Lesson 1- Characteristics of

Living Organisms
Movement, all living organisms move. Animals use muscle but
plants have slower movements that are usually growth.
M-Movement
Respiration, all living organisms respire. Respiration is a
R-respiration chemical reaction that breaks down food molecules to release
energy.
S-Sensitivity
Sensitivity, all living organism can detect and respond to ang
changes to their surroundings

G-Growth Growth, all living organisms grow and complexity

Reproduction, all living organism can make offspring

R-reproduction
Excretion, all living organisms are able to get rid of waste
E-excretion product such as urine and carbon dioxide (this does not include
poo)
N-nutrients
Nutrients, all living organisms need nutrients this can be by
C-Control eating other organisms but for plants the make their own food
using photosynthesis.

Control,
 Cell structure
Structure Function Animal Plant

Cytoplasm Where most of the chemical reactions happen Nucleus Nucleus

Contains genetic material which controls the cell’s

Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
Nucleus
activities
Ribosomes Ribosomes
Controls the movement of substances in and out of the
Cell membrane
cell Mitochondria Mitochondria

Cell membrane Cell

Mitochondria Where most energy is released in respiration
membrane
Chloroplast
Ribosomes Where protein synthesis happens
Vacuole
Chloroplasts Absorb light energy for photosynthesis
Cell wall
Cell wall Strengthens the cell and supports the plant

Permanent vacuole Filled with cell sap to help keep the cell turgid

Enzymes
 Catalyst: is a substance that increases the rate of chemical reaction without itself being used up
Enzyme: a protein that function as a biological catalyst
Why are enzymes important?
All reaction in all living organisms is catalyzed by enzymes, without enzymes the reaction would happen
to slow to support life. And of course, enzymes react to heat which means if you increase the
temperature the rate of reaction will increase but you go past the optimum temperature the rate or
reaction start to decrease, the same works for decreasing the temperature.

Each enzyme only fits one substrate

e.g. catalase only breaks down hydrogen peroxide. Each enzyme is specific
for its substrate the substrate fits into the active site of the enzyme.

i.e. the substrate is complementary to the active site

Induced-fit model: shape

of the active site changes
when the substrate binds;
active site “molds itself”
around the substrate =
“hand-in-glove” model
 Effect of Temperature on Enzymes
1) There is an optimum temperature for enzymes, as you raise the temperature the active site of
the enzyme starts to denature which means the substrate will no longer fit meaning no reaction
will take place.
2) The same thing happens with pH there is an optimum pH for enzymes and if you go to high the
enzyme will start to denature and if you go to low there will be loss of activity and the active site
will become distorted (This depends on where the enzyme is in the body).

1) Enzymes are quickly used up in a

reaction.

No, they are biological catalysts

(they are not used up in reactions).

2) Catalysts are a kind of enzyme.

No, catalysts are a substance that

increases the rate of reaction
without itself being used up.
Enzymes are just a biological
catalyst.

3) Enzymes are killed by high

temperatures.

They are not killed but denatured.

4) Yeast is an enzyme.

Yeast is not an enzyme, but it

contains enzymes

5) All enzymes work in the digestive

system.

No different enzymes work in

different parts of the body.

6) An enzyme’s substrate has an

active site where the enzyme fits.

No, enzymes have an active site

where the substrate fits.

7) All enzymes work best at pH7.

No, this depends on where the

enzyme works in the body
 Aerobic respiration

Respiration is a chemical reaction that breaks down food molecules and release the energy in
them.

Energy released from molecules is

stored as ATP.
ATP is broken down to release energy
(ADP and P are produced).
Energy from ATP can be used for
many things such as; cell division,
muscle contraction, growth,
maintaining body temperature and
active transport.

Aerobic respiration is almost the reverse of

photosynthesis.
 Anerobic respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic Yeast/plants:
Breaking down molecules to release the Glucose  ethanol + carbon dioxide + (energy
stored chemical energy released)
Both produce ATP
[C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + (energy
Uses oxygen No oxygen used released)

Glucose is completely Glucose is not

broken down completely broken
Muscles:
down
Less energy is Glucose  lactic acid + energy released
released [C6H12O6  2C3H6O3 + energy released]

Not enough oxygen:

Most of the time the muscles have a good supply of oxygen and are able to
release energy by aerobic respiration.
 During hard exercise, your heart and lungs cannot get oxygen to your
muscles quickly enough.
 When this happens your body releases energy using anaerobic respiration
instead.

The problems with anaerobic respiration:

There are two problems with anaerobic respiration:
 Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy from glucose compared to
aerobic respiration.
 Lactic acid is a poisonous waste product and builds up in muscles.
 This is a problem because lactic acid lowers the pH and effects the enzymes
activity.
 After exercise the heart will continue to beat quickly and breathing rate
remains high because of oxygen debt, this is because the body is trying to
get rid of the lactic acid in the body (sent to the liver to be filtered out).
 Movement of molecules
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules
from a region where they are in a higher
concentration to a region where they are in a
lower concentration, down a concentration
gradient, because of their random movement.
So, this means diffusion can only happen in
liquids and gases because the molecules need
to move (randomly) to be able to diffuse.

Osmosis the diffusion of only water molecules,

but the concepts is just like diffusion, the
movement of water molecules from a higher
concentration to a lower concentration
through a partially permeable membrane.

During active transport,

substances move against the
concentration gradient, from
an area of low concentration
to an area of high
concentration i.e., against the
concentration gradient. This
process is “active” because it
requires the use of energy
(usually in the form of ATP). It
also requires a protein pump
in the membrane.
 Levels of organization

Different types of animal cells:  Each of these specialized cells has

adaptations that allow it to carry out a
 White blood cell specific function.
 Sperm cell  Usually, the cell works together with other
 Red blood cell similar cells to carry out this function.
 Check cell  A group of cells with similar structures
 Nerve cell working together to carry out a shared
 Muscle cell function is called a tissue.
 And sometimes different tissue will work
 Amoeba (single-celled organism)
together in the same structure and to
 Paramecium (single celled organisms)
perform a specific function is called and
organ.

 Different organs can work together to

perform body function.
 These body functions are mainly linked to
the characteristics of all living organisms e.g.
MRS GRENC.
 A group of organs working together to
perform a body function is called an organ
system.

