Revision-Pack - 11B - Bio 2

REVISION PACK : - 11B - BIOLOGY
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of molecules down the concentration gradient. The

molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
What are two types of diffusion?
The two types of diffusion include simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion. In
facilitated diffusion, molecules move down the concentration gradient through a
facilitator channel protein or carrier protein. On the other hand, in simple
diffusion, molecules move down the concentration gradient through the cell
membrane without the help of any protein channel.
When is osmosis?
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

concentrated solution across a semi-permeable membrane.
Which type of transport uses ATP as an energy source?
ATP molecules are used as an energy source in active transport. It is a type of

molecular transport in which molecules move against the concentration gradient,
and thus require energy.
Bulk transport
To transfer large particles such as proteins and sugars into the cell, the cell relies
on different mechanisms. Usually, these types of transport involve the
cell engulfing the macromolecule, enclosing it with the plasma membrane and
taking it into the cell through vesicular transport. This process is
called endocytosis, of which there are various types. The reverse is
called exocytosis, where molecules are transported out of the cell.
Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a general term for a ctive transport that involves the movement of
particles into a cell through vesicles. The plasma membrane first forms
a pocket around the molecule, bringing it into the cell. The pocket is
then pinched off, trapping it in a vesicle inside the cell. Three types of endocytosis

are phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which very large particles, such as cells or

cell debris, are transported inside the cell. Cells such as the macrophage cells of
the immune system take advantage of phagocytosis to ‘eat’ bacteria
Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) is a form of endocytosis in which liquid droplets are

taken up by the cell.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a form of endocytosis in

which transmembrane receptor proteins across the cell membrane are used to
take up a target molecule. When the molecules are bound to the receptors, the
receptors and their attached molecules are taken into the cell in a vesicle. This
process allows cells to take up large amounts of molecules that are present in low
concentrations in the extracellular fluid.
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the process by which cells are transported from the inside of the cell
to the outside. This occurs through vesicles which fuse to the cell membrane and
allow the release of the particles.
What is the respiratory system?
The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you
breathe. It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. The muscles that
power your lungs are also part of the respiratory system. These parts work
together to move oxygen throughout the body and clean out waste gases like
carbon dioxide.
ANATOMY
What are the parts of the respiratory system?
The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you
breathe. Each group of parts has many separate components.
Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that
includes your:
 Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your
respiratory system.
 Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate
the temperature and humidity of the air you inhale.
 Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the
trachea (windpipe).
 Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs.
 Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into
each lung.
 Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your
blood.
From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other
tissues.
Muscles and bones help move the air you inhale into and out of your lungs. Some
of the bones and muscles in the respiratory system include your:
 Diaphragm: Muscle that helps your lungs pull in air and push it out.
 Ribs: Bones that surround and protect your lungs and heart.
When you breathe out, your blood carries carbon dioxide and other waste out of
the body. Other components that work with the lungs and blood vessels include:
 Alveoli: Tiny air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide takes place.
 Bronchioles: Small branches of the bronchial tubes that lead to the alveoli.
 Capillaries: Blood vessels in the alveoli walls that move oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:
 Cilia: Tiny hairs that move in a wave-like motion to filter dust and other
irritants out of your airways.
 Epiglottis: Tissue flap at the entrance to the trachea that closes when you
swallow to keep food and liquids out of your airway.
 Larynx (voice box): Hollow organ that allows you to talk and make sounds
when air moves in and out.
How can I keep my respiratory system healthy?
Being able to clear mucus out of the lungs and airways is important for respiratory
health.
To keep your respiratory system healthy, you should:
 Avoid pollutants that can damage your airways, including secondhand

smoke, chemicals and radon (a radioactive gas that can cause cancer).
Wear a mask if you are exposed to fumes, dust or other types of pollutants
for any reason.
 Don't smoke.
 Eat a healthy diet with lots of fruits and vegetables and drink water to stay
hydrated
 Exercise regularly to keep your lungs healthy.
 Prevent infections by washing your hands often and getting a flu vaccine
each year.
Adaptations of the alveoli
Each alveolus are adapted to make gas exchange as efficient as possible:
 Large surface area: there are approximately 700 million alveoli in our lungs
with a combined surface area of 70 square meters.
 Good blood supply: lots of capillaries surround each alveolus
 Short diffusion distance: the walls of both the alveoli and capillaries are just
one cell thick
 Moist surfaces: the liquid on the surface of alveoli dissolves gases and
facilitates diffusion
Enzyme function and structure
Enzymes are biological catalysts - they speed up the rate of chemical reactions
happening inside our body. They work by reducing the activation energy of a
reaction. Activation energy is defined as the minimum amount of energy needed
for a reaction to happen. If less energy is needed, then reactions can take place as
lower temperatures than would be needed without an enzyme. Without the

