CHAPTER 2

BASIC BIOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

LESSON 1: Characteristics of Life
 Lesson Objectives

 Explain the characteristics o life common to all

organisms.
 Identify the parts that all cells have in common.
 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells.
 Introduction

 Biology is the branch of science that studies

life.
 Do you know what life is?
 Can you define it?
 Do you know the characteristics of life common to all
organisms?
 Can you describe the characteristics of life that are
shared by prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
 Characteristics of Life
 To be classified as a living thing, an object must
have all of the following characteristics:
 It consists of cell(s) that are organized.
 It grows and develops.
 It obtains and uses energy to power all life processes
through metabolism.
 It goes through reproduction: produces offspring
(asexually or sexually).
 It has a universal genetic code (DNA).
 It has the ability to change over time (evolution).
 It maintains homeostasis.
 Cells and Organization
 Cell: basic unit of structure and function of living things
capable of performing all the activities of life…
 Organization:
 Unicellular made up of only one cell
 Multicellular  composed of two or more cells
 These have a variety of levels of organization
 Cells and Organization
 Cell: basic unit of structure and function of living things
capable of performing all the activities of life…
 Organization:
 Unicellular made up of only one cell
 Multicellular  composed of two or more cells
 These have a variety of levels of organization
 Organism: highest level; made up of organ systems
 Organ systems: made up of organs; groups of specialized parts that
carry out a certain function in an organism
 Organ: made up of tissues
 Tissue: groups of cells that have similar abilities
 Cell: covered by membranes, contain genetic information needed for
replication, and carry out all cell functions, contain organelles
 Organelles: tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for a cell
to stay alive; contain biological molecules
 Molecules: chemical compounds that provide physical structure, fuel
movement, organize energy use, and other cellular functions
 Atoms: simplest particle of an element
 Growth and Development
 Growth: physical change in an organism’s size and weight
 Through cell division and enlargement of cells
 Development: gene-directed process by which an
organism matures
 Through cell differentiation (cell becoming different from each
other) and specialization (adaptation of a cell to perform a specific
function)

 Egg to tadpole:
 http://www.watchknowlearn.org/Video.aspx?VideoID=46507&Cate
goryID=7633

 Tadpole to Frog:
 http://vimeo.com/15865347
 Obtaining and Using Energy/ Metabolism
 Energy to power life processes:
 Examples: Cellular repair, growth, and movement
 Metabolism: sum of all chemical reactions that take in
and transform energy and materials from an organism’s
environment for use within their cells; the breaking
down (catabolic)and building up (anabolic) of materials

