.

Biology Essay Questions

Student’s Name

Institutional Affiliation

Course

Professor

Date
. 2

Biology Essay Questions

Describe what passive transport is, the different types, and why it is important using

clinical examples

Passive transport is the non-chemical transfer of biomolecules as well as other subatomic

particles and substances through membranes. It is important to grasp the concepts

of concentration gradient and diffusion in order to comprehend how molecules travel passively

through a cell membrane. A concentration gradient is the differential in a substance's

concentration over a region. Molecules (or particles) will be distributed from areas of higher

concentration to areas of lower concentration to the point when they are evenly distributed across

the space. (This is referred to as molecules moving down their concentration gradient.) Simple

diffusion, osmosis, as well as facilitated diffusion are three prevalent modes of passive transport.

Simple Diffusion is the transfer of particles from a concentrated location to a less

concentrated area. Any material that can migrate down its concentration gradient across a

semipermeable membrane, like the plasma membrane, will do so. Consider chemicals that

readily diffuse across the cell membrane's lipid bilayer, like the gases oxygen (O2) and carbon

dioxide (CO2). Molecular oxygen normally diffuses into cells due to its higher concentration

outside of them, while Carbon dioxide often diffuses out of cells due to its higher concentration

within. None of these cases needs the cell to exert any energy, and hence they traverse the

membrane by passive transport. Before proceeding, it is necessary to study the gases that are

capable of diffusing over a cell membrane. Since cells quickly use oxygen in metabolic

activities, the concentration of O2 within the cell is often lower than the concentration externally.

As a consequence, oxygen diffuses straight from the interstitial fluid across the membrane's

bilayer membrane or into the cytoplasm inside the cell. Contrastingly , since cells create Carbon
. 3

dioxide as a byproduct of metabolism, Carbon dioxide levels inside the cytoplasm increase; as a

result, CO2 will diffuse out of the cell via the lipid bilayer and into the interstitial fluid, where its

concentration is lower. This process of molecules moving from highly concentrated areas to less

concentrated areas is referred to as simple diffusion.

Osmosis is the process through which water diffuses down a concentration gradient via a

semipermeable membrane. If a membrane is selectively permeable but not to solutes, water will

diffuse to the side with lower water concentration to balance its own concentration. Water may

readily pass through the cell membranes of all cells, through either transmembrane proteins or by

sliding between the membrane's phospholipid ends. Solutes inside a solution generate osmotic

pressure, which is a force that attracts water. Osmosis develops whenever there is an asymmetry

between the solutes outside and within a cell. Osmosis plays a key role in homeostasis. A critical

component of homeostasis in biological systems is the establishment of an internal environment

where all body's cells are in an isotonic solution, or having equal osmotic pressure.

Facilitated diffusion is the method utilized to transport molecules that are unable to pass

through the lipid bilayer owing to their size and/or polarity. Facilitated diffusion is often used to

describe the transfer of glucose from the blood, where it is utilized to synthesize ATP. While

glucose may be concentrated outside of cells, it cannot be transported through the lipid bilayer by

simple diffusion due to its size and polarity. To address this, a specific transport protein known as

the glucose transporter will carry glucose molecules into the cell, facilitating their internal

diffusion. Numerous additional solutes, such as amino acids, need enhanced diffusion to enter or

exit a cell, including wastes. Facilitated diffusion is a passive process that does not need the cell

to spend any energy.

. 4

Passive membrane transfer is the most common method of transporting molecules across

membranes. Active transport necessitates the expenditure of cell energy, while passive transport

occurs spontaneously. Low-molecular-weight compounds may flow across membranes passively

through diffusion and osmosis. When chemicals are equally dispersed throughout the system,

they diffuse from high concentrations to low concentrations. In solutions containing many

substances, the diffusion of each kind of molecule is independent of the diffusion of the others.

The rate of diffusion may be affected by a variety of parameters, including but not limited to the

concentration gradient, diffusing particle size, and system temperature.

Theoretically we have a closed circulatory system but is it completely closed?