enzymes in our bodies, the reactions that happen inside of us would not be
possible at normal body temperature. Remember that enzymes are unchanged at
the end of a reaction which means they can be reused.
Enzymes can be classed as either intracellular if they catalyse reactions inside

cells e.g. RNA polymerase, or extracellular if they catalyse reactions outside of
cells e.g. amylase. All enzymes are globular proteins and have regions called
active sites. The active site of an enzyme has a specific shape and allows the
substrate to bind. Other enzymes may have regulatory regions where an inhibitor
can bind, which we refer to as the allosteric site.
Mechanisms of enzyme action
Scientists have two ideas to explain the way in which enzymes work: the ‘lock-
and-key’ model and the ‘induced-fit’ model. They are models because they are
our best-accepted theories based on the evidence we have available.
Lock and Key model
The lock and key model is the simpler of the two theories of enzyme action. This
model suggests that the substrate fits into the enzyme’s active site in the same
way in which a key fits into a lock. The shape of the substrate and the active site
are perfectly complementary to each other. Catalysis happens in the following
stages:
1. The substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site, forming an enzyme-

substrate complex (ES complex).
2. The enzyme converts the substrate into product, forming an enzyme-
product complex (EP complex).
3. The product is released from the enzyme’s active site.

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The Induced Fit model
The induced fit model suggests that the shapes of the enzyme’s active site and its
substrate are not exactly complementary, but when the substrate enters the
active site, a conformational change (change of shape) occurs which induces
catalysis. The induced fit model can be broken down into the following stages:
1. The substrate enters the enzyme’s active site, forming an ES complex.

2. The enzyme undergoes a conformational change which causes the
conversion of substrate into product, forming an EP complex.
3. The product is released from the enzymes active site.
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Comparing the two models of enzyme action
The advantage of the lock-and-key model is that it explains why most enzymes
display such high specificity to their substrates. Each enzyme will catalyse only a
certain type of reaction and will only bind to a single specific substrate out of the
millions of different molecules that are floating around our bodies. However, not
all enzymes catalyse a single chemical reaction. For example, lipase exhibits
broader specificity and can bind to a variety of lipids, which only the induced fit
model is able to explain. In addition, the induced fit model is better able to
explain how catalysis actually occurs. A conformational change, which would
place stress on the bonds within the substrate can explain how bonds would
break in order for the products to form. This makes the induced fit model the
more widely accepted model of the two.
Factors which affect rate of reaction

Enzyme concentration
As enzyme concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases since more

active sites will be available to bind to substrate molecules. This means that there
will be more frequent collisions between the enzyme and substrate, so there will
be more formation of enzyme-substrate complexes. However, a point will be
reached when increasing enzyme concentration does not result in further
increases in reaction rate. At this point, something else has become a limiting
factor, such as the availability of substrate.
Substrate concentration
As substrate concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases since there

are more substrate molecules to fill the enzyme’s active sites. There will be more
frequent collisions so more formation of ES complexes. At some point
a ‘saturation’ point is reached where all of the enzyme’s active sites are
occupied with substrate molecules, so the addition of more substrate molecules
will have no effect on the rate of reaction. At this point, the reaction is proceeding
as fast as possible, which is referred to as Vmax. The only way the reaction can go
any faster is by increasing enzyme concentration.
Temperature
At low temperatures, the rate of reaction will be slow because the enzyme and
substrate have low amounts of kinetic energy. This means that there won’t be
many collisions so there will be reduced formation of ES complexes. As the
temperature is increased, the number of collisions increases, increasing the
formation of ES complexes and increasing the rate of reaction. If the temperature
becomes really high, hydrogen bonds will begin to break within the protein,
causing it to unravel and become denatured. If enzymes are denatured, they lose
the shape of their active sites which means they cannot bind to their substrate,
decreasing the rate of reaction.
pH
Each enzyme has its own optimum pH at which it works best. Pepsin, the enzyme
which digests protein in the stomach, works best in acidic environments whereas
the enzymes responsible for the digestion of carbohydrates work better at a more
neutral pH. Deviations from the optimum pH change the charge on the enzyme,
which affects ionic bonding within its structure. Deviations in pH also break
hydrogen bonds. This causes it to change shape and become denatured,
decreasing the rate of reaction as pH deviates from the enzyme’s optimum
conditions.
Lipase is an enzyme which works to break down lipids (dietary fats) which are
triglycerides; that is, they are esters formed with three fatty acid molecules on a
glycerol backbone. Lipase hydrolyses the ester bonds between the fatty acids and
the glycerol, splitting up the triglyceride into fatty acids so that they can be
absorbed into the digestive system. When a triglyceride is broken down, it breaks
down to form glycerol and three fatty ACIDS. When a solution becomes more
acidic the pH decreases.
What is the enzyme called Rubisco?