 Without a continuous input of usable energy, organisms

would quickly become “disorganized” and die!!!
 Reproduction

 All living things reproduce

 Reproduction: process by which living things
give rise to offspring and transmit hereditary
information (coded in DNA)
 Reproduction is either sexually or asexually
 Sexual reproduction requires two parents and the
offspring are genetically different from the parents
 Reproduction
 Reproduction is either sexually or asexually
 Asexual reproduction requires one parent and the
offspring are genetically identical to the parent
 Types of asexual reproduction:
 Budding
 Fragmentation
 Regeneration
 Binary Fission
 Parthenogenesis
 Universal Genetic Code (DNA)
 Deoxyribonucleic acid
 Very small difference between different living things
 Stores information needed to carry out life processes
and reproduce
 When reproducing the code is copied and passed from parent to
offspring
 DNA molecules made up of four different
nucleotides; order of them determines which
proteins will be made
 Proteins give living things their genetic
traits
Ability to Change Over Time (Evolution)
 Evolution occurs through a process called natural
selection
 Natural selection: some populations of living things produce
more offspring than others, so they pass more genes to the next
generation than others do
 Genes carry a variety of characteristics
 Variety can lead to evolution
 Evolution: change in the characteristics of populations of
living things over time
 Changes arise from genetic mutations which create genetic
variations
 Genetic variations allow a population to adapt
 Adaptations are characteristics that help a population survive and reproduce
(fertile offspring) in a given environment
 Ability to adapt and survive is known as an organism’s ‘fitness’
 Homeostasis
 The process of maintaining a stable internal
environment regardless of the conditions around
them
 Homeostatic mechanisms regulate this process and help us
maintain:
 Stable body temperature (thermoregulation)
 Homeostasis
 The process of maintaining a stable internal
environment regardless of the conditions around
them
 Homeostatic mechanisms regulate this process and help us
maintain:
 Stable body temperature (thermoregulation)
 Proper water content amount in the body (osmoregulation)
 Homeostasis
 The process of maintaining a stable internal
environment regardless of the conditions around
them
 Homeostatic mechanisms regulate this process and help us
maintain:
 Stable body temperature (thermoregulation)
 Proper water content amount in the body (osmoregulation)
 The uptake of nutrients by our cells
Homeostatic Mechanism’s Feedback Loop
 Feedback loops regulate physiological and behavioral
responses.
 Have three components: receptor, control center,
effector
 Receptor: monitors and responds to changes in an organism’s
environment
 Control center: receives information from the receptor,
determines if the variable sent by the receptors needs to
monitored and adjustments made
 In humans, the brain is the control center
 Effector: receives information from the control center and
corrects or made adjustments to maintain homeostasis using
either positive or negative feedback loops
 Negative Feedback Loop
 Reverses a condition
 Positive Feedback Loop
 Enhances a condition
 Lesson Summary
 Living things are distinguished from nonliving things on the basis of seven characteristics:
cells and organization, growth and development, obtains and use energy (metabolism),
reproduction, universal genetic code, ability to change over time (evolution), and homeostasis.
 A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things capable of performing all
the activities of life.
 Growth is the physical change in an organism’s size and weight, while development is the
gene-directed process by which an organism matures.
 Metabolic processes are the sum of all chemical reactions that take in and transform energy
and materials from an organism’s environment.
 Reproduction is the process by which living things give rise to offspring and transmit
hereditary information (coded in DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid). In sexually reproducing
organisms hereditary information recombines from two organisms of the same species,
producing genetically different offspring. In asexually reproducing organisms hereditary
information does not come from different organisms to the offspring, the offspring is
genetically identical to the parent.
 Living things are based on a universal genetic code.
 Evolution is a change in the characteristics of populations of living things over time; which
creates genetic variations enabling a population to adapt to changes in their environments and
survive.
 All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. Maintaining stable
internal conditions through homeostatic mechanisms is a matter of life or death for living
organisms.
LESSON 2: Structural & Functional Relationships at
Biological Levels of Organization
Lesson Objectives
 Describe the diversity of cell shapes, and explain why
cells are so small.
 Identify the parts that all cells have in common.
 Describe the structure and function of the plasma
membrane.
 Outline the form and function of the nucleus and other
organelles.
 Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Explain how cells are organized in living things.
 Describe the relationship between structure and function
at various levels of biological organization.
 INTRODUCTION
 Basic life functions performed by cells:
 Obtain and use energy (metabolism)
 Respond to the environment (homeostasis)
 Reproduce
 DIVERSITY OF CELLS
 Different types of cells have their own unique
functions
 Shapes of cells usually fit their function
 Sizes also vary, but all are very small

 Why are they so small?

Larger surface area to volume ratio = more efficiency

 Cell Size
 Important aspect  cells must be able to quickly
pass substances in and out of the cell
 Need to pass substance limits size of cell
 Large cells need more nutrients, produce more
waste: surface area limits exchange functionality
 Large SA: Vol = smaller cell
 Less volume needs less nutrients, produces less waste;
surface area efficient for movement
 Small SA: Vol = larger cell
 More volume needs more nutrients, produce more
waste; surface area limits movement, needs not met
 Cell Shape
 Different functions necessitate different shapes
 PARTS OF THE CELL COMMON TO
ALL ORGANISMS
 Plasma membrane (cell membrane)
 Thin coat of phospholipids and protein molecule bilayer
 Cytoplasm
 All the cellular material inside the plasma membrane; except the
nucleus
 Ribosomes
 Attached to rough ER or free in cytoplasm; site of protein
synthesis
 DNA
 Nucleic acid molecule; contains genetic information to make
proteins, carry out life processes, and pass on inheritable traits

Commonality shows common evolutionary history…

 Plasma Membrane
 Protects (barrier between inside and outside)
and supports the cell; controls what goes in
and out; recognize chemical signals
 Composed of two layers of phospholipids with
proteins embedded
 Phospholipid Bilayer
 Phospholipids = fatty acids and alcohol
 Head (exterior surface) is ‘hydrophilic’ (water-
loving)
 Tail (interior surface) is ‘hydrophobic’ (water-
hater)

Water-hating molecules easily pass through it, water loving do not (need help)
 Other Molecules in the Plasma Membrane