This question can only be answered if we first describe what an open circulatory system

really is. Instead of using blood arteries to deliver nutrients and waste throughout the body, an

open circulatory system uses a fluid that freely circulates throughout the body cavity. The

circulatory system of arthropods and insects is open. Because it is mingled with interstitial fluid,

their blood is referred to as hemolymph. Haemolymph circulates through the organs in the

animal's body cavity and then returns to the heart when the animal moves and the heart beats.

Because of this mobility, gases and nutrients may be exchanged.

Blood passes through the body's veins, establishing a closed delivery system that begins

and ends with the heart, making the human circulatory system closed. An individual's heart,

lungs, and veins make up the closed circulatory system. A closed circulatory system confines

blood to the blood vessels, and blood travels from the heart through the circulatory system of the

body in a single path before returning to the heart. It is possible to think of the heart as having

two sides, a left and a right: Oxygen-depleted blood from the body's tissues is pumped to the
. 5

lungs by the right side of the heart, where it is refueled with oxygen and carbon dioxide is

expelled. Circulating blood from and to and from the lungs makes up the pulmonary circuit

(pulmo = lung). In order to provide oxygen and food to the body's tissues, oxygenated blood is

pumped from the left ventricle of the heart all throughout the body. In the systemic circuit, the

blood vessels that supply all of the body's tissues with blood travel in a closed circuit.

When compared to a closed circulatory system in which nutrients and wastes are

contained within veins, an open circulatory system allows fluid to move freely across the body

cavity to carry them throughout. To put it another way: All vertebrates have closed circulatory

systems, which implies that blood never leaves the vascular system, which includes the arteries,

veins and capillaries. An individual's heart, lungs, and veins make up the closed circulatory

system. Except for pulmonary arteries, arteries transport oxygen-rich blood to tissues, whereas

veins return deoxygenated blood to the heart (except pulmonary veins). Capillaries, the tiniest

and most numerous blood vessels, transfer blood from arteries to veins.

Because the circulatory system is closed as opposed to an open one, blood is contained in

blood vessels and does not freely flow throughout the body. When it comes to the circulatory

system, we cannot say it is blocked off from the rest of the body since it is linked to every other

system.

Explain spirometry testing and what information about lung volumes can be obtained.

Spirometry is a simple test that measures how much air you can push yourself to exhale

in one forceful breath to assist diagnose and monitor certain lung problems. It is done using a

spirometer, a little machine connected to a mouthpiece by a cable.

. 6

Simply inhale deeply and blow through a mouthpiece connected to the spirometer to

measure your spirometry. During the test one will exhale until your lungs are completely empty

by blowing as forcefully as rapidly as you can. To get two or three excellent attempts, you will

have to retake the exam a few more times. During the exam, you will get guidance and

encouragement to perform at your peak. To do well on the exam, make an effort throughout the

process. The findings are calculated and graphed using a computerized sensor (part of the

spirometer). The findings show how much air a person can push out in the first second, or how

much volume they can push in. This is the first-second Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1). This

shows whether there is an impediment in the airway or not. Spirometry may measure how much

air is being expelled from the lungs, which is measured using a device called a spirometer. This

is Vital Capacity Under Stress (FVC). Spirometry can estimate the fraction of forced vital

capacity (FVC) exhaled in the first second of breathing (FEV1). The FEV1/FVC ratio appears

here.

Pulmonary function tests, such as spirometry, measure airflow obstruction in the lungs.

When you use spirometry, you may find out how much (volume) and how quickly (flow) your

lungs can carry air in and out. Tests that determine how effectively you breathe are known as

pulmonary function tests (PFTs).

