EARTH & LIFE SCIENCE

2nd Quarter
Lecture no. 2

UNIFYING THEMES OF LIFE

1. New Properties Emerge at Each Level in the Biological Hierarchy
The organization of life has three levels of complexity as described in the previous module:
cellular, organismal, and populational level.
The hierarchy of life unfolds as follows:
Biosphere> Ecosystem> Community> Species> Population> Organ systems> Organs> Tissues>
Cells > Organelles> Molecules> Atoms
Reductionism - complex systems are broken down to simpler components that are more
manageable to study (e.g. the molecular structure of DNA). An understanding of biology balances
reductionism with the study of emergent properties.
System - combination of components that function together. In systems biology, scientists
attempt to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the
interactions among the system’s parts.
2. Organisms Interact with Other Organisms and the Physical Environment
Every organism interacts with its environment, including nonliving factors and other
organisms. Both organisms and their environments are affected by the interactions between them.
For example, plants take up nutrients from the soil and chemicals from the air and use energy from
the sun. Interactions between plants and other organisms result in cycling of chemical nutrients
within an ecosystem.
The dynamics of an ecosystem include two major processes: (1) cycling of nutrients, in
which materials acquired by plants eventually return to the soil, and (2) the flow of energy from
sunlight to producers to consumers.
3. Life Requires Energy Transfer and Transformation
Energy flows through an ecosystem. All organisms must perform work, which requires
energy. Energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy by producers, which is then passed on
to consumers. Energy flows through an ecosystem, usually entering as light and exiting as heat.
4. Structure and Function Are Correlated at All Levels of Biological Organization
Biological structures are very well suited to their functions. It can be seen at every level of
organization: within the cell, the shape of the proteins called enzymes that cells use to carry out
chemical reactions are well-suited with the chemicals the enzymes must manipulate. Within the
many kinds of organisms, body structures seem carefully designed to carry out their functions. Life
has existed a very long time for evolution to adapt changes that better suit organisms to meet
challenges of living.
5. The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic Unit of Structure and Function
The cell is the lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life. Cells
are either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles,
including a DNA-containing nucleus. The word eukaryotic means “true kernel” or “true nucleus”
and the word “organelle” means “little organ,” that has specialized cellular functions, just as the
organs of a human body. A prokaryotic cell - is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that
lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle.
6. The Continuity of Life Is Based on Heritable Information in the Form of DNA
Genetic information is encoded in the nucleotide sequences of DNA. It is DNA that transmits
heritable information from parents to offspring. DNA sequences program a cell’s protein production
by being transcribed into RNA and then translated into specific proteins, a process called gene
expression. Gene expression also results in RNAs that are not translated into protein but serve
other important functions. Genomics is the large-scale analysis of the DNA sequences within a
species as well as the comparison of sequences between species.
7. Feedback Mechanisms Regulate Biological Systems
Negative feedback, accumulation of an end product slows the process that makes that
product. In positive feedback, the end product stimulates the production of more product.
Feedback is a type of regulation common to life at all levels, from molecules to ecosystems.
Homeostasis is generally maintained by a negative feedback loop that includes a stimulus
- provided by a variable that is being regulated; generally indicates that the value of the
variable has moved away from the set point or has left the normal range
sensor - monitors the values of the variable and sends data on it to the control center
control center (matches the data with normal values. If the value is not at the set point or is outside
the normal range, the control center sends a signal to the effector
effector organ, gland, muscle, or other structure that acts on the signal from the control center to move
the variable back toward the set point.
Negative feedback serves to reduce an excessive response and to keep a variable within the normal
range. It controls body temperature and the blood glucose level. Positive feedback loops are not
common in biological systems.
Positive feedback serves to intensify a response until an endpoint is reached. It controls blood
clotting and childbirth.
8. Evolution (Core theme of Biology)
Evolution - genetic change in a species over time. Charles Darwin proposed the idea that
this change is a result of a process called natural selection - organisms whose characteristics
make them better able to survive the challenges of their environment live to reproduce, passing
their favorable characteristics on their offspring. Darwin was thoroughly familiar with variation in
domesticated animals, and he knew that varieties of pigeons could be selected by breeders to
exhibit exaggerated characteristics called artificial selection - characteristics selected are passed
on through generations because DNA is transmitted from parent to offspring.