I.

THE CELL

The cell is the smallest functional unit of the body.

Plasma membrane: is the outer layer of the cell that enables movement of substances in and out of the cell.

BELOW IS THE STRUCTURE OF THE CELL

Organelles of the cell and their functions

1.Nucleus: Central unit of the cell that contains chromosomes that bear genetic material [DNA\RNA]

- Directs all metabolic reactions of the cell

NUCLEOLUS; An area inside the nucleus of a cell that is Made up of RNA and proteins , this is also where ribosomes are made.

2. Mitochondria: It is a sausage-shaped structure in the cytoplasm that acts as a power house of a cell.
- It produces chemical energy using aerobic respiration in the form of ATP.
* The greatest number of mitochondria are found in the liver, muscle and spermatozoa

3. Ribosomes: Are tiny structures made of both RNA and protein.

* The site where protein is manufactured.
- They link amino acids together to form protein for use within the cell.
NB: The protein is used for repairing the cell.

4. Endoplasmic reticulum[ER]. An extensive series of inter-connecting membranous in the cytoplasm.

* Network of membranes inside a cell through which proteins and other molecules move .

Types of ER:
smooth
rough
Smooth ER: - Synthesis lipids and steroid hormones
- It is associated with detoxification of some drugs

NB: Some of the lipids are used to replace and repair the plasma membrane.

Rough ER: - It is studded with ribosomes

- They are the site of synthesis of proteins, some which are exported from cells.

5.Golgi Apparatus
- To store the proteins from endoplasmic reticulum.
- In golgi apparatus, the vesicles are stored and when needed they move to the plasma membrane and fuse with it.

6. Lysosomes
- Contain a variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragments of organells and large molecules[RNA , DNA, Carbohydrates , proteins] inside the cell into smaller particles.
- Lysosomes in white blood cells also contain enzymes that digest foreign material such as microbes.

7. Cytoskeleton
Provides an internal support system for the cell as well as guiding the movement of materials around the cell interior.
CONTI..
• INSIDE CYTOSKELETON ARE;

Microfilaments
These are large, rigid protein that give the cell support and shape.

Microtubules
This are large rigid proteins that give the cell membrane support and also provides the guidance
tracking for internal movement e.g Chromosomes during cell division.

8.CENTROSOMES
Directs organization of microtubules within the cell. It consist of a pair of centrioles ( small clusters
of microtubules) and place an important role in cell division.
CELLULAR TRANSPORTATION

CELLULAR TRANSPORTATION;Is the movement of substances across the cell membrane either into
or out of the cell

TYPES OF CELLULAR TRANSPORTATION ARE:

-Passive transportation
-Active transportation

 Passive transportation: it occurs when a substance can cross the semi permable plasma and
organelle membrane and move down the concentration gradient down hill(without energy)
CONT..

 Diffusion: movement of particles from their higher concentration to their lower concentration
Example
-Lipid-soluble materials(oxygen ,carbondioxide)
-Water-soluble materials(sodium ,calcium)

Facilitated diffusion : are passive movements used by some substances that are unable to pass
through the semi permable membrane
Eg: glucose and amino acids

Osmosis : is a passive movement of water down its concentration gradient towards equilibrium
across a semi permable membrane
CONT..

• ACTIVE TRANSPORT:
This is the transport of substances up the concentration gradient (up
hill) using chemical energy
Example:
Sodium-potassium pump: it is an active transport mechanism the
unequal concentrations of sodium and potassium ions on other side
of plasma membrane
Bulk transport: it is the energy-consuming transport , hence bulk flow
is a means of active transport. Also it occurs where large molecules
like lipids are too large to cross through the cell membrane
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
• RESPIRATION: this is the process releasing energy in cells via gaseous exchange
Respiration in cell takes place in mitochondria and within the cytoplasm

INTERNAL RESPIRATION; exchange of gases by diffusion between blood in the capillaries and
the body cells.
Aerobic respiration-is a chemical process in which oxygen is used to make energy
Anaerobic respiration-a process of breaking down sugars to generate energy in the
absence of oxygen.
Control of respiration-group of nerves in the medulla oblongata that are responsible to
control respiratory pattern , the rate and depth of breathing
EXTERNAL RESPIRATION; Exchange of gases by diffusion between the alveoli and the blood
in the alveolar capillaries across the respiratory membrane.
CELLULAR DIVISION

This is a process whereby a parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells

2 TYPES OF CELLULAR DIVISION

 Mitosis – is used to repair damaged tissues , replace dead cells and in growth
EXAMPLES
Bacteria is produced by mitosis

 Meiosis – reduction division of diploid cells in ovaries and testes that produce
gametes(sperm & ovary)
*Single cell divides twice to produce 4 cells containing half the original amount of genetic
information
EXAMPLES
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
CONT..

STAGES OF CELLULAR DIVISION IN MITOSIS

1.Prophase- the division where both mitosis and meiosis occur , the
replicated chromatin becomes tightly coiled
2.Metaphase- this is where chromatids align on the center of the spindle ,
attached by their centromeres
3.Anaphase-replicated chromosomes are split and the newly-copied
chromosomes are moved to opposite poles of the cell
4.Telephase- process that separates the duplicated genetic materials
carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into 2 identical daughter cells