BIOLOGY UNIT 1 : LIFE PROCESS

Life processes are the series of actions that are essential to determine if an animal is alive.

Cell:
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions
of cells. ... Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called
organelles, are specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell.

There are two types of cells found in the organisms: Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic depending
on whether cells contain membrane-bound organelles or not.

Bacterial cells is an example of prokaryotic cell

Animal and Plant cell are the examples of Eukaryotic cell.

Animal cells
Almost all animals and plants are made up of cells.

Animal cells have a basic structure. Below the basic structure is shown in the same animal cell,
on the left viewed with the light microscope, and on the right with the transmission electron
microscope.

Mitochondria are visible with the light microscope but can’t be seen in detail.Ribosomes are only
visible with the electron microscope.

Cell structures and their functions

 Function

A jelly-like material that contains dissolved nutrients and salts and structures
Cytoplasm
called organelles. It is where many of the chemical reactions happen.

Nucleus Contains genetic material, including DNA, which controls the cell’s activities.

Cell Its structure is permeable to some substances but not to others. It therefore
membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Organelles that contain the enzymes for respiration, and where most energy is
Mitochondria
released in respiration.

Ribosomes Tiny structures where protein synthesis occurs.

Most cells are specialised and are adapted for their function. Animals and plants therefore consist
of many different types of cell working together.

Plant cells
This basic structure of a plant cell is shown below – the same plant cell, as viewed with the light
microscope, and with the transmission electron microscope.

Animal and plant cells have certain structures in common.

 Function

A jelly-like material that contains dissolved nutrients and salts and structures
Cytoplasm
called organelles. It is where many of the chemical reactions happen.

Nucleus Contains genetic material, including DNA, which controls the cell’s activities.

Cell Its structure is permeable to some substances but not to others. It therefore
membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Organelles that contain the enzymes for respiration, and where most energy is
Mitochondria
released in respiration.

Ribosomes A tiny organelle where protein synthesis occurs.

Plant cells also have additional structures:

Function

Organelles that contains the green pigment, chlorophyll, which absorbs light
Chloroplast
energy for photosynthesis. Contains the enzymes needed for photosynthesis.

Cell wall Made from cellulose fibres and strengthens the cell and supports the plant.
 Function

Permanent
Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid.
vacuole

Animal cells may also have vacuoles, but these are small and temporary. In animals, they are
commonly used to store or transport substances.

There are many different types of cells in animals. Each type is specialised for a particular role.
These ensure that the organism functions as a whole.

Sperm cell

The head of the sperm contains the genetic material for fertilisation. The acrosome in the head
contains enzymes so that the sperm can penetrate an egg. The middle piece is packed with
mitochondria to release energy needed to swim and fertilise the egg. The tail enables the sperm
to swim.

Nerve cell

The nerve cell is extended, so that nerves can run to and from different parts of the body to the
central nervous system. The cell has extensions and branches, so that it can communicate with
other nerve cells, muscles and glands. The nerve cell is covered with a fatty sheath, which
insulates the nerve cell and speeds up the nerve impulse.
Muscle cell

Muscle cells contain filaments of protein that slide over each other to cause muscle contraction.
The arrangement of these filaments causes the banded appearance of heart muscle and skeletal
muscle. They contain many well-developed mitochondria to provide the energy for muscle
contraction. In skeletal muscle, the cells merge so that the muscle fibres contract in unison.
How different types of plant cells are adapted to their function

There are many different types of cells in plants. Each type is specialised to do a particular role
and ensures that the organism functions as a whole.

Root hair cell

The root hair cell has a large surface area to provide contact with soil water. It has thin walls so
as not to restrict the movement of water.

Xylem cell

There are no top and bottom walls between xylem vessels, so there is a continuous column of
water running through them. Their walls become thickened and woody. They therefore support
the plant.
 Phloem

Dissolved sugars and amino acids can be transported both up and down the stem. Companion
cells, adjacent to the sieve tubes provide energy required to transport substances in the phloem.

Transport of substances in cell:

Diffusion
Particles (molecules and ions) in a liquid and a gas move continuously. Because of this
movement, particles will spread themselves evenly throughout a liquid or a gas.

If there is a situation where particles of a substance are in a higher concentration, they will move
from this region to where they are in a lower concentration. This is called diffusion.

It is important to remember that the particles:

• will move in both directions, but there will be a net movement from high to low concentration
• will end up evenly spread throughout the liquid or gas, but will continue to move

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules, from a region where the water molecules are in
higher concentration, to a region where they are in lower concentration, through a partially
permeable membrane.

A dilute solution contains a high concentration of water molecules, while a concentrated solution
contains a low concentration of water molecules.
When the concentration of water is the same on both sides of the membrane, the
movement of water molecules will be the same in both directions. There will be
no net movement of water molecules. In theory, the level of solution two will rise, but
this will be opposed by gravity and will be dependent on the width of the container.

Similar observations will be made with solutions containing different solutes, for
instance, salt instead of sugar.

Active transport
Substances are transported passively down concentration gradients. Often, substances have to be
moved from a low to a high concentration - against a concentration gradient.

Active transport is a process that is required to move molecules against a concentration

gradient.The process requires energy.