Different types of organ systems:W

 Digestive system  Circulatory system
 Muscular system  Male reproductive
 Nervous system system
 Skeletal system  Female
 Respiratory system reproductive
system

The structures arranged in size, from

smallest to largest:
1. Molecule
2. Organelle
And when you put many
3. Cell organ systems together
4. Tissue you get an organism
5. organ
6. organ system
 Factors affecting diffusion

Diffusion is necessary for several important biological processes:

a) Gas exchange in the lungs
b) Absorption of food molecules, e.g., glucose, in the small intestine
c) Gas exchange in the leaves of plant

Rates of Diffusion:
The rate, or speed, at which a substance diffuses through a cell membrane, or cell wall, depends on 4
factors:

1) The distance it must diffuse

 Shorter distance = faster diffusion
 This is one of the reasons cell membranes are so thin
2) The size of the concentration gradient
 Larger differences in concentration = faster diffusion
3) The surface area available for diffusion
 Large SA = more space so molecules can move through quicker
4) The temperature
 Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of the molecule – it moves
faster
5) The size of the molecule
 Smaller molecules diffuse faster
 Osmosis practical

Water concentration outside the cell is higher than the water concentration inside the cell. So,
water moves in by osmosis and the cell swells up and bursts (lyses)

Aim: To measure the effects of osmosis in plant (potato) cells

Method:

1. add a potato tube to each of the sucrose solutions (3cm long)

2. leave overnight (or a minimum of 1 hour)
3. remeasure the length of each of the potato tubes
4. calculate their % change in length

Variables:

a) independent (change) variable

Concentration of sucrose
b) Dependent (measure) variable
Length of the potato tube
c) Control variables
 Start size of the potato tube (diameter and length)
 Volume of sucrose solution
 Time left in solution
 Cell differentiation
What is a specialized cell?
A cell that has features or adaptations. These let the cell carry out a particular function. i.e., the
structure of the cell and its function are linked – a major theme in Biology.

Why do cells have to be specialized?

Large multicellular organisms need to carry out many different functions. These are divided up
between different specialized cells.

How are the different types of specialized cells produced?

 Stem cells
What are stem cells?
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the capacity to both differentiae and multiply into 200
call types forming a human being.

Organisms develop from one

fertilized egg cell called the zygote.
Which they eventually grow to
adult organisms containing trillions
of cells.
To do this, the zygote must divide
to give two cells and the cells
continue to divide.

Adult stem cells can

be found in
different organs in
the adult body.
These stem cells
can only
differentiate into a
few types of cells.
They are used to
replace cells when
they are needed.

Stem cells also divide to produce

more stem cells. The stem cells from the inner mass can divide
and differentiate to produce all other cell types
found in the body.

For example, a bone marrow

transplant the stem cells can
be taken from one patient
and put in the other and the
stem cells divide top produce
all the new blood cells in the
patient.
 Eukaryotes

 The five kingdoms are: Fungi, animals, plants, bacteria, and protectants
 Bacteria is the odd one out because they don’t have a nucleus in their cells
Classification = arranging organisms into groups.
Carl Linnaeus started to classify organisms based on how similar they looked i.e.,
the features they had.

Plants
Fact 1 -They have a cell wall made from cellulose.
Fact 2 – Their cells contain chloroplasts and can
photosynthesize.
Animals
Fact 1 – Their cells do not contain chloroplasts and
cannot carry out photosynthesis.
Fact 2 – Animal cells have no cell wall

Facts 3 – They store carbohydrates as starch. Fact 3 – They store carbohydrates as glycogen

Fact 4 – plants have many ways of reproducing – Fact 4 – unlike plants, they can move around
not all use flowers.
Fact 5 – Examples of animals include mammals
and insects.

Fungi Protoctista
Fact 1 – Their bodies are normally organized into a Fact 1 – Most Protoctista live in water (like
mycelium made from thread-like structure called Amoeba)
hyphae, which contain many nuclei
Fact 2 – Some have features of animal cells
Fact 2 – Most are multicellular, but some are whereas some have features of plant cells such as
unicellular. All have cell walls made from chitin chloroplasts in chlorella
and they feed by excreting digestive enzymes onto
Fact 3 – Some can cause diseases, such as sleeping
food and the absorbing the products =
sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei.
saprotrophic nutrition.
Fact 3 - They have storge glucose as glycogen
Fact 4 – Examples of fungi include Mucor and
yeast
 Prokaryotes

The two main differences between eukaryotic cell and prokaryotes:

 Eukaryote cell are much bigger compared to prokaryotes
 Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus

Cell structure Function

Helps protect the cell
Capsule when engulfed by
other organisms.
The outer covering
that protects the
Cell wall
bacteria and gives it
shape
Regulates the flow of
Cell membrane substances in and out
of the cell
They are gene-
Plasmids carrying, circular DNA
structures
Is a gel-like substance
composed mainly of
Cytoplasm
water enzymes, salts,
More information on bacteria and cell components
The area of the
1. Bacteria come in a wide variety of shapes cytoplasm that
 Rods such Lactobacillus bulgaricus, used to make Chromosome contains the single
bacterial DNA
yoghurt. molecule
 Spherical, such as Pneumococcus, a bacterium that Flagellum
Helps the cell in
movement
causes pneumonia.
2. Bacteria feed on a wide range of foods living or dead! But
some can also make food through photosynthesis
3. Bacteria can consume organic nutrients as well as making
their own.
4. Most bacteria are important decomposers which means
they feed and breakdown dead organisms.
5. Bacterial cell walls are made from peptidoglycan, not
cellulose or chitin
 Variety of Living Organisms
Pathogen: a microorganism that can cause disease
Viruses: Smallest of all the microorganisms, can only be seen in an electron microscope.

Ebola virus Coronavirus T4 phage

HIV

 Do not have a cellular structure.

 They do have a small membrane around them called an envelope.

 Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves:

 they need to infect a host cell and use it to reproduce
 virus infects cell and injects its genetic material inside
 viruses use the cell’s machinery to produce lots of virus proteins and multiple copies of
its own genetic material
 new virus particles assemble inside the cell and then the cell bursts open, releasing
them
 infected cells are killed, causing symptoms of the disease
 Gas Exchange System

Air is moved into the tubes in the

system:
1. First into the trachea
2. Then into the bronchi
3. And finally, into the bronchioles
And the Alveoli is for gas exchange with
blood happens

Why are the alveoli important?

Because they are site were gas exchange
between air and the blood happens. Alveoli

What adaptations do they have to

help them do their job?
1. Both the capillary wall and
the alveolus wall are one cell
thick
2. The alveoli are surrounded by
capillaries
3. Blood slows down flowing
through the capillaries, which
allows for more time for gas
exchange
4. And the surface area, they
have a large surface area to
volume ratio
 Ventilation

What causes winds and how is it linked with ventilation / breathing?

Air moves from an area of high to low pressure when we breathe, the same thing happens
when we breathe air moves from a high to low pressure when we breathe.

 Respiration = releasing energy from food.

 Ventilation = movement of air into and out from the lungs.

Inhalation Exhalation

Chest volume increases; air pressure in lungs low Intercostal muscles relax

Diaphragm contracts (moves down) Air moves out of lungs

Chest volume decreases; air pressure in lungs

ribcage pulled up and out
high

Air moves into lungs Ribcage moves down and in

Intercostal muscles contract Diaphragm relaxes (moves up

 Smoking

Goblet cells: produce mucus

Mucus: traps dust, particles, or bacteria
Cilia: beat back and forward to carry mucus up the trachea

What is in a cigarette?
 Nicotine: it is an addictive drug, and it is the reason people find it hard to quit smoking.
It raises the heart and causes blood vessels to narrow and cause abnormal clotting. It
also acts as an appetite suppressant.
 Tar: It is a black, sticky substance that clogs the airways in the lungs which increases the
risk of lung disease. Contains carcinogens (chemicals that cause cancer), and contains
smoke particles
 Carbon monoxide: It binds to hemoglobin which forms carboxyhemoglobin. This stops
oxygen binding and reduces the amount of oxygen carried by the blood, and it causes
many problems for developing baby’s if their mother smokes.