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (RubisCO) is arguably one of
the most abundant proteins in the biosphere and a key enzyme in the global
carbon cycle. RUBISCOis probably the most abundant enzyme on
Earth.During carbon fixation, the substrate molecules for RuBisCO are ribulose
1,5-bisphosphate, carbon dioxide (distinct from the "activating" carbon dioxide)
and water. RuBisCO can also allow a reaction to occur with molecular oxygen (O2)
instead of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Cardiovascular Disease
Most of the time our hearts and blood vessels do a pretty good job at delivering
oxygenated blood to various body tissues. Sometimes though, damage occurs in
an artery which can lead to it becoming blocked. If a complete blockage occurs,
body tissues might not receive enough oxygen and start to die - that’s how a heart
attack happens.
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis a process in which the artery lining becomes hard due to the
build-up of fatty material in the artery wall. It is a problem because it can lead to
the artery becoming completely blocked, cutting off blood circulation and leading
to events like a heart attack or stroke. It occurs in the following stages:
 The inner lining of the artery wall (the endothelium) becomes damaged
due to high blood pressure (hypertension).
 This triggers an inflammatory response - white blood cells (such as
macrophages) move towards the site of damage and accumulate with lipids
(fats) which are circulating in the blood. The accumulation of these
substances underneath the artery wall leads to the formation of fatty
streaks in the endothelium.
 The fatty streaks develop into an atheroma, causing the lumen of the artery
to become narrower and restricting blood flow. This causes blood pressure
to increase further.
 The hardening of arteries, caused by the development of atheromas, is
referred to as atherosclerosis.
Cardiovascular disease
The formation of an atheroma in an artery causes partial blockage of an artery. If

the atheroma ruptures, it can trigger a blood clot to form which may completely
prevent blood flow. The stages of this process occur as follows:
 The atheroma ruptures and bursts through the endothelium of the artery,
damaging the artery wall.
 This triggers blood clotting (thrombosis) at the site of damage.
 The blood clot can cause a complete blockage within the artery.
 This prevents blood flow in the artery which means that oxygen isn’t
delivered to the tissues downstream of the artery.
 The cells within the tissue cannot carry out aerobic respiration and will
start to die.
If the blockage happens within a coronary artery, the blockage will lead to a heart
attack. If it occurs in a blood vessel leading to the brain it will cause a stroke and if
it happens in an artery in the legs in can cause deep vein thrombosis (DVT).
Blood Clotting
Fragments in our blood, called platelets, clump together at the site of a wound to
prevent the excessive loss of blood when we injure ourselves. It also prevents
microorganisms from entering our body when the skin’s protective barrier is
broken. However, when this process happens inside arteries it can be dangerous
as it has the potential to completely restrict blood flow within the vessel.
The process of blood clotting (thrombosis) takes place in the following stages:
 An enzyme called thromboplastin is released from damaged blood vessels.

It requires calcium ions in order to function.
 Thromboplastin catalyses the formation of prothrombin into thrombin,
which is itself an enzyme.
 Thrombin catalyses the formation of fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrinogen is a

soluble protein that is dissolved in the blood. Fibrin is insoluble and forms
fibres which tangle together platelets and red blood cells to form a blood
clot.
Risk factors for CVD
Things which increase our risk of developing cardiovascular disease can be

grouped into lifestyle factors (things which result from our behaviour and are
under our control) and non-lifestyle factors (things that we were born with and
cannot control). Some of these factors are interlinked - for example, the genes
you have may mean that you are more susceptible to high blood pressure, which
is also affected by your diet.
Lifestyle factors
 Smoking
o The nicotine in cigarette smoke makes platelets more sticky,
increasing the chance of a blood clot forming which could lead to
blockage in the arteries.
o Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke binds to haemoglobin in red
blood cells, reducing the amount of oxygen being transported in the
blood. This means the heart has to pump faster to get the same
amount of oxygen delivery, which increases blood pressure.
o Smoking also reduces levels of antioxidants in the blood.
Antioxidants are molecules in our body which can protect the
arteries from damage. The reduced levels of antioxidants in smokers
can increase the likelihood of endothelial damage and atheroma
formation.
 High blood pressure