Active transport in plants

For plants to take up mineral ions, ions are moved into root hairs, where they are in a higher
concentration than in the dilute solutions in the soil. Active transport then occurs across the root
so that the plant takes in the ions it needs from the soil around it.

ENZYMES

Cell Metabolism
A cell's daily operations are accomplished through the biochemical reactions that
take place within the cell. Reactions are turned on and off or speed up and slowed
down according to the cell's immediate needs and overall functions. At any given
time, the numerous pathways involved in building up and breaking down cellular
components must be monitored and balanced in a coordinated fashion. To
achieve this goal, cells organize reactions into various enzyme-powered pathways.

What Do Enzymes Do?

Enzymes are protein catalysts that speed biochemical reactions by facilitating the
molecular rearrangements that support cell function.

LOCK AND KEY MODEL

The molecules that an enzyme acts on is called its Substrate. Each enzyme has a
small area on its surface called its active site. The substrate attaches to the active
site of the enzyme. The reaction then takes place and the product is formed.
Enzymes also catalyzes the reactions where small molecules are bound to form
the large molecule.
The substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme like a key fitting into a
lock..this is known as LOCK AND KEY MODEL OF ENZYME ACTION.

Effect of temperature in the activity of enzyme reaction.

1. Temperature: The rise in temperature increases the rate of reaction as
molecules shows more kinetic energy at higher temperature but above optimum
temperature that is above 40 degrees the heat destroys the enzymes that is said
as Denaturing of enzymes .Here the rate of reaction starts getting low. Although
the denaturing of enzymes is permanent so the enzymes molecules will no longer
catalyze the reaction.
Optimum temperature varies in varied organisms.:
Eg: Mammals and Birds have optimum temperature as 37 degrees.
Where as Bacterias has 10 degrees.
2. pH: Although most enzymes work best at neutral pH(pH 7) most enzymes stop
their effect lower or higher pH but stomach produces enzyme called Pepsin which
has optimum pH of 2 and hydrochloric acid has ph of 3.2 .so these enzymes are
adapted to work well at this pH.

Respiration: respiration does not mean the same as breathing.in respiration

the oxygen which inhaled is used to oxidise the food and carbondioxide is
released during oxidation of food and glucose id formed and heat energy is
released and this energy is utilised by every cell of our body to carry out their
metabolic activities.During oxidation of glucose several components like ATP ad
NADPH are formed .ATP is known as ENERGY CURRENCY.

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration

Respiration using oxygen to break down food molecules is called aerobic respiration. Glucose is
the molecule normally used for respiration - it is the main respiratory substrate. Glucose
is oxidised to release its energy.

The word equation for aerobic respiration is:

glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy released)

You need to be able to recognise the chemical symbols:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O

Respiration is a series of reactions, but this summarises the overall process.

The first stages of respiration occur in the cytoplasm of cells, but most of the energy released is
in the mitochondria.

Anaerobic respiration

During anaerobic respiration, the oxidation of glucose is incomplete. The reaction therefore
releases much less energy - around a nineteenth of the energy released during aerobic respiration.

In animals
Most organisms cannot respire without oxygen. But some organisms and tissues can continue to
respire if the oxygen runs out. These organisms and tissues use the process
of anaerobic respiration.

Animal muscles can respire anaerobically for short periods of time - even though the process is
relatively inefficient, it's better to continue respiring and be able to run away from danger - or run
a race.

The glucose in muscle is converted to lactic acid:

glucose → lactic acid (+ energy released)

In plants and microorganisms

Some plants, and some fungi such as yeast can respire anaerobically - it's preferable to
release less energy but remain alive.

Glucose in yeast cells is converted to carbon dioxide and ethanol, which we refer to
simply as 'alcohol'. This reaction is also called fermentation:

glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released)

Anaerobic respiration occurs only in the cytoplasm of cells.

 STEM CELLS:
Stem cells are special human cells that are able to develop into many different cell types. This
can range from muscle cells to brain cells. In some cases, they can also fix damaged tissues.

Using human stem cells

Stem cells can divide to produce new cells, which can then divide into different cell types. They
therefore have the potential to be transplanted into patients to treat medical conditions
and disease. They could be used to replace cells that have been damaged or destroyed, eg:

• in type 1 diabetes
• in cases of multiple sclerosis, which can lead to paralysis
• in cases of spinal cord or brain injury, that have led to paralysis
The stem cells used could be:

• embryonic stem cells

• adult stem cells
Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into a wider range of cell types, but are difficult to obtain
and their use raises ethical challenges. The best source is the five-day-old embryo.

Adult stem cells will differentiate into a narrower range of cell types. Bone marrow transplants
are an example of adult stem cell transplant. Bone marrow cells will differentiate into different
types of blood cell. Bone marrow transplants are carried out:

• in cases of blood cell cancer such as leukaemia and lymphoma

• when blood cells have been destroyed by cancer treatment
Transplanting stem cells

Adult stem celltransplants use a patient's own stem cells. They are therefore genetically
identical and will not be rejected by the patient's immune system.

There are also fewer complications if the stem cells come from a close member of the
family. Alternatively, donor cells can come from a person with closely-matched tissue
types.

Embryonic stem cells will always come from a donor – unless stem cells were collected
from the patient as an embryo.