Short term effects of smoking Long term effects of smoking

1. Smoke paralyses and destroys cilia on epithelial 1. Smoke damages the alveoli walls, causing
cells lining trachea and bronchi. emphysema. This reduces the surface area for gas
2. Smoke causes an increase in production of mucus exchange this would mean less oxygen in the
by goblet cells = “smokers cough” blood and makes exercise even walking, even
3. And the buildup of mucus can cause more bacterial more difficult.
infections which would lead to bronchitis, this is
when the airways are blocked so difficulty What does the data show?
breathing. An increase in the number of cigarettes smoked per
day correlates with an increase in the incidence of
Effects of smoking on others lung cancer – increase in lung cancer follows the
1. Passive smoking: A child with 2 smoking parents increase in smoking.
inhales as much smoke through passive smoking as
if they were smoking 80 cigarettes a year.
2. Pregnant mothers:
 Babies born to mothers who smoke are
smaller than normal.
 And this is probably because of decreased
oxygen supply to the fetus.
 Twice the frequency of miscarriages.
 50% higher still-birth rate
 26% higher death rate of babies
 Biological Molecules
Lipids:
Carbohydrates:
 All lipids which are also known as fats and oils
 There are 2 types of Carbohydrates simple contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, and
Carbohydrates and complex Carbohydrates oxygen.
 Simple Carbohydrates are sugars that are  Some examples of lipids are oils, butter, cheese,
made up glucose and sucrose. Some and peanuts.
examples include cake, candy, milk, and
fruits.
 Complex Carbohydrates provide vitamins, Protein:
minerals, and fibers. And some of these  All proteins contain the elements carbon,
foods are pasta, rice, bread, and potatoes. hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and sometimes it
 All Carbohydrates contain the elements may include Sulphur.
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.  Some examples of proteins include meat, fish,
beans, and lentils.
Lipids
 Lipids are made up from glycerol,
joined to three fatty acids.

Proteins
 Proteins are made up of Amino acids
 There are 20 different amino acids
 When they are joined together the chain of amino acids folds into a 3-D
structure. Which means if there are different amino acids joined together,
we will get different shapes of protein molecules.
 ENZYMES – it decides which substance they can bind to just like the “lock
and key”
 ANTIBODY – it decides which antigen they can bind to.

Carbohydrates Many biological molecules are made up from smaller parts

 Carbohydrates are made up of small single
sugars called monosaccharides, like glucose or
fructose.
 Single sugars can be joined together to from
double sugars also known as disaccharides.
 Single sugars can be joined together to form
double sugars or linger polymer molecules called
polysaccharides.
or subunits. For example, polysaccharides, such as Starch
and glycogen are made up from many smaller molecules
joined together. Proteins are made up from many amino
acids – if there is a different sequence of amino acids – if
there is a different sequence of amino acids, then the
molecule has a different shape. Lipids are made from two
different kinds of molecules: fatty acids and glycerol.
These, along with carbohydrates, are important as sources
of energy in our diet.
 Balanced Diet
 Supply cells with energy (through respiration) e.g., glucose
Carbohydrate :  Act as energy stores e.g., starch or glycogen
 Makes up cell walls (and dietary fiber) – cellulose

 Used for growth (forming new tissue) or repair of tissues

Protein :  Important roles in the body e.g., enzymes, hemoglobin.
 Structural roles in the body e.g., collagen in skin, keratin in skin, nails, and
hair.

 Makes up cell membranes.

Lipid :  Stored in adipose tissue (fat) under skin for thermal insulation and
around organs for protection.
 Long term energy store

Dietary fiber  Formed from cellulose (plant cell walls)

(roughage) :  Helps intestine muscles push food along

 Makes up cytoplasm of cells, helps with transport of molecules around

Water : organisms.
 Reactions in the body happen between molecules in solution.
 Energy requirements

Units for energy: Joules (J) or kilojoules (kJ). Calories or kcal are also used for foods.
1 Calorie = 1kcal = 4.2J

 1 gram of protein is equal to 4.1kcal of energy

 1 gram of fat equals to 9.3kcal of energy
 1 gram of carbohydrate is equal to 4.1kcal of energy

Our body needs energy to function e.g., for moving, breathing, active transport, making
new molecules (for growth) and repair. So this means that different people need different
amounts of energy depending on their:
 Age: Younger people are growing and need more energy
 Pregnant woman: They need more energy to provide for a growing baby
 Activity: Someone with an active job e.g., a builder. Needs more energy than someone
who e.g., works in an office
 Alimentary Canal

 The alimentary canal which is also known as the digestive system.

 It breaks down food into basic components/ building blocks so they can be absorbed
into the blood and transport to body cells for use.
 Digestion is the breakdown of foods we eat into substances we can use.
 And without digestion, we could not absorb food into our bodies and use it.
 Digestion occurs in the digestive system:
1. Ingestion (eating)
2. Digestion (breaking down)
3. Absorption
4. Egestion (removal from the body)

 Mouth : The first point of digestion – It contains

the enzyme amylase.
 Esophagus : Also known as the “gullet” the
muscles contract and relax to control the
movement of food down.
 Stomach : Food stays in the stomach for up to five
hours and it is pummeled with strong muscular
walls.
 Pancreas : The enzymes protease, amylase and
lipase are produced in the pancreas and then
injected into the small intestines.
 Small intestines : It produces protease, amylase,
and lipase. Digested food is the absorbed out of the
small intestines and into the blood stream.
 Large intestines : Any excess water is absorbed
from the food.
 Digestion

Mouth – Contains amylase which breaks down Bile:

starch into sugars.
The liver produces a liquid called bile.
Stomach – contains proteases which digests protein
Bile is then stored in the gall bladder. When the
into amino acids.
digestive juices leave the stomach, the bile is secreted
Small intestine – Where the products of digestion into them.
are absorbed into the blood to be transported Bile is alkaline .
around the body.
This neutralizes the stomach acid so that the enzyme
Pancreas – Lipase which breaks down fats (lipids) lipase can work.
into glycerol and fatty acids.

Lipases:
Lipase enzymes catalyze the reaction in which
lipids (fats) are broken down into fatty acids and
glycerol molecules.

Proteases:
Protease enzymes catalyze the reaction in which
protein molecules are broken down into amino
acids.
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrase enzymes catalyze the reaction in
which carbohydrates are broken down into sugar
molecules
 Absorption

Absorption: Movement of small, soluble food molecules from the small intestine to the blood
or lymph.
This is important because it is needed to get these molecules to all body cells.

Adaptations of small intestine:

1. It is long
2. It’s walls are folded
This is useful because it has an increased surface area for absorption
3. It’s folded surface is covered with villi.
4. The cells on the villi surface have microvilli (This is the folding of the cell membrane of
the epithelial cells lining the small intestine).
 Circulatory System

Unicellular organisms don’t have a circulatory system. They obtain

oxygen by diffusion through the surface membrane of the cell.

The area of the cell’s surface determines how much oxygen the
organism can get – the supply rate.

And the volume of the cell determines how much oxygen the
organism uses – demand rate.

The ratio of supply to demand: surface area

a volume

the surface area to volume ratio is high in single celled organisms.