High blood pressure puts more strain on the artery walls and means they
are more likely to suffer damage. This leads to the process of
atherosclerosis which in turn can lead to blood clotting and cardiovascular
disease. A diet high in salt, high alcohol consumption, inactivity and stress
can increase blood pressure.
 Diet
o A diet high in saturated fats and low in unsaturated fats can increase
the risk of CVD. Consumption of saturated fats increases blood
cholesterol levels which increase the likelihood of atheroma
formation.
o A diet high in salt can increase the risk of CVD by increasing blood
pressure.
 Lack of exercise
A sedentary lifestyle can increase the chances of CVD by increasing blood
pressure.
Non-lifestyle factors
 Age
The risk of CVD increases with age (heart attacks are much more
uncommon in people under the age of 40). This is because the fatty
deposits which accumulate in our arteries build up over time. In fact,
atherosclerosis is happening even in young children. It’s only when the
individual becomes middle-aged that the hardening of arteries can become
problematic.
 Genetics
Some people are unlucky enough to inherit certain alleles which increase
cholesterol production or make them more susceptible to high blood
pressure. Likewise, other people can inherit beneficial alleles which will
reduce their risk of CVD by dampening down cholesterol production or
giving them slightly lower blood pressure.
 Gender
Men are at a much greater risk of developing CVD than women due to
lower oestrogen levels. Oestrogen increases the levels of ‘good’ cholesterol
(HDLs) which removes the amount of cholesterol circulating in the blood.
This reduces the risk of atheroma formation.
Good and bad cholesterol - HDLs and LDLs
Not all fats are created equally and the different types of fat can have very
different effects on our bodies. Saturated fats, which contain only single C-C
bonds, are more unhealthy and are found in animal-based foods such as cheeses,
butter and beef burgers. Unsaturated fats, which contain at least one double C=C
bond, are healthier and are typically found in plant-based foods such as olive oil,
nuts and oily fish.
Saturated fats increase the levels of a molecule called ‘low-density lipoprotein

(LDL)’ in the blood. Lipoproteins are like little packages of lipids surrounded by
protein and function to transfer cholesterol between the liver (where it is made
and broken down) and the body tissues. LDLs take cholesterol from the liver and
deposits it in the blood, where it will circulate until it is needed by our cells. The
other type of lipoprotein, called high-density lipoprotein (HDL) transports
cholesterol from the bloodstream and returns it to the liver where it can be
destroyed. A high intake of unsaturated fats increase HDL levels in our blood. This
means that a high amount of LDLs and low levels of HDLs can have the effect of
increasing cholesterol levels, which make us more susceptible to cardiovascular
disease.
Our cells need cholesterol because it is used to make sex-hormones (such as

oestrogen), to synthesise bile and as a component of plasma membranes. The
problem is that our liver already synthesises enough cholesterol, then on top of
that we consume way more than our bodies know what to do with. Therefore, it is
important that we have a high ratio of HDL to LDLs by eating more unsaturated
fats to saturated fats. High levels of HDLs will ensure that excess cholesterol is
taken back to the liver to be broken down and removed from our body.
Obesity Indicators
Doctors use measurements such as the body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip
ratio to determine whether someone is packing on the pounds and needs to lay
off the biscuits. People who are identified in the overweight and obese categories
will be more at risk of developing CVD and will be advised by their doctor to eat
healthier and to carry out more exercise.
Body mass index (BMI) - a person’s BMI is calculated by dividing their body mass
by their height squared. The problem with calculating a BMI is that it doesn’t take
into account whether their body mass consists of fat or muscle. Using BMI, a
bodybuilder could be classified as morbidly obese even though they have little fat
on their body and are perfectly healthy.
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Waist-to-hip ratio - the waist-to-hip ratio is calculated by dividing an individual’s

waist size by their hip size. It takes into account where fat is accumulating on the
body and can be a more accurate prediction of whether a person has excess
weight.
Treatments for CVD
 Antihypertensives - beta-blockers and vasodilators are two types of drug

which act as antihypertensives since they work by lowering blood pressure.
A lower blood pressure means there is a lower risk of endothelial

dysfunction (damage to the artery wall). The side-effects of
antihypertensives include heart palpitations, fainting, headaches and
drowsiness.
 Statins - these are drugs which work by reducing cholesterol levels by
lowering the LDL concentration in the blood. Side-effects of statins include
muscle pain, nausea, headaches, increased risk of diabetes and problems
with the digestive system.
 Anticoagulants - these are substances which reduce blood clotting. The
risks include excessive bleeding if the person injures themselves, allergic
reactions, tissue swelling and osteoporosis.
 Platelet inhibitors - these are also substances which reduce blood clotting
which work by preventing platelets from sticking together. The side-effects
include rashes, nausea, liver dysfunction, diarrhoea and excessive bleeding
if an injury occurs.
The Function of Heart