Explain the role of the carotid sinus reflex for blood pressure and what can happen when

pressure is put on this area

More blood flows to the brain via the carotid arteries (right and left) than any other part

of the body. Located where the external and internal carotid arteries meet is the Carotid Sinus

(bulb). There is a dilated area around the base of the internal carotid artery lined with

baroreceptors that sense changes in arterial blood pressure, called the carotid sinus (sinus =
. 7

hollow). This reaction preserves blood flow to the brain while also assisting in the maintenance

of a healthy blood pressure level across the whole circulatory system. The baroreceptor reflex is

compromised in cases of orthostatic hypotension, which results. With many baroregulation nerve

receptors (which help regulate body pressure), the Carotid Sinus is highly responsive to changes

in arterial blood pressure either by the ANS or by an external stimulus such as medication. Heart

rhythm disorders such as arrhythmia and cardiac arrest may have severe and/or fatal implications

on the body because of the heart's sensitivity. The heart's primary duty is to keep blood pressure

and cerebral blood flow balanced.

When pressure (or a lack of pressure) is applied to the area, the carotid sinus serves as a

fast negative feedback loop that helps maintain blood pressure homeostasis. Nerve terminals link

in the carotid sinus' outer layer to form a nerve. An IX cranial nerve (the Hering sinus nerve)

detects and conveys information about the carotid artery stretch to the brain through a branch of

the glossopharyngeal nerve called the Hering sinus nerve. The carotid artery's walls are stretched

when blood flows through it, and as the stretching increases, so does the pressure. In order for

the brain to know how much pressure/stretch is being exerted, baroreceptor nerves pick up on

this information and send it as a signal. As blood pressure and action potentials change, the brain

makes a distinction between normal and abnormal values. When the pressure is raised, the nerves

send more action potentials to the brain; when the pressure is lowered, the nerves send fewer.

The autonomic nervous system, which is part of the brain, responds to signals signaling a change

in blood pressure (parasympathetic or sympathetic).

The pressure on the baroreceptors positioned in the carotid sinuses is raised as a result of

applying pressure to the arteries in those areas. The carotid baroreceptors respond to an increase
. 8

in the rate of afferent impulse firing. Parasympathetic nerves take over when sympathetic nerves

are shut off. As a result, blood pressure goes down.

Is it easier, harder, or the same to breathe at high altitudes compared to sea level and why?

Unless the body adapts appropriately to the progressive acclimatization process,

breathing becomes more difficult at higher elevations than at sea level. Acute mountain sickness

(AMS) symptoms include headaches, shortness of breath, nausea, and dizziness if you suddenly

ascend from sea level to a high altitude with decreased atmospheric pressure and oxygen levels.

Severe AMS bouts may lead to life-threatening pulmonary and cerebral edema, both of which are

fatal.

Acclimatization occurs when your body changes its respiratory and hematopoetic systems

as a result of a long-term change in elevation from sea level to the mountains. Peripheral

chemoreceptors become more sensitive to increases in PCO2 when arterial PO2 is reduced.

Reduced PO2 directly enhances PCO2 in response to elevated PCO2. Because of the brain's

attempt to restore gas exchange, breathing becomes more vigorous. As a result of better

ventilation, people who live at high altitudes commonly have PCO2 values under 40 mm Hg (its

value at sea level). A decrease in hemoglobin saturation is almost always seen while traveling at

high altitudes due to a lack of accessible O2.

Only 67% of arterial blood is oxygenated at high altitudes (typically 98 percent at sea

level). hemoglobin features offer a safety buffer to compensate for this, allowing the body to

maintain hemoglobin saturation despite a considerable decline in PO2. As a result, hemoglobin

remains saturated even at high altitudes. Hemoglobin excretes just 20%–25% of its oxygen at sea

level, indicating that even at higher altitudes with lower saturation levels, the tissues' O2 needs
. 9

are met under resting conditions. Because low blood oxygen levels stimulate kidney production

of erythropoietin, the bone marrow produces more red blood cells. Long-term consequences of

high-altitude living may be offset by a gradual period of acclimatization over time.

Acclimatization stress causes hypoxia when the respiratory and circulatory systems cannot meet

tissue O2 demand.

The lower the pressure outside the lungs is, the more difficult it is to push air into your

lungs when you are high up. This is because air pressure changes from high to low as you move

up in elevation. Despite a steady supply of oxygen, our lungs are receiving less of it as air

particles get further apart.