Function:
To transport materials to the cells in the body e.g., oxygen, glucose. And to remove waste materials from the
cells e.g., carbon dioxide, urea.

The components are the heart blood and the tubes where the blood is transported in blood vessels.

The two jobs of the heart are to pump blood to the lungs and to pump blood to the body. During one complete
circuit of the body blood passes through the heart twice that’s why it’s called a double circulation.

Blood is pumped around the body by the heart, and it takes about 30 seconds for the blood to go once around
the body.

The left side of the heart pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body, and this blood supplies the cells withs
oxygen. Then the blood picks up carbon dioxide from the body’s cells, this deoxygenated blood then travels to
the right side of the heart where its is pumped to the lungs.

And in the lungs the blood gets rid of the waste carbon dioxide and collects more oxygen. Then the oxygenated
blood returns to the left side of the heart. This completes the blood’ s journey around the body.

Double Circulatory System:

1. It allows the blood to be pumped at low pressure to the lungs.
2. Blood to be pumped at high pressure to the body.
3. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood to be kept separate.

Advantages of this?
1. Low pressure – doesn’t damage lungs.
2. High pressure – ensures blood (carrying oxygen and nutrients) reaches organs
quickly.
3. Efficient delivery of oxygen to tissues and removal of carbon dioxide.
 The Heart

The blood caries:

Carbon dioxide, oxygen, nutrients, waste, products, heat energy, and hormones.

1. In: from the body, deoxygenated

blood enters the right side of the
heart.
2. Out: this is then pumped to the
lungs
3. In: from the lungs, oxygenated blood Bicuspid Valve
enters the left side of the heart.
4. Out: this is then pumped to the rest Tricuspid Valve
of the body, where it is needed.

1. Blood enters the atria, unable to get through the tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
2. The walls of the atria contract, raising blood pressure and opening the valves to the ventricles.
3. When full, the ventricles contract. These increases pressure inside. Closing the bicuspid and tricuspid
valves so blood cannot flow back into the atria.
4. The ventricles continue to contract, opening the semi-lunar valves and ejecting blood into the arteries.
5. As the ventricles empty, the pressure in the arteries builds. Closing the semi-lunar valves, Thus, the cycle
restarts.

The walls of the atria are

very thin – this allows them
to expand when blood is
coming in. They are strong
enough to push blood into
the ventricles.
However, the muscle wall
of the left ventricle is much
thicker than the right, as it
must pump blood at a
higher pressure to the rest
of the body.
 Effects of Exercise on Heart rate

The reason you can feel your pulse in several sites in the body is because of a pressure wave of
blood is pumped out from the left ventricle. And the reason you can feel it at these sites is
because the artery is close to the skin.

How does your body know you are exercising?

 Exercise requires more aerobic respiration.
 Muscles produce more carbon dioxide.
 Increase on carbon dioxide is detected by
receptors, in the aorta and carotid artery.
 Nerve impulses are sent to the base of the
brain. (medulla)
 The medulla sends nerve impulses along the
accelerator nerve.
 This increases the heart rate.

 As well as increasing the heart rate, the

accelerator nerve also causes the heart to
beat with more force.
 Blood pressure is increased.

How does your heart rate rerun to normal?

 Decrease in carbon dioxide is detected by receptors, in the aorta and carotid artery.
 Nerve impulses are sent to the base of the brain. (medulla)
 The medulla sends nerve impulses along the decollator nerve.
 This decreases the heart rate.

 As well as decreasing the heart rate, the decelerator nerve also reduces the force of
contractions.
 Blood pressure returns to normal.

What other times does the heart rate increase?

 When the body needs a fight or flight response.
 Secretion of the hormone adrenaline from the adrenal glands increases heart rate.
 This supplies extra blood to muscles.
 Enabling increased aerobic respiration.
 Releasing extra energy.
 Blood Vessels
There are three main types of blood vessels, as shown
in this magnified part of the circulatory system.

Veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood,

which happens because the blood is travelling at low
pressure.

When blood is flowing against gravity, or when a vein

is squeezed by the muscle action, there is a
risk that blood will flow in the wrong direction
veins have valves to prevent backflow.

Arteries:
Arteries must be able to withstand
extremely high pressure as they take the
blood away from the heart.

They have very thick walls made from

muscle and elastic fibers. This means that
they can stretch and recoil with every heart
pump. The very narrow hole in the center of the artery (the lumen) helps them to maintain high
blood pressure.

Veins:
Veins carry blood back to the heart. The blood is at
low pressure now and so the veins have valves in
them to stop the blood from going backwards.
They are much wider than arteries as the blood is
under low pressure.

Capillaries:
Capillaries are tiny vessels that take the blood to
individual cells. Their wall is only one cell thick and
this means that substances can diffuse in and out
of the capillaries really easily. Substances diffuse more quickly when there is a short diffusion
distance.

Arterioles:
They branch off from the arteries, they are thinner, less muscular walls. They feed blood into the
capillaries they are narrower than the arteries, but wider than the capillaries. They are supplied
with nerve endings to allow dilation and constriction.
 Blood
Blood is made up of a liquid called plasma and blood cells that float in this plasma, the blood is
55% plasma and the other 45% are cellular components.
Apart from plasma, blood has three other main components. Red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelet.
There are two types of white blood cells Lymphocyte and
Phagocyte. The Lymphocyte has a large round nucleus while the
phagocyte has a lobed nucleus. But the red blood cells don’t have a
nucleus and they have a biconcave shape.
Blood flows around the body transporting substances from one
place to another. Plasma is the blood fluid that surrounds blood
cells and carries them along as it flows through the blood vessels.
Plasma is mostly water and contains other dissolved substances
such as:

 Oxygen from the lungs to tissues.

 Carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
 Absorbed food molecules from the ileum to the tissues via the liver.
 Waste from the liver to kidneys.
 Hormones.
 Heat.
White blood cells are the largest type of blood cell.
They protect the body from disease by fighting
invading microbes that can cause infection. Different
types of white blood cells protect the body in different
ways for examples Phagocytes fight against infection by engulfing and digesting pathogens.
While Lymphocytes produce antibodies which bind onto pathogens and stop them causing
disease. Doctors can check the number of white blood cells in a person’s blood to find out if
they are healthy or fighting off an infection.
Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell. And their job is to transport oxygen
from the lungs to the body cells, where it is used to make energy in respiration. They have
several features to help them do this:
1. It contains hemoglobin, special pigment that combines with oxygen.
2. It has no nucleus, so there is more space for hemoglobin and so more oxygen.
3. Disc-shaped, with a dent on each side, creates a large surface area for gas exchange.
4. A large surface area compared to volume, so oxygen is always close to the surface.
 Blood Clotting

