people who assisted the writer are thanked ( . . . . . . . )
3) Final part where extra data, too detailed for the main text, are stored ( . . . . . )
4) List of all the books that the writer has consulted ( . . . . . . . )
5) Section looking at a particular example relevant to the main topic ( . . . . . . . )
6) Introductory part of book which may give the writer’s motives ( . . . . . . . )
7) Alphabetical list of all topics in the text ( . . . . . . . )

26. All types of writing consist of a number of key elements. Label the items in
the text.
a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE ORIGINS OF THE INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction
c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is generally agreed that Industrial Revolution began
in Britain during the eighteenth century, with
significant developments in the iron, steel and textile
industries. But it is less clear what caused this sudden
increase in production in key areas; different writers
have examined the availability of capital, the growth
of urban populations and the political and
d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . religious climate. All of these may have played a part,
but first it is necessary to consider the precise nature of what is meant by
‘Industrial Revolution’.
e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industry had existed for thousands of years prior to the
eighteenth century, but before this time society as a whole remained
agricultural. With the arrival of the ironworks and cotton mills whole towns
were dominated by industrial activity. At the same time, agriculture itself went
through significant changes which produced more food for the growing urban
population.

27. Divide the following text into three paragraphs by adding ‘//’ where you
think one paragraph ends and the other begins. Remember that each
paragraph should begin with a topic sentence. The idea introduced in that topic
sentence is then developed.
Respiration is the act of breathing. External respiration refers to the interchange of
oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli of the lungs and the pulmonary blood.
Internal respiration, by contrast, takes place throughout the body; it is the interchange
of these same gases between the circulating blood and the cells of the body tissues.
Inhalation or inspiration refers to the intake of air into the lungs. Exhalation or
expiration refers to breathing out or the movement of gases from the lungs to the
atmosphere. Ventilation is also used to refer to the movement of air in and out of the
lungs. There are basically two types of breathing: costal (thoracic) breathing and

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diaphragmatic (abdominal) breathing. Costal breathing involves the external intercostal
muscles and other accessory muscles, such as the sternocleidomastoid muscles. It can
be observed by the movement of the chest upward and outward. By contrast,
diaphragmatic breathing involves the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm, and
it is observed by the movement of the abdomen, which occurs as a result of the
diaphragm’s contraction and downward movement.

28. Why are all texts divided into paragraphs? How long are paragraphs? Read
the following text, from the introduction to an essay, and divide it into a suitable
number of paragraphs.
INVESTMENT
Most people want to invest for the future, to cover unexpected financial difficulties and
provide them with security. Different people, however, tend to have different
requirements, so that a 25-year-old just leaving university would be investing for the
long-term, whereas a 60-year-old who had just retired would probably invest for
income. Despite these differences, certain principles apply in most cases. The first issue
to consider is risk. In general, the greater the degree of risk in investment, the higher
the return. Shares, for example, which can quickly rise or fall in value, typically have
a higher yield than bonds, which offer good security but pay only about 5%. Therefore
all investors must decide how much risk is appropriate in their particular situation.
Diversification must also be considered in an investment strategy. Wise investors
usually seek to spread their investments across a variety of geographical and business
sectors. As accurate predictions of the future are almost impossible, it is best to have
as many options as possible. A further consideration is investor involvement. Some
investors opt for a high degree of involvement and want to buy and sell regularly,
constantly watching the markets. Others want to invest and then forget about it.
Personal involvement can be time-consuming and worrying, and many prefer to leave
the management of their portfolios to professional fund managers.

Citing and Plagirism

29. Using the Internet for research. Complete the following sentences in your
own words.
1. Wikipedia is ............................................................. , but....................................
2. Anyone can set up an Internet site. Therefore,.....................................................
3. Although it is generally easier to search for information online, you must..........
4. It is difficult to identify whether information on the Internet is academic or not
because…………………………………………………..

30. Challenging the specialists. Just because a specialist in a subject says

something, this does not mean you cannot challenge what has been said. Consider
the following claims and criticize them accordingly:
• ‘Democracy passes into despotism.’ (Plato)
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 • ‘Women have no sense of justice.’ (Arthur Schopenhauer)
• ‘If there were no God, it would have been necessary to invent him.’ (Voltaire)
• ‘All socialism involves slavery.’ (Herbert Spencer)
• ‘Businessmen are the one group that distinguishes capitalism and the American
way of life from the totalitarian statism that is swallowing the rest of the world.’
(Ayn Rand)

31. Which aspects of the original sources are plagiarized in the student’s first
draft?

Original sources First draft of student writing

• ‘Students were less certain about the
concept of using someone else’s ideas
(Qu.lb), with 40% of students not
acknowledging that this was plagiarism’
(Dawson and Overfield, 2006).
• ‘A similar point could be made about
Chinese academic norms, which are the
result in part of a long tradition of
reproducing Confucian teachings in civil
service exams. The philosopher’s words
were known by and belonged to
everyone’ (Sowden, 2005: 227).
• ‘We need to strike a balance between
being sensitive to students’ feelings,
understanding potential cultural
differences, and being clear and helpful
in the messages we give through our
feedback’ (Hyland, 2000: 381).
40 % of students think that using
someone else’s ideas without reference
is acceptable.
Often, it is East Asian students who find
this a particular problem, because in the
Confucian system knowledge is seen as
something which is shared by society
(Sowden, 2005).
It may also be a challenge for teachers
when giving feedback, as they are often
unaware of how to strike a balance
between being sensitive to
students’feelings, understanding
potential cultural differences, and being
clear and helpful in the messages they
give.

33. How to recognise unacceptable and acceptable paraphrases. Study the

differences:

the original text an unacceptable an acceptable

paraphrase paraphrase

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The rise of industry, the
growth of cities, and the
expansion of the population
were the three great
developments of late
nineteenth-century American
history. As new, larger, steam-
powered factories became a
feature of the American
landscape in the East, they
transformed farm hands into
industrial laborers, and
provided jobs for a rising tide
of immigrants. With industry
came urbanization the
growth of large cities (like
Fall River, Massachusetts,
where the Bordens lived)
which became the centers of
production as well as of
commerce and trade.
34. Are there differences between how plagiarism is seen in your country and
the UK? Tick if the statement reflects normal practice, put a cross if not, and a
question mark if you are unsure. How can you explain any differences?
Statement
I can use other people’s
original ideas without
reference.
I need to reference ideas
which are commonly known
or accepted.
I can use/adapt the research
of my friends.
I can copy and paste
information from the Internet
into my essay without saying
where it is from.
The increase of industry, Fall River, where the
the growth of cities, and the Borden family lived, was
explosion of the population typical of northeastern
were three large factors of industrial cities of the
nineteenth-century nineteenth century.
America. As steam-
Steam-powered
driven companies became
production had shifted
more visible in the
labor from agriculture to
eastern part of the
manufacturing, and as
country, they changed farm
immigrants arrived in the
hands into factory workers
US, they found work in
and provided jobs for the
these new factories. As a
large wave of immigrants.
result, populations grew,
With industry came the
and large urban areas
growth
arose. Fall River was one
of these
of large cities like Fall manufacturing and
River where the Bordens commercial centers
lived which turned into (Williams 1)
centers of commerce and
trade as well as
production.
Normal practice in Normal practice in
the UK Ukraine
This is not normal practice
This is not normal practice
This is not normal practice
This is not normal practice
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I can submit the same piece This is not normal practice
of work twice
I can pay someone to check This is normal practice
through/proofread my essay
to make minor improvements

APPENDIX A

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