Describe the role of carbon dioxide in maintaining the pH of blood

When it comes to blood pH, carbon dioxide plays a significant role. The bicarbonate

buffer system, which carries the bulk of carbon dioxide, allows it to control blood pH.

The majority of carbon dioxide molecules are transported through the bicarbonate buffer

system (85 percent ). As a result of this process, carbon dioxide is able to enter the hemoglobin

of red blood cells. Red blood cells contain carbonic anhydrase (CA), an enzyme that converts

carbon dioxide (CO2) to carbonic acid (H2CO3) (H2CO3). When exposed to air, carbonic acid

spontaneously dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3). This

mechanism allows continuous carbon dioxide absorption into the circulation across the

concentration gradient due to the quick carbon dioxide conversion to bicarbonate ions. It also

contributes to the generation of H+ ions. The pH of the blood might vary if there is an excess of

H+ produced. hemoglobin binds free H+ ions, hence pH variations are limited by hemoglobin. Cl

exchanges places with the newly formed bicarbonate ion (B) and moves out of the red blood cell

into the liquid part of the blood; this is known as a chloride shift. The bicarbonate ion is
. 10

exchanged for the chloride ion and then returned to the red blood cell once it reaches the lungs.

The bicarbonate ion and hemoglobin's H+ ion create a connection. Carbonic acid is generated as

a consequence, and CA's enzymatic activity turns it back into carbon dioxide. Exhalation causes

the discharge of carbon dioxide from the body's tissues via the lungs.

As a result of using a bicarbonate buffer, carbon dioxide is "absorbed" into the

bloodstream without causing much of a change in pH. A little change in the body's overall pH

may cause catastrophic injury or death. This is crucial. Bicarbonate buffer systems allow

individuals to travel and survive at high altitudes because they regulate carbon dioxide while

maintaining a normal pH level in the body when the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon

dioxide fluctuate.

How and why is fetal hemogloblin different than adult hemoglobin?

As an essential component of red blood cells, hemoglobin helps carry oxygen from the

lungs to the body's tissues, where it is needed. When comparing the structure and function of

adult and fetal hemoglobin, this must be taken into account.

The fundamental chemical structure of hemoglobin and its affinity for oxygen are two

crucial differences (i.e. the tightness in which the hemoglobin binds with the oxygen molecules).

Four polypeptide subunits make up adult hemoglobin, however only two polypeptide subunits

make up fetal hemoglobin. The alpha and beta chains of adult hemoglobin are coupled. Alpha

and gamma chains are found in equal amounts in fetal hemoglobin. The oxygen dissociation

curve shifts to the left because fetal hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen.

To conclude, hemoglobin F is a unique kind of hemoglobin produced by the developing

fetus. Adult hemoglobin is less oxygen-affine than hemoglobin F. This increases the fetus' access

to oxygen in the mother's circulation, allowing it to more effectively transport oxygen from the
. 11

mother to itself. The breathing patterns of a developing fetus differ from those of an adult. The

umbilical cord provides the fetus with oxygen instead of the mother's bloodstream.

Explain a ‘shift to the left’ on the hemoglobin – oxygen saturation curve

A relationship between arterial partial pressure and oxygen saturation hemoglobin (Sao2)

is shown in the oxygen saturation graph (Pao2). For a number of causes, the curve may migrate

to the right or left. A right shift indicates hemoglobin's decreasing affinity for oxygen; as a result,

oxygen escapes from hemoglobin and enters the cells. Hemoglobin has a higher affinity for

oxygen, which facilitates their association in the lungs and inhibits their dissociation in the

tissues. In other words, it increases the efficiency of hemoglobin in receiving oxygen while

making it more difficult for hemoglobin to release it.

In alkalosis, more O2 binds to hemoglobin molecules (low quantities of CO2 combined

with hemoglobin). The Bohr effect is a change in the concentrations of hydrogen and carbon

dioxide ions that leads in a right-to-left shift in the curve or viscera. Changes in body

temperature and the quantity of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate in the blood also impact the curve. A

right shift is caused by increased 2,3-diphosphglycerate levels and a rise in core body

temperature, while a left shift has the reverse effect.