Blood is carried throughout the body in blood vessels, but when we are injured the linings of
the blood vessels under our skin can get damaged. The human body cannot afford to lose large
amounts of blood, as this would cause the failure of the body’s essential organs, eventually
leading to death.
The body, therefore, has a mechanism to prevent excessive blood loss by causing the blood to
coagulate or clump together. When the blood coagulates, it changes from a liquid to a solid,
gel-like, thickened mass of blood tissue the plugs the damaged blood vessel. This is called
blood clotting, or blood coagulation.
Blood clotting: is the process by which blood coagulates to form a thickened mass of blood
tissue.
Platelets: are small cell fragments that circulate on the blood and are responsible for forming
blood clots.
The platelets, also called thrombocytes, are the ones responsible for forming blood clots. The
prefix thrombo- is used to describe anything relating to the clotting of blood. Platelets are
fragments of larger cells called megakaryocytes, which are cells found in bone marrow.
Blood flows normally through blood vessels, the platelets are in their inactive state. Blood
vessels are lined by cells called endothelial cells, when
these cells are damaged due to injury, platelets are
attracted to the site of damage. Platelets adhere to the
damaged portion of the blood vessel in a step called
adhesion.
Once the platelets adhere ate the site of damage, they
become activated, activated platelets release factors that
attract more platelets, causing these platelets to
adhere and be activated, too. All the platelets
aggregate together, eventually forming a temporary
platelet plug the prevents blood from freely leaking
out of the damaged vessel.
Eventually a scab is formed at the site of the wound
allowing the damaged skin underneath it to heal. It
also prevents the entry of disease-casing pathogens
into the blood stream through the wound.
 Coronary Heart disease

Coronary arteries carry oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. Coronary heart disease begins
when the coronary arteries become narrowed by gradual
build-up of fatty material within their walls.
This condition is called Atherosclerosis and the fatty
material is called Atheroma. To avoid the build of the fatty
material try to stay off a diet that has a high amount of
saturated fat or cholesterol.
In the early stages of atherosclerosis, the atheroma may
partially block the coronary artery and reduce the blood
supply to the heart. This may lead to angina which is pain in
the chest that occurs during exercise or exertion.
In the later stages of CHD the atheroma may almost
completely block the coronary artery. This can cause the
blood to clot at the atheroma, completely blocking the coronary artery. This will cause the
oxygen supply to the heart muscle below the blockage to be cut off.
If the heart muscle is starved of oxygen, then it will die. This part of the heart can no longer
contract which means the heart can no longer beat normally. This is called a heart attack.
There are many factors thar are linked to a risk of a heart attack, for example: Smoking stress
high blood pressure, lack of exercise, a diet high in saturated fat. Obesity, age, gender/sex, and
hereditary factors.

Events of a heart attack:

1. Cholesterol starts to build up in the
coronary artery.
2. Atheroma forms.
3. Blood flow to the heart is restricted causing
angina.
4. A blood clot completely blocks the coronary
artery.
5. Heart muscles can’t get oxygen or glucose
for respiration.
6. Heart muscle can’t contract.
7. A person suffers a heart attack.
 Immune system

White blood cells protect the body from disease by fighting invading microbes that can cause
infection. The two types of white blood cells are Lymphocytes and phagocytes.
Phagocytes fight against infection by engulfing and digesting pathogens. Once the phagocyte
has located the bacteria/fungus it starts to surround and
engulf it. Once the bacteria/fungus is completely
engulfed by the phagocyte enzymes are released
and digest the bacteria/fungus destroying it.
While Lymphocytes produce antibodies which bind
onto the pathogens and stop them causing disease.
The shape -of an antibody is important – it decides
which antigen they can bind to.
Lymphocytes make antibodies against the bacteria/fungus. Lymphocytes recognize that the
antigens are not from your body and bind to the surface of them. Which makes the antigen
easier to detect by phagocytes, and then the bacteria/fungus is engulfed and
digested again.
The binding of antibodies to antigens on the bacteria or fungus can also lead to
holes being punched in the cell wall. Water enters by osmosis and the cells
burst.
Each antibody has two sites for binding to antigens so when the body is infected
it will stop bacteria/fungus cells spreading through the body. The antibodies can
also bind to the flagellum or tail and stop the bacteria moving.
Some bacteria release a toxin that causes the disease symptoms, antibodies can bind to the
toxins and stop them causing disease. Viruses use their antigens to help them bind to the cells
that they will infect. Viruses then make more copies of themselves and burst out from the cell.
Antibodies are specific to a certain antigen. Once the lymphocyte has made antibodies to the
antigen memory cells are also made. These last for years in the blood. If the same
bacteria/fungus infects the body again memory cells produce more antibodies quicker than
before and you don’t get sick again.
We say that you are now immune to this
pathogen i.e. you won’t get as sick if you
are infected again.
This is known as active immunity - your lymphocytes produce antibodies.

Vaccination

Vaccination – the process of artificially supplying antigens to a person, e.g., as an injection.

This stimulates an immune response and protects them against a disease-causing pathogen.

 Lymphocytes produce antibodies to antigens on the surface of the bacteria/fungus. So

when we take antigens by themselves and inject them into our bodies, the lymphocytes
would recognize them and produce antibodies to the antigen. And memory cells would be
produced.
 Now when you get infected by the actual bacteria/fungus you would be protected and not
get sick from the infection, due to the memory cells i.e., you are immune to the infection.
 Injecting your body with just antigen, dead bacteria or fungi or viruses, weakened
bacteria/fungi or viruses is called vaccination.
 Vaccination protects us from diseases caused by bacteria/fungi and viruses. The antigen mix
is called a vaccine.

Why will a vaccination against the polio virus not protect your from rubella?
This is because the antibodies produced by the white blood cells in response to the antigens
present in polio vaccination are specific to the antigens of the polio virus and will not recognize
the rubella virus antigens.
Why hasn’t vaccination
against cold virus been
developed?
The cold virus is
constantly mutating to
produce a different
antigen making it very
difficult to develop a
vaccine.
 Stimulus and Receptors

All living organisms will show MRS GRENC. If something does not show all characteristics. Then
it is not alive.
Receptor – changes the energy of the stimulus into electrical energy of nerve impulses.
A stimulus is a change in an animal’s surroundings, and a response is a reaction to that change.
The change in your environment was detected by receptor organs. The response is then
brought by the effector organ. The nervous system links the two and is an example of
coordination system.

The nervous system coordinates and regulates body function:

• Detects STIMULI – this involves RECEPTORS , sometimes grouped together in organs.
• Sends messages / information (Nerve Impulses) along wires (NEURONS – nerve cells)
to a control center = BRAIN
• Sends instructions ( NERVE IMPULSES ) to various organs = EFFECTORS
• These are either MUSCLES or GLANDS
• This causes a RESPONSE.
• The nerve impulses are ELECTRICAL signals.
 Central Nervous System

Signals can be passed between receptors, the coordinating Centre, and effectors by nerves, also
called neurons. Neurons care for specialized cells for transmitting impulses.
Central Nervous System:

 Brain, protected by the skull.

 Spinal cord, Protected by the spine.
 They receive information from the peripheral
nervous system processes it and then sends the
instructions back.
Peripheral Nervous System:

.l nerves contain, sensory neurons, and motor neurons

information to the central nervous system from the
.
instruction from the central nervous system to
.effectors

Information from receptors is passed into the CNS by a type of nerve called sensory neuron.
The CNS is made of the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS then coordinates the response of
the effectors by sending a message down another nerve called a motor neuron.
 Eye Structure and Function
The eye acts as a light receptor and it helps us form clear images in color.
Retina contains two types of light receptors rods and cones:
Rod Cells:

 Work in dim light (night vision)

 Detect black and white.
 Don’t give a clear image.
 Found all over the retina, but few in
fovea.
Cones Cells:

 Need bright light to work.

