Chapter 2 Cells

Cell Structure and Organisation

-Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (Organelle)
Function: Transport proteins made by attached ribosomes to the Golgi apparatus for secretion out of cell.

-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) (Organelle)

Function: Synthesises substances such as fats and steroids.It also converts harmful substances into harmless materials.

-Golgi apparatus
Function: Chemically modify,store and package substances made by endoplasmic reticulum(ER) into vesicles for secretion
out of cell.
Organelle-membrane-bound structure
-Mitochondria (Organelle) in cell,with a specialised
Function: Site of respiration to release energy for cell activities. function.

-Ribosomes (Organelle)
Function: FREE LYING IN CYTOPLASM-Make proteins that are used within the cytoplasm of cell.
ATTACHED TO THE MEMBRANE OF THE RER-Make proteins that are usually transported out of the cell.

-Cell membrane
Function: Controls substances entering or leaving cell.

-Nuclear envelpe
Function: Separates contents of nucleus from rest of cytoplasm.

-Nucleus (Organelle)
Function: Controls cell activities and essential for cell division.

-Nucleolus
Function: Plays a part in the making of proteins in cells.

-Vacuole (Organelle)
Function: Store substances within the cell.
(Animal cell: small,numerous and temporary. Plant cell: few large,central permanent)

-Centrioles (Not found in PLANT CELL)

Function: Produce spindle fibres for cell division.

-Cell wall (Not found in ANIMAL CELL)

Function: Protects the cell from injury.
-Chloroplasts (Organelle) (Not found in ANIMAL CELL)
 Function: Contains *chlorophyll for photosynthesis
*(Function: Absorb light for photosynthesis)

Process of synthesis of protein

1.Ribosome attached to RER synthesises protein from amino acids in cytoplasm
2.Vesicles containing synthesised proteins pinch off from the RER.
3.These vesicles move towards the Golgi apparatus and fuse with the Golgi apparatus,releasing the proteins into it.Proteins
are chemically modified in the Golgi apparatus.
4.Chemically modified proteins are then packed into vesicles which pinch off from the Golgi apparatus and move towards
the cell membrane.
5.At the cell membrane,secretory vesicles fuse with it and release the proteins outside the cell.

Specialised Cells
Differentiation - The process of cell changing in size,shape and structure as they become specialised/adapted to perform
specific functions

Specialised cell Function Adaptation(s) to function

Red blood cell Transport oxygen from the lungs to 1.Contains hemoglobin to bind to oxygen so oxygen can be transported.
(RBC) all parts of the body. 2.No nucleus therefore has more space to pack more haemoglobin into the cell to
transport more oxygen per unit time.
3.Has a circular,biconcave shape,which increases the surface area to volume ratio of the
cell,allowing oxygen to diffuse in and out of the cell at a faster rate.
4.Being elastic and flexible so that it can squeeze through narrow blood capillaries so
that RBC are in close proximity to the body cells,reducing diffusion distance hence
speeding up diffusion of oxygen to body cells.

Xylem vessels Transport water and dissolved 1.Cells in the xylem have no cross wall and protoplasm and form a hollow
(NO SUCH mineral salts from the roots to all continuous tube,reducing resistance to water moving through the xylem.
THING AS parts of the plant.It is also a 2.Walls are thickened with lignin to prevent collapse of the vessel and provide
‘XYLEM CELL’) mechanical support for the plant. mechanical support to the plant together with other xylem vessels.

Root hair cell Absorb water and dissolved mineral Has a long narrow outgrowth which increases surface area to volume ratio
salt. of the cell,alonging water and dissolved mineral salts to be absorbed at a faster rate.

Organization of cells in a multicellular organization

Tissue - A group of cells with similar structures which work together to perform a specific function.There are 2 types of
tissues,simple tissue and complex tissue. e.g muscle, epithelial, connective and nervous tissue
Organ - contains more than one type of tissue,all working together for a specific function. e.g heart, liver, and stomach
Organ system - consists of several organs working together for a common purpose. e.g Muscular,Respiratory,Digestive
system
Chapter 3 Movement of substances
Diffusion
Definition:The net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration.
Osmosis
Definition:The movement of water molecules from a high water potential to a low water potential.
Active transport
Definition:

Chapter 10 Respiration in Man

Energy is stored in food substances , and must be released if the energy has to be used. Respiration breaks down food
substances through oxidation,releasing energy to be utilized in living cells.

Aerobic Respiration
Definition: It is the breakdown of food substances (molecules) in the presence of oxygen with the release of a large
amount of energy.Carbon dioxide and water are released as waste products.
Word equation: glucose + oxygen => carbon dioxide + water + large amount of energy released

Complex organisms,including trees and humans,respire aerobically as they need large amounts of energy to survive.
E.g of energy consuming processes: -the synthesis of new protoplasm for growth and repair
-the synthesis of proteins from amino acids
-active transport in the absorption of food substances by the small intestine
-muscular contractions such as heartbeats and respiratory movements
-transmission of nerve impulses
-cell division

During respiration,some energy is also released as heat.The heat energy circulates around your body to keep you warm.

Anaerobic Respiration
Definition: It is the breakdown of food substances (molecules) in the absence of oxygen.Anaerobic respiration releases
less energy than the aerobic respiration.
Word equation (anaerobic respiration in muscles): glucose => lactic acid + small amount of energy released
Word equation (alcoholic fermentation): glucose => ethanol + carbon dioxide + small amount of energy released

Why does oxygen intake remain at a high level even after strenuous exercise?
This is to provide sufficient oxygen to the liver cells, to repay oxygen debt.As the muscles respire anaerobically,lactic acid is
produced.Lactic acid is also generally remove from the muscle cells and transported to the the liver.In the liver, some of the
lactic acid is oxidised to released energy.This energy is used to convert the remaining lactic acid into glucose which is
transported back to the muscles.When all the lactic acid is converted,oxygen debt is repaid.
The Gas Exchange System

Chapter 11