 Lipids and proteins

 Lipids like cholesterol help the plasma membrane
keep its shape
 Proteins assist other molecules in crossing the
membrane
 Glycoproteins and surface carbohydrates serve as cell
receptors, points of attachment for other cells like:
infectious bacteria, viruses, toxins, hormones, etc.
 Extensions of the Plasma Membrane
 Whip-like flagella
 Aids in movement in single-celled organisms
 In multicellular organisms flagella are found
primarily on gametes, but create the water currents
necessary for respiration and circulation in sponges
 Brush-like cilia
 Cilia function to move a cell or group of cells or to
help transport fluid or materials past them
 Cytoplasm
 Consists of fluid, the cytoskeleton, and all the
membrane-bound organelles except the nucleus
 Cytosol: part of the cytoplasm that contains molecules and
small particles; like ribosomes
 Water in cytoplasm makes up 2/3 of cell’s mass and
gives it its many properties
 Functions of Cytoplasm
 Suspending organelles
 Pushes against plasma membrane to help cell
keep its shape
 Site for many biochemical reactions
 Cytoskeleton
 “Cellular Skeleton”--crisscrosses the cytoplasm,
consists of threadlike filaments and tubules
 Maintains cell shape
 Holds cell organelles in place
 Some unicellular do not have organelles…so no
cytoskeleton
 Ribosomes
 Site of protein synthesis; joins amino acids
together
 Contain nucleic acid (RNA)
 Found attached to rough ER or alone or in
groups in the cytoplasm
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Two Types of Cells
 Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles
 DNA concentrated in part of the cell called nucleoid
 Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles
 DNA in nucleus
 Prokaryotic Cells
 Most unicellular, a few multicellular no
membrane-bound organelles
 Two groups: Bacteria and Archaea
 First organism to evolve and still most common
type of cell today
 Eukaryotic Cells
 Can be unicellular, most multicellular
 Contain a nucleus, membrane-bound
organelles
 Organelles allow them to carry out more functions
than prokaryotic cells
 Larger than prokaryotic cells
Compare and Contrast Prokaryotes versus
Eukaryotes
 Take a few moments work together on
complete the chart on page 7 of your packet…
Characteristic Prokaryote Eukaryote

Cells are enclosed by a plasma (cell) membrane

Membrane-bound organelles

Cells contain DNA

Cells contain ribosomes

Plants, most
Have a cell wall fungi, and some
protists

Cells contain a nucleus

Includes unicellular organisms

Includes multicellular organisms

All cells are able to perform all functions necessary for life

Cells reproduce by binary fission

Cells reproduce through the cell cycle (mitosis) and meiosis

 Viruses: Prokaryotes or Eukaryotes
 What is a virus?
 Tiny particles that may cause disease; like the common cold or the flu

 Is it a cell?
 No they are not

 Is it even alive?
 They contain DNA and not much else, lack parts shared by all cells 
not considered a living thing
 They need a host to reproduce, cannot obtain energy on their own

Scanning electron micrograph of HIV viruses (green) budding from a

cultured T-lymphocyte.
 STRUCTURES FOUND ONLY IN
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
The Nucleus and Other Organelles
 All membrane-bound organelles
 Organelles are involved in many vital cell functions
 Nucleus
 Filled jellylike liquid called nucleoplasm,
which functions similar to the cell’s cytoplasm
 Largest organelle in eukaryotic cells;
considered cell’s control center because…
 Nucleus houses cell’s genetic information and
controls which proteins cell makes
 Also site where DNA is transcribed into mRNA
Nuclear Envelope or Nuclear Membrane
 Surrounds the nucleus
 Is a double membrane; made of two phospholipid
bilayers
 Surface covered by tiny, protein-lined pores
nuclear pores
 Pores are passageways for mRNA and other materials to
enter or leave the nucleus
 Nucleolus
 Site where DNA is concentrated during process
of making ribosomal RNA or ribosomes
 Mitochondria
Oute r m e mb r ane Inne r me mb rane

Cristae

 Organelle that makes energy available to the cell; “power

house” of the cell
 Uses energy from organic compounds during cellular
respiration to make molecules of ATP
 Very active cells; like muscles cells can have hundreds of
mitochondria
 Mitochondria have an inner and outer phospholipid
membrane
 Outer separates mitochondria from cytosol
 Inner lots and lots of folds called cristae
 Mitochondrial DNA