 Three types – detect green, red, and
blue light.
 Give a clear image.
 Concentrated in fovea.

Going from light to dark: Going from dark to light:

 Radial muscles contract.  Radial muscles relax.
 Circular muscles relax.  Circular muscles contract.
 Pupil becomes wider/dilated.  Pupil becomes narrower/constricted.
 Reflex Arc and Synapses

Reflex actions are rapid, and don’t involve a nerve impulse being passed to the brain – this
saves time. They are here to protect us – we can react rapidly to a stimulus that may harm us.

 Nerve impulses have to pass from neuron to neuron across a small gap. This small gap
between neurons is a synapse.
 The nerve impulses travel the reflex arc using electrical impulses, along the axon.
 The axon carries impulses away from the cell body.
 Dendron is the part of the nerve cell that carries messages towards the cell body.
 When a threshold is reached a new signal gets generated on the next neuron.
 Vesicles are neurotransmitters stored in the axon.

A: First neuron (sending)

1: Mitochondrion

2: Neurotransmitter

4: synapse

B: Second neuron

5: Neurotransmitter attachment site.

7: Neurotransmitter release and diffusion.

 Hormonal Control
Exocrine gland: Release digestive enzymes.
Endocrine gland: Release hormones.
Hormone is released from a gland into blood
capillaries. Hormone travels through blood
vessels until it reaches its target organs. The
hormone causes an effect in the target organ.
Endocrine system:

 Signals are electrical impulses.

 Responses are quick to happen.
 Use nerves for transmitting signals.
 Responses are short-lived.
 Effects are localized at a specific muscle or organ.
 Send messages.
 Responds to a stimulus. Cells from target organs have
specific receptor for the hormone.
Nervous system: Binds and causes its effects.

 Response is slower.
 Effects can be widespread and happen in different organs.
 Regulates and coordinates body functions.
 Response last for longer.
 Signals are transmitted in the blood stream.
 Signals are chemical hormones.
 Responds to stimulus.
 Hormonal Control – Insulin
Too much glucose: Hyperglycemia, causes severe dehydration, can be dangerous because it
causes ketoacidosis, and longer-
term, can damage blood vessels.

Too little glucose: Hypoglycemia,

body can lose consciousness and go
into a coma.

Type 1 Diabetes:
 Insulin – producing cells in
the pancreas are destroyed.
 No insulin produced.
 Glucose remains in the blood.
 Not enough glucose for use by cells
 can’t function properly.
 An autoimmune disease.

Treating Type 1:
 Artificial insulin is injected just
before a meal.
 Does the job of normal insulin.
 Person needs to keep
careful check on their
blood glucose
concentration.

Type 2 Diabetes:
 Cells become resistant to
insulin.
 Stop responding to it.
 Glucose remains in the
bloods.
 Not enough glucose for use by cells  can’t function properly.

Insulin:
 Hormone released from the pancreas.
 Lowers blood glucose concentration.
 Allows liver cells to take up glucose into  glycogen formed.
 Homeostasis and Excretion

 In the liver excess proteins are broken down into amino acids. These are then turned
into ammonia that is toxic ammonia is broken down to make urea.
 All body cells require the correct concentration of water to work properly.
 Reactions in cells will only work well if concentrations of substances in the cytoplasm
are normal.
 So, water content of the body has to be controlled.
 The kidney and urinary system are responsible for this.

D) Bladder
A) Renal artery Stores the urine.
Carries blood into kidneys. E) Urethra
B) Kidney Removes urine from the body.
Controls water content of F) Renal vein
the blood; filters urea and
other waste chemicals out Removes blood from the
of the blood. kidney.

C) Ureter
Carries urine to the bladder.

Urinary System:
1) What is excretion (and how is it different from egestion)?
Removal from the body of:
 Waste products of metabolism.
 Substances in excess of
requirements.
2) What substances are excreted by the body?
 Carbon dioxide (waste product of
metabolism).
 Urea (waste product of metabolism).
 Excess water and salts.
 Homeostasis
Homeostasis: Is the regulation of internal conditions to maintain optimal conditions for enzyme
action and cell function.
Hormones: are chemicals that act like
messengers, and they are secreted by glands.
Temperature Regulation: is the process of
keeping the body at a constant core temperature
close to 37.5oC.
The thermoregulatory center of the brain
triggers changes in effectors, such as sweat
glands and muscles, in order to constantly
balance our temperature gains and temperatures
losses.
Water control: Water has to be controlled at a
cellular level. It is vital that not too much water enters or leaves the cells, because they can
either shrivel or burst.
The body loses body when:
1. The lungs – when we exhale.
2. Passing urine – produced by the
kidneys.
How is glucose monitored?

 If blood glucose levels are too high,

the pancreas releases the hormone
insulin.
 This tells the liver to convert glucose
into glycogen, which is stored in the
liver and muscles.
 If blood glucose levels are too low, the pancreas releases the hormone glucagon. This
tells the liver to convert glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood.
 Nephron Structure and Function

The efferent arteriole is narrower than the afferent arteriole, so pressure rises as blood enters
the glomerulus. Ultrafiltration takes place at the barrier between the blood in the glomerulus
and the filtrate in the renal capsule.
The filtered fluid now moves on down the capsule. It is called glomerular filtrate.
Then the filtrate moves through the second convoluted tubule where some more water can be
reabsorbed.

And after the filtrate moves down the collecting duct to the pyramids, then the pelvis. It then
leaves the kidney as urine in the ureter.
 ADH and Osmoregulation
Concentrated blood:

 In concentrated blood water is low and solutes are high.

 This means that water will move out of the cells, and they could shrivel up.
Dilute blood:

 In dilute blood water is high and

solutes are low.
 This means that water will move into
the cells, and they could swell up and
burst.
Excretion: The removal of metabolic waste
from the body.
Water absorbed into the blood from the intestines. This changes the concentration of the
solutes in the blood. Homeostasis means that the body will try to correct this change. Blood
concentration returns to normal.

 The body can control the water content of the blood using the kidney.
 Special receptors in the hypothalamus of the brain detect the amount of water in the
blood.
 They then cause the pituitary gland to release hormone called *anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH)
 This the travels to the kidney in the blood where it acts on the collecting duct to
reabsorb more water into the blood.

Describe how the water content of the blood is controlled (6 marks)

If the water content of the blood is too low, ADH is released from the pituitary gland into the
bloodstream, causing the kidney
to reabsorb more water, and
produce a more concentrated,
smaller volume of urine.
If water content too high, ADH is
not produced, so less water is
reabsorbed by kidney, producing
a more dilute, larger volume of
urine.
 Thermoregulation
 Mammals and birds can be described as “homeothermic”.
 This means they can control their internal temperature, despite changes to their
environment.
 Body temperatures should be kept around 37.5oC.
 The body uses negative feedback systems to control its temperatures:
1. Temperature receptors in the skin and brain detect a change in temperature.
2. The thermoregulatory center in the brain sends instructions to effectors.
3. Effectors correct the change in temperature back to normal.
Vasodilation:

 Vasodilation: this is when the blood vessels

near the surface of the skin widen.
 When a rise in temperature is detected, the
muscles relax to increase blood flow to the
skin allowing heat to escape through the
epidermis.
Vasoconstriction:

 Vasoconstriction: is when the blood vessels near

the surface of the skin get narrower.
 Unlike vasodilation the muscles near the skin
contract which reduces blood flow to the surface
of the skin which traps more heat.
Sweating: Sweat glands in the skin release more sweat,
the sweat evaporates, removing heat energy from the skin.
Shivering: Muscles contract rapidly – we shiver. These rapid contractions need energy from
respiration, and some of this is released as heat.
How does the human body detect and respond to changes in temperature? (6 marks)

 Temperature receptors in the skin detect change in external temperature.