The function of the heart in any organism is to maintain a constant flow of blood
throughout the body. This replenishes oxygen and circulates nutrients among the
cells and tissues.
Following are the main functions of the heart:
 One of the primary functions of the human heart is to pump blood

throughout the body.
 Blood delivers oxygen, hormones, glucose and other components to various
parts of the body, including the human heart.
 The heart also ensures that adequate blood pressure is maintained in the
body
There are two types of circulation within the body, namely pulmonary circulation
and systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation (blue) and Systemic circulation (red)
Types of Circulation
 Pulmonary circulation is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying

deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs and then bringing
oxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation is another portion of circulation where
the oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to every organ and tissue
in the body, and deoxygenated blood comes back again to the heart.
Now, the heart itself is a muscle and therefore, it needs a constant supply of
oxygenated blood. This is where another type of circulation comes into play, the
coronary circulation.
 Coronary circulation is an essential portion of the circulation, where

oxygenated blood is supplied to the heart. This is important as the heart is
responsible for supplying blood throughout the body.
 Moreover, organs like the brain need a steady flow of fresh, oxygenated
blood to ensure functionality.
In a nutshell, the circulatory system plays a vital role in supplying oxygen, and
nutrients and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes from the body. Let us
gain a deeper insight into the various anatomical structures of the heart:
Structure of the Human Heart

The human heart is about the size of a human fist and is divided into four
chambers, namely two ventricles and two atria. The ventricles are the chambers
that pump blood and the atrium are the chambers that receive blood. Among
these both the right atrium and ventricle make up the “right heart,” and the left
atrium and ventricle make up the “left heart.” The structure of the heart also
houses the biggest artery in the body – the aorta.
The right and the left region of the heart are separated by a wall of muscle called
the septum. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs for re-oxygenation
through the pulmonary arteries. The right semilunar valves close and prevent the
blood from flowing back into the heart. Then, the oxygenated blood is received by
the left atrium from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. Read on to explore more
about the structure of the heart.
Internal Structure of Heart
The internal structure of the heart is rather intricate with several chambers and
valves that control the flow of blood.
Chambers of the Heart

Vertebrate hearts can be classified based on the number of chambers present.
For instance, most fish have two chambers, and reptiles and amphibians have
three chambers. Avian and mammalian hearts consists of four chambers. Humans
are mammals; hence, we have four chambers, namely:
 Left atrium
 Right atrium
 Left ventricle
 Right ventricle
Atria are thin and have less muscular walls and are smaller than ventricles. These
are the blood-receiving chambers that are fed by the large veins.
Ventricles are larger and more muscular chambers responsible for pumping and
pushing blood out into circulation. These are connected to larger arteries that
deliver blood for circulation.
The right ventricle and right atrium are comparatively smaller than the left
chambers. The walls consist of fewer muscles compared to the left portion, and
the size difference is based on their functions. The blood originating from the
right side flows through the pulmonary circulation, while blood arising from the
left chambers is pumped throughout the body.
Blood Vessels
In organisms with closed circulatory systems, the blood flows within vessels of
varying sizes. All vertebrates, including humans, possess this type of circulation.
The external structure of the heart has many blood vessels that form a network,
with other major vessels emerging from within the structure. The blood
vessels typically comprise the following:
 Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior

vena cava, and it eventually drains into the right atrium.
 Capillaries are tiny, tube-like vessels which form a network between the
arteries to veins.
 Arteries are muscular-walled tubes mainly involved in supplying
oxygenated blood away from the heart to all other parts of the body. Aorta
is the largest of the arteries and it branches off into various smaller arteries
throughout the body.
Valves
Valves are flaps of fibrous tissues located in the cardiac chambers between the
veins. They ensure that the blood flows in a single direction (unidirectional). Flaps
also prevent the blood from flowing backwards. Based on their function, valves
are of two types:
 Atrioventricular valves are between ventricles and atria. The valve

between the right ventricle and right atrium is the tricuspid valve, and the
one which is found between the left ventricle and left atrium is known as
the mitral valve.
 Semilunar valves are located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It is
also found between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle.
STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA: -
DNA
In cells, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the nucleic acid that functions as the
original blueprint for the synthesis of proteins. DNA contains the sugar
deoxyribose, phosphates and a unique sequence of the nitrogenous bases
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T).
Brief Insight into the Structure and Composition of DNA