 Mitochondria have their own DNA

 Can reproduce through division of preexisting
mitochondria
 Thus theory developed…
 Endosymbiotic theory: ancient prokaryotes were engulfed by
larger prokaryotic cells, and the two organisms evolved a
mutually beneficial endosymbiotic relationship.
 Smaller prokaryotes got a place to live.
 Larger prokaryotes got extra energy from the smaller prokaryotes.
 Smaller prokaryotes became permanent guests of the larger ones
as organelles inside them (mitochonria and chloroplast).
ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
 Helps make and transport proteins and lipids;
intracellular highway
 Two types:
 Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
 Studded with ribosomes
 Produces phospholipids and proteins
 Proteins are exported out in tiny vesicles from
pinched off ends of RER to their next destination
 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
 Does not have ribosomes
 Produces lipids; like cholesterol
 SER in sex cells produces steroid hormones
 Estrogen (female hormone)
 Testosterone (male hormone)
 SER in skeletal and heart muscles releases calcium to
stimulate contractions
 SER in liver and kidney cells help detoxify drugs and
poisons
 Golgi Apparatus

 Processes proteins and prepares them for use

inside and outside the cell
 Receives vesicles from RER containing proteins
or lipids
 Golgi can add carbohydrate labels to proteins
or alter new lipids
 http://www.johnkyrk.com/golgiAlone.html
 Vesicles
 Small spherical shaped sacs surrounded by a
single membrane; classified by their contents
 Transport vesicles (eukaryotes only)
 Pinch off from membranes of ER and Golgi
 Store and transport proteins and lipids to plasma
membrane merge point then release them outside
the cell
 Other vesicles: lysosomes, peroxisomes,
glyoxysomes, endosomes, food vacuoles,
contractile vesicles
 Centrioles
 Organelles involved in cell division
 Only found in animal cells
 Pathway of Protein Production
1 Code for proteins transcribed to
mRNA in nucleus
2

5
 SPECIAL STUCTURES IN EUKARYOTIC
PLANT CELLS
 Cell wall: supports and protects the cell
 Composed mainly of complex carbohydrates, called cellulose
 Central Vacuole: stores water, enzymes, plant pigments, and salts;
maintains plant rigidity
 Plastids: carry out a variety of functions

 Chloroplasts: capture
sunlight
 Chromoplasts: store PLASTID

other pigments
 Leucoplasts: store starches; CENTRAL VACUOLE

make amino acids

CELL WALL
 CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
 Simplest level unicellular organism
 Biofilms thin layer of bacteria that sticks to a
surface
 Colonies organized structure composed of
many cells
 Most complex level multicellular organism
 Levels of Organization in Multicellular
Organisms

 Cell-level: cells are like body systems, have particular

structures, perform particular functions
 Made up of organelles
 Organelles are formed from many different molecules
 Tissue-level
 Organ-level
 Organ system-level
 Whole organism-level

 Organelles in unicellular organisms perform all life processes

needed to maintain homeostasis
 Life Functions of Organ Systems
 Nervous and endocrine systems main systems that
maintain homeostasis

 CELLULAR COMMUNICATION
 Necessary for maintenance of homeostasis; disruption
adversely affects cells
 HORMONAL REGULATION
 Hormones are chemical messengers that set off triggers for
the production of necessary compounds
 NERVOUS REGULATION
 Deduct and respond to stimuli in order to maintain
homeostasis
 Lesson Summary

• All cells are very small because they need to pass substances across their
surface. Their small size gives them a relatively large ratio of surface area to
volume, facilitating the transfer of substances. The shapes of cells may
vary, and a cell’s shape generally suits its function.
• Cells are diverse, but all cells contain a plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
ribosomes, and DNA.
• Prokaryotic cells are cells without a nucleus. They are found in single-celled
organisms. Eukaryotic cells are cells with a nucleus and other organelles.
They are found mainly in multicellular organisms.
• The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that supports and protects
a cell and controls what enters and leaves it.
• The cytoplasm consists of everything inside the plasma membrane,
including watery cytosol and organelles. The cytoplasm suspends the
organelles and does other jobs. The cytoskeleton crisscrosses the cytoplasm
and gives the cell an internal framework.
 Lesson Summary

• The nucleus is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell and contains most of the cell’s
DNA. Other organelles in eukaryotic cells include the mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, and centrioles (in animal
cells only). Each type of organelle has important functions in the cell.
• Plant cells have special structures that are not found in animal cells, including a cell
wall, a large central vacuole, and organelles called plastids.
• Cells can exist independently as single-celled organisms or with other cells as
multicellular organisms. Cells of a multicellular organism can be organized at the
level of organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
• The biological levels of organization found in multi-cellular organisms work
together to maintain homeostasis in living things.
• Organelles present in unicellular organisms often act in the same manner as the
tissues and systems found in multi-cellular organisms. The organelles in unicellular
organisms perform all of the life processes needed to maintain homeostasis, by using
specialized cell organelles.