 Temperature receptors in the hypothalamus detect a change in blood temperature.
 The hypothalamus (in the brain)
 Nerve impulses are sent (from the hypothalamus) to the effectors.
 Sweat glands produce sweat when too hot; (or)
 Hair erector muscles contract when too cold; (or)
 Shivering.
 Is when muscles contract generating heat energy by respiration.
 Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction:

 Sexual reproduction involves two parents.

 The offspring are made from a combination of genetic materials from both parents.
This produces genetic variation.
 This involves the joining of a male and female sex cell (gametes).
Fertilization:

 Every living animal begins life as a single cell = zygote.

 The zygote divides and cells specialize to form the embryo (fetus  baby etc.)
 The zygote formed by fertilization = fusing of two gametes
 Gametes are formed in organs in the reproductive systems (female = ovaries, male –
testes).
Asexual reproduction:

 Asexual reproduction involves only one parent.

 This type of reproduction does not involve
gametes.
 The offspring produced are clones of the parent
– they are genetically identical to the parent.
Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction:
 Produces variation on the offspring.
 If the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by natural selection.
 Natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to increase food
production.
– Requires two parents.
– Requires time and energy.
– Prevents favorable genes from passing to the next generation.
– Produces fewer offspring than asexual reproduction.

Advantages and Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

 Only one parent is needed.
 More time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate.
 Faster than sexual reproduction.
 Many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favorable.
– No diversity.
– Prone to extinction (same trait = same weakness)
– Cannot adapt to environmental changes,
 Mitosis
Mitosis – Cell Division:

 Organisms develop from one fertilized egg cell called a zygote, to adult organisms
containing trillions of cells.
 To do this, the zygote has to divide to give two cells and then each cell continues dividing.
 Every time the cell divides, the daughter cells produced
are identical to the parent cell. This type of division is
called mitosis.
Mitosis – Process and Keywords:

 DNA in the chromosomes is copied.

 The two copies of DNA from each chromosome are
separated.
 i.e., the nucleus has been split / nuclear division.
 The cytoplasm of the cell divides forming two new, identical cells.
 In mitosis, the daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell –
genetically identical.
 There is a diploid number of
chromosomes in the zygote / normal
body cell.
 And there is a haploid number of
chromosomes in a gamete.

Uses of mitosis:

 Growth – multicellular organisms

need more cells as their tissues grow and these cells need to be identical.
 Repair – you cut yourself – new skin needs to grow – this happens as the other skin cells
divide by mitosis to produce new identical cells.
 Asexual Reproduction – some organisms such as bacteria, reproduce by binary fission –
this is an example of mitosis.
 Cloning – simplest example is growing an identical new plant (a clone) from cutting of
another plant. New cells are produced by mitosis and the differentiate into root cells.
 Meiosis
A Numerical Issue:
 In sexual reproduction an egg and sperm meet in a process called fertilization.
 All human body cells are made by mitosis. Each has 46 chromosomes in their nuclei.
 Gametes need to have a haploid number of chromosomes so after fertilization, the
diploid number of chromosomes is achieved.

Meiosis happens in the testes and ovaries only and is used to

produce gametes.
Meiosis produces haploid gametes that are genetically
different from genetic variation.
s

Mitosis:
 Occurs in all organisms (except viruses)
 Creates all body cells like blood cells.
 Involves one cell division.
 Produces two diploid daughter cells.
 Daughter cells are genetically identical.
 Creates a human cell with 46
chromosomes.

Meiosis:
 Occurs only in plants, animals, and fungi.
 Creates cells like sperm cells.
 Involves two successive cell divisions.
 Produce four haploid daughter cells.
 Daughter cells are genetically different.
 Creates a human cell with 23 chromosomes.

Similarities:
 Occurs in plants and animals.
 Starts with a diploid parent cell.
 Produces new cells.
 Cells undergo DNA replication.
 Same basic steps.
 Reproduction system
Reproduction in Humans:
 The male sex cell is the sperm cell. The female sex cell is the egg cell.
 In fertilization the egg cell and the sperm cell join together to create a new organism.
 During sexual intercourse sperm cells travel from the penis of a male into the vagina of a
female.
 If one sperm cell can fuse with the egg cell, fertilization will occur.

Male reproductive system:

 Testes – produce sperm and
testosterone.
 Scrotum – golds testes outside body
at a cooler temperature.
 Sperm duct – transports sperm
from testes to penis.
 Seminal vesicle – provides a sugary
fluid for sperm to swim
 Urethra – sperm and urine can pass
through here at different times.
 Penis – inserted into the female
vagina during sexual intercourse.

Sperm:
In animals, the male gametes are called sperm:

 Millions made in the testes.

 Made using meiosis.
 Function is to take the male gamete nucleus to ovum (egg) so they can both fuse.
 To do this job they have several adaptations:
 Tail – to help them move.
 Mitochondria – to supply energy from
aerobic respiration.
 Acrosome – sac containing digestive
enzymes in the sperm head.
Female reproductive System:
 Ovary – Where the ovum is produced along with female sex hormones, oestrogen and
progesterone. One ovum is released approximately every month as part of the menstrual.
 Oviduct – Carries the release ovum from the ovary to the uterus. Lined by ciliated
epithelial cells.
 Funnel of the Oviduct – cilia beating creates a current that draws the released ovum into
the funnel of the oviduct.
 Uterus – where the fetus develops during pregnancy, where it increases in volume from
10cm3 to 5000cm3. And is made up of the
muscular wall which contracts during labor, and
the soft inner lining which thickens and breaks
down during the menstrual cycle.
 Uterus lining/endometrium – thickens every
month in case fertilization.
 Cervix – circular ring of muscle separating the
uterus from the vagina. Widens to allow the
baby out during labor.
 Vagina – muscular tube where the penis in
inserted during intercourse. And the baby is
pushed out through here during labor.

Fertilization happens in the top part of the fallopian tubes/oviduct. Fertilization does not
happen in the uterus.

Development of the Embryo

 Key Vocabulary:
 Erection: erectile tissue in the penis fills with blood and becomes hard.
 Intercourse: the erect penis is inserted into the vagina.
 Ejaculation: semen is released from the erect penis
 Fertilization: gametes fuse/join together to from a zygote.
 Gestation: the time when a fertilized egg develops into a baby ready to be born.
 Implantation: the embryo attaches to the thickened uterus lining and borrows into it.