The DNA molecules contain instructions a living entity requires to grow, develop
and reproduce. These instructions are present inside each cell and are inherited
from the parents to their offspring.
It is made up of nucleotides which contain a nitrogenous group, a phosphate
group, and a sugar group. The order of the nitrogenous bases – thymine(T),
guanine(G), cytosine(C), and adenine(A), is crucial in determining the genetic

code.
Genes are formed by the order of the nitrogenous bases present in the DNA
which is crucial for protein synthesis. RNA is another nucleic acid that translates
genetic information into proteins from DNA.
The nucleotides are linked together for the formation of two long strands which
spiral to produce a structure known as the double-helix which resembles that of a
ladder wherein the sugar and phosphate molecules form the sides while the rungs
are formed by the bases.
The bases located on one strand pair up with the bases on the other strand, as in
– guanine pairs with cytosine and adenine pairs with thymine.
The DNA molecules are extremely long and hence without the right packaging,
they cannot fit into cells. Thus, DNA is tightly coiled to produce formations
referred to as chromosomes. Every chromosome has a single DNA molecule. In
humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes that are present within the nucleus
of the cells.
RNA
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid which is directly involved in protein
synthesis. Ribonucleic acid is an important nucleotide with long chains of nucleic
acid present in all living cells. Its main role is to act as a messenger conveying
instructions from DNA for controlling protein synthesis.
RNA contains the sugar ribose, phosphates, and the nitrogenous bases adenine
(A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U). DNA and RNA share the nitrogenous
bases A, G, and C. Thymine is usually only present in DNA and uracil is usually only
present in RNA.
Overview of transcription
Transcription is the first step in gene expression, in which information from a gene is
used to construct a functional product such as a protein. The goal of transcription is to
make a RNA copy of a gene's DNA sequence. For a protein-coding gene, the RNA
copy, or transcript, carries the information needed to build a polypeptide (protein or
protein subunit). Eukaryotic transcripts need to go through some processing steps
before translation into proteins.
Key points:
Transcription is the first step in gene expression. It involves copying a gene's DNA
sequence to make an RNA molecule.
Transcription is performed by enzymes called RNA polymerases, which link

nucleotides to form an RNA strand (using a DNA strand as a template).
Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.
In eukaryotes, RNA molecules must be processed after transcription: they

are spliced and have a 5' cap and poly-A tail put on their ends.
Transcription is controlled separately for each gene in your genome.
Translation is the process of protein synthesis in which the genetic information

encoded in mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids on a polypeptide
chain
 Ribosomes bind to mRNA in the cytoplasm and move along the molecule in a 5’ –
3’ direction until it reaches a start codon (AUG)
 Anticodons on tRNA molecules align opposite appropriate codons according to

complementary base pairing (e.g. AUG = UAC)
 Each tRNA molecule carries a specific amino acid (according to the genetic code)
 Ribosomes catalyse the formation of peptide bonds between adjacent amino
acids (via condensation reactions)
 The ribosome moves along the mRNA molecule synthesising a polypeptide chain
until it reaches a stop codon
 At this point translation ceases and the polypeptide chain is released
Overview of Translation
Translation Mnemonic
The key components of translation are:

 Messenger RNA (goes to…)
 Ribosome (reads sequence in …)
 Codons (recognised by …)
 Anticodons (found on …)
 Transfer RNA (which carries …)
 Amino acids (which join via …)
 Peptide bonds (to form …)
 Polypeptides
Mnemonic: Mr Cat App

What is a stroke?
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures and bleeds, or when
there’s a blockage in the blood supply to the brain. The rupture or blockage
prevents blood and oxygen from reaching the brain’s tissues.
Without oxygen, brain cells and tissue become damaged and begin to die within
minutes.
Stroke symptoms
The loss of blood flow to the brain damages tissues within the brain. Symptoms of
a stroke show up in the body parts controlled by the damaged areas of the brain.
The sooner a person having a stroke gets care, the better their outcome is likely
to be. For this reason, it’s helpful to know the signs of a stroke so you can act
quickly. Stroke symptoms can include:
 paralysis
 numbness or weakness in the arm, face, and leg, especially on one side of
the body
 trouble speaking or understanding others
 slurred speech
 confusion, disorientation, or lack of responsiveness
 sudden behavioral changes, especially increased agitation
 vision problems, such as trouble seeing in one or both eyes with vision
blackened or blurred, or double vision
 trouble walking
 loss of balance or coordination
 dizziness
 severe, sudden headache with an unknown cause
 seizures
 nausea or vomiting
A stroke requires immediate medical attention. If you think you or someone else
is having a stroke, call 911 or local emergency services right away. Prompt
treatment is key to preventing the following outcomes:
 brain damage
 long-term disability
 death
It’s better to be overly cautious when dealing with a stroke, so don’t be afraid to
get emergency medical help if you think you recognize the signs of a stroke.
Risk factors for stroke
Certain risk factors make you more susceptible to stroke. According to

the National Heart, Lung, and Blood InstituteTrusted Source, risk factors for stroke
include:
Diet
An unbalanced diet can increase the risk of stroke. This type of diet is high in:
 salt
 saturated fats
 trans fats
 cholesterol
Inactivity
Inactivity, or lack of exercise, can also raise the risk of stroke.
Regular exercise has a number of health benefits. The CDC recommends that
adults get at least 2.5 hoursTrusted Source of aerobic exercise every week. This
can mean simply a brisk walk a few times a week.
Heavy alcohol use

The risk of stroke also increases with heavy alcohol use.
If you drink, drink in moderation. This means no more than one drink a day for
women, and no more than two drinks a day for men.
Heavy alcohol use can raise blood pressure levels. It can also
raise triglyceride levels, which can cause atherosclerosis. This is plaque buildup in
the arteries that narrows blood vessels.
Tobacco use
Using tobacco in any form also raises the risk of stroke, since it can damage the
blood vessels and heart. Nicotine also raises blood pressure.
Personal background
There are some risk factors for stroke you can’t control, such as:
 Family history. Stroke risk is higher in some families because of genetic

health factors, such as high blood pressure.
 Sex. According to the CDCTrusted Source, while both women and men can
have strokes, they’re more common in women than in men in all age
groups.
 Age. The older you are, the more likely you are to have a stroke.
 Race and ethnicity. African Americans, Alaska Natives, and American
Indians are more likely to have a stroke than other racial groups.
Health history
Certain medical conditions are linked to stroke risk. These include:
 a previous stroke or TIA

 high blood pressure
 high cholesterol
 carrying too much excess weight
 heart disorders, such as coronary artery disease
 enlarged heart chambers and irregular heartbeats
 sickle cell disease

 diabetes
 blood clotting disorder
How to prevent a stroke
Lifestyle changes can’t prevent all strokes. But many of these changes can make a
radical difference when it comes to lowering your risk of stroke.
These changes include the following:
 Quit smoking. If you smoke, quitting now will lower your risk of stroke. You
can reach out to your doctor to create a quit plan.
 Limit alcohol use. Heavy alcohol consumption can raise your blood
pressure, which in turn raises the risk of stroke. If reducing your intake is
difficult, reach out to your doctor for help.
 Keep a moderate weight. Overweight and obesity increases the risk of
stroke. To help manage your weight, eat a balanced diet and stay physically
active more often than not. Both steps can also reduce blood pressure and
cholesterol levels.
 Get regular checkups. Talk with your doctor about how often to get a
checkup for blood pressure, cholesterol, and any conditions you may have.
They can also support you in making these lifestyle changes and offer
guidance.
Taking all these measures will help put you in better shape to prevent stroke.
What are macrophages?
Macrophages are a type of white blood cell that play an important role in the
human immune system and carry out various functions including engulfing and
digesting microorganisms; clearing out debris and dead cells; and stimulating
other cells involved in immune function. Macrophages confer innate immunity,
which is typically the first line of defense against foreign antigens.
Phagocytosis is a process wherein a cell binds to the item it wants to engulf on

the cell surface and draws the item inward while engulfing around it. The process
of phagocytosis often happens when the cell is trying to destroy something, like a
virus or an infected cell, and is often used by immune system cells.
Phagocytosis differs from other methods of endocytosis because it is very specific

and depends on the cell being able to bind to the item it wants to engulf by way
of cell surface receptors. Phagocytosis won’t happen unless the cell is in physical
contact with the particle it wants to engulf.
The cell surface receptors used for phagocytosis depends on the type of cell that
is doing the phagocytizing. These are the most common ones:
Opsonin receptors: Opsonin receptors are used to bind bacteria or other

particles
Scavenger receptors: Scavenger receptors bind to molecules that are produced

by bacteria.
Toll-like receptors: Toll-like receptors, named after a similar receptor in fruit flies
encoded by the Toll gene, bind to specific molecules produced by bacteria.
Antibodies: Some immune cells make antibodies that can bind to specific
antigens. This is a process similar to how toll-like receptors recognize and identify
what type of bacteria is infecting the host.
How does phagocytosis happen?
Cells have to complete some steps in order to successfully phagocytize