Development of the Embryo:

 After fertilization the zygote forms an embryo, which is a ball of cells that implants into
the lining of the uterus.
 The implanted embryo continues to grow and develop (become more complex) in the
uterus lining.
 The amniotic sac and placenta begin to form.
 Amniotic fluid: protects the baby from knocks and bumps and helps keep the baby
warm.
 Placenta: its an organ which provides the fetus with oxygen and nutrients and also
removes waste products.

Placenta:
 Transfers substances between fetal and maternal blood.
 Fetal blood and maternal blood
are kept separate in the
placenta.
 This is important because:
1. It prevents blood types
mixing.
2. Prevents mother’s white
blood cells attacking the
fetus.
3. Stopes the fetus being
damaged by the mother’s
higher blood pressure.

Menstrual Cycle
Hormones:
1. FSH produced by the pituitary gland causes both an egg to mature and the ovaries to start producing
oestrogen.
2. The rising level of oestrogen causes the pituitary gland to stop producing FSH and produce LH instead.
3. LH stimulates the release of the mature egg in day 14 of the menstrual cycle (“ovulation”).
Day 0:
 The cycle begins.
 The old egg is shed from the womb along with the
lining of the womb. This is called a period.
 A new egg starts maturing in the ovary. (This
means its tarts getting ready to be released – not
made)
Day 7:
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes the egg to develop. oestrogen that it is detected by the brain.
 The egg signals to the ovaries as it develops.
 The ovaries start to produce the hormone
oestrogen.
 This causes the lining of the womb to get thicker.
Day 20:
 Progesterone is released by the empty follicle,
maintaining the lining of the womb.
 The lining of the womb is thick. This will provide
protection and food for the developing embryo.
 Progesterone stops LH.
 The new egg reaches the womb.
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
Day 5:
 The period stops.
 FSH starts to be released by the pituitary gland
in the brain and travel thought the bloodstream
to the ovaries.
Day 15:
 The ovaries are now producing so much
 The brain stops producing FSH and produces
luteinizing hormone (LH).
 LH triggers ovulation – the release of the egg. It
starts travelling down the Fallopian tube to the
womb.
Day 28:
 This is the end of the cycle.
 If the egg is fertilized, then it will continue to
develop, and the cycle will stop.
 If the egg is not fertilized it will be shed from the
womb the next day and the cycle will begin again.
 The next egg will be released from the other ovary.
Carbon dioxide + water  glucose + oxygen

Leaf Adaptations:
 Most leaves are broad, this gives them a large surface area for light to fall on. This means
more light can be absorbed by the leaf from photosynthesis.
 Most leaves are thin so diffusion distances for the gases are short. Allowing carbon dioxide
to diffuse into the leaf and oxygen to diffuse out of the leaf for photosynthesis.
 Leaves have lots of veins to carry water to the cells and carry sugars away.
 Leaves have holes, called stomata, on theirs underside through which control the
movement of gases in and out of the leaf.

Uses of Glucose:
 Energy – it is used in
aerobic respiration where
most organisms get their
energy.
 Energy storage – Excess
glucose is turned into starch
which is a good storage
because it is insoluble and
very compact meaning it
can be stored in large
amounts.
 Long-term Storage – Plants
can turn glucose into fats
and oils for long-term
storage.
 Making Proteins – Plants use nitrate ions from soil and energy from respiration to make
amino acids.

Gas Exchange in Plants

Stomata:
 Gases enter and leave the leaf through the stomata.
 Guard cell control opening and closing of the stomata:
 Guard cells take in water by osmosis and swell up.
 Thicker inner cell wall causes the cell to curve round.
 This creates an open stomata.
  Guard cells losing water closes the stomata.

Investigation:

  Purple – More photosynthesis that respiration which means more CO2 used than made.
 Yellow – Less photosynthesis than respiration which means more CO2 is made than used.
 Orange (dim light) – Equal photosynthesis and respiration which means CO2 made and used
are equal.
 Orange (control) – No photosynthesis or respiration.

Note:
 The 3 main gases that are diffused out of the stomata are carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
water.
 In dry conditions the stomata are to prevent excessive water loss through transpiration.
 The inner wall of the guard cells should be thicker than the outer wall.
 Guard cells have chloroplast, but epidermis cells don’t.

Photosynthesis Experiment 1 and 2

Experiment 1:
Investigate photosynthesis, showing the production of starch and the requirements of carbon
dioxide and chlorophyll.
Experiment 1 (chlorophyll):
1) Start with a destarched plant by putting it in the dark for 24 hours – it has to use up all its
starch to make glucose to use.
2) Shine light on the plant for 24 hours.
3) See if the photosynthesis has happened.
Experiment 2 (carbon dioxide):
1) Destarched plant.
2) Place plant in light in a clear plastic bag containing either:
a. Sodium hydrogen carbonate which produces CO2
b. Soda lime which removes CO2
3) Test the leaves for starch using iodine solution.

Variegated leaf – why are some parts lighter?

 The lighter parts of the leaf have less chlorophyll which is responsible for the green color.
 If a photosynthesis experiment is set up with a variegated plant the areas with more
chlorophyll would perform photosynthesis and produce oxygen while the areas with no
or less chlorophyll would produce some or no oxygen.

Photosynthesis Experiment 3

Experiment 3 : investigate photosynthesis, showing the production of starch and the

requirements of light.

If light is required for photosynthesis,

then starch will be found on the leaf
except the part covered by the tinfoil.

Method:
 1) Remove the leaf from the plant and add to boiling water in a beaker (approx. 1min).
2) Add the leaf to a boiling tube and to the bottom. Just cover the leaf with ethanol and
place the boiling tube back in the hot water from step1. Shake the tube occasionally to
speed up the process. Take a few minutes until the leaf is white/light in color.
3) The ethanol will extract green chlorophyll from the leaf. This makes the final color change
clearer.
4) Remove the leaf from the ethanol and place it back in the warm water in the beaker
(approx. 1 min). The ethanol dehydrates the leaf and makes it brittle. The water softens it
for the next step.
5) Spread the leaf on the white tile. This ensures any color changes will be obvious.
6) Add iodine solution to the leaf and observe color changes. Make sure there is enough
iodine to fully cover the leaf, but not so that it is running off the tile.

Rate of Photosynthesis
Experiment 4:
 Normally using an aquatic plant.
 Bubbles of oxygen gas are released from the plant when
it photosynthesizes.
 Rate of photosynthesis ≈ oxygen production / min.
Limiting factors (light, CO2, temperature):

Mineral Ions
Minerals:

 Just like humans, plants need a balanced diet that includes small amounts of minerals.
 If plants do not get enough minerals, plants do not grow properly and begin to look
unhealth.
 If a plant does not get enough
minerals, it is said to have a
mineral deficiency.

Maker sure water is

oxygenated, for roots to take
up mineral ions more
efficiently.
 So the mineral ion To prevent algae from
concentrations can be growing.
altered.

Plants take up mineral ions from the soil using root

hair cells. The minerals are taken in by the process
of active transport which requires ATP (energy) produced by respiration. To produce
chlorophyll, plants require magnesium, and their leaves turn yellow when there is a deficiency
of it. To make amino acids, which are used to make proteins, plants require nitrates. If they are
unable to make amino acids, their growth is reduced.