something. In order to illustrate this a little easier, let’s say we are following a
macrophage (a type of immune cell) phagocytizing a virus. Keep in mind, a lot of
different types of cells perform phagocytosis, though.
The virus and the cell need to come into contact with each other.
The virus binds to the cell surface receptors on the macrophage.
Viruses can also have surface receptors which can be specific to those on the
macrophage. Viruses need to access the host cell’s cytoplasm or nucleus in order
to replicate and cause an infection, so they use their surface receptors to interact
with immune system cells and exploit the immune response for entry into the
cell.
The macrophage starts to surround the virus and engulf it into the cell.
Instead of moving the large item across the plasma membrane, which might
damage the membrane permanently, phagocytosis uses extensions of the
cytoplasm (pseudopods) to surround the particle and enclose it in a membrane.
Figure of a macrophage starting to invaginate around a virus engulfing it into a

pocket
The surrounded virus becomes completely enclosed in a bubble-like structure,

called a “phagosome”, within the cytoplasm.
Figure of invaginated virus completely enclosed in a phagosome within cytoplasm
The phagosome fuses with a lysosome, becoming a “phagolysosome”.

Lysosomes are also bubble-like structures, similar to phagosomes, which process
wastes inside the cell. “Lysis” means “to break down”, making it easy to
remember the function of a lysosome. Without fusing with a lysosome, the
phagosome wouldn’t be able to do anything with the contents inside.
Phagolysosome lowers the pH to break down its contents.
Once the contents have been neutralized, the phagolysosome forms a residual
body that contains the waste products from the phagolysosome. The residual
body is eventually discharged from the cell.

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REVISION PACK : - 11B - BIOLOGY

Diffusion is the movement of molecules down the concentration gradient. The

What are two types of diffusion?

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a dilute solution to a

Which type of transport uses ATP as an energy source?

ATP molecules are used as an energy source in active transport. It is a type of

then pinched off, trapping it in a vesicle inside the cell. Three types of endocytosis

Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis in which very large particles, such as cells or

Pinocytosis (“cell drinking”) is a form of endocytosis in which liquid droplets are

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a form of endocytosis in

What is the respiratory system?

What are the parts of the respiratory system?

Some of the other components of your respiratory system include:

How can I keep my respiratory system healthy?

To keep your respiratory system healthy, you should:

 Avoid pollutants that can damage your airways, including secondhand

Adaptations of the alveoli

Each alveolus are adapted to make gas exchange as efficient as possible:

lower temperatures than would be needed without an enzyme. Without the

Enzymes can be classed as either intracellular if they catalyse reactions inside

Mechanisms of enzyme action

Lock and Key model

1. The substrate binds to the enzyme’s active site, forming an enzyme-

3. The product is released from the enzyme’s active site.

The Induced Fit model

1. The substrate enters the enzyme’s active site, forming an ES complex.

Comparing the two models of enzyme action

Factors which affect rate of reaction

As enzyme concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases since more

As substrate concentration increases, the rate of reaction increases since there

What is the enzyme called Rubisco?

The formation of an atheroma in an artery causes partial blockage of an artery. If

 An enzyme called thromboplastin is released from damaged blood vessels.

 Thrombin catalyses the formation of fibrinogen into fibrin. Fibrinogen is a

Risk factors for CVD

Things which increase our risk of developing cardiovascular disease can be

 High blood pressure

Good and bad cholesterol - HDLs and LDLs

Saturated fats increase the levels of a molecule called ‘low-density lipoprotein

Our cells need cholesterol because it is used to make sex-hormones (such as

Waist-to-hip ratio - the waist-to-hip ratio is calculated by dividing an individual’s

Treatments for CVD

 Antihypertensives - beta-blockers and vasodilators are two types of drug

A lower blood pressure means there is a lower risk of endothelial

The Function of Heart

 One of the primary functions of the human heart is to pump blood

Pulmonary circulation (blue) and Systemic circulation (red)

 Pulmonary circulation is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying

 Coronary circulation is an essential portion of the circulation, where

Structure of the Human Heart

Chambers of the Heart

 Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior

 Atrioventricular valves are between ventricles and atria. The valve

STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA: -

Brief Insight into the Structure and Composition of DNA

guanine(G), cytosine(C), and adenine(A), is crucial in determining the genetic

Transcription is performed by enzymes called RNA polymerases, which link

Transcription has three stages: initiation, elongation, and termination.

In eukaryotes, RNA molecules must be processed after transcription: they

Transcription is controlled separately for each gene in your genome.

Translation is the process of protein synthesis in which the genetic information

 Anticodons on tRNA molecules align opposite appropriate codons according to

The key components of translation are: