Biology Notes

Cell-Biology

- Respire
- Excrete
- Reproduce
- Respond/ homeostasis
- Nutrient
- Movement

Cell theory

- Cells are the smallest unit in life

- Cells are the building blocks in living things
- Cells come from preexisting cells

Type of cells

1- Prokaryote 2- Eukaryote
- Unicellular - multicellular
- Bacteria - humus
- No organelle
- No compartments

Functions PROKARYOTE:
- Cell wall : protect the cell
- Cell membrane: controls what enters and leaves the cell/ semi permeable
- DNA : controls all the activities of the cell
- Plasmid : extra ring of DNA
- Cytoplasm : site of all the chemical reactions
- Ribosomes (70s) : responsible of synthesis of proteins
 Eukaryote cells :-

Nucleus: DNA Storage and controls all activities/ controls cell divison

Mitochondrion: Energy production/ it produces ATPs through respiration

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Lipid production

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Protein production; in particular for export out of the cell

Lysosome: Collection of enzymes

Plant cell

The function of chloroplast is to trap sunlight it is the

Red blood cell:

 No nucleus: to make room for hemoglobin so more oxygen can be carried
 Bi concave disc : squeeze through blood vessels
 Flexible

Xylem: water transplant

End to end walls of xylem have been disintegrated

Xylem doesn’t have any organelles

Lignin is deposited in the walls of the xylem to strengthen it

Tissue: similar cells working together is called a tissue

Organs: when different tissues work together to form a function they make an organ

Organ system: when a group of organs work together to perform a function it is called
organ system

Organism: when different organ systems work together they make an organism.

Atom, organelle, cell, tissue, organ system, organism

Animal cells Plant cell

No cell wall Cell wall present
Small vacuole Larger vacuole
Red Blood cells present No red blood cells

Three Domains
 Prokaryote

Eukaryote: Protoctista, animals, plants, fungi

Archea: bacteria which can survive in extreme conditions

Protoctista:

Are microscopic

Most are unicellular

Some have features like plants

Some have features of both animals and plants

Some cause disease

Fungi:

Have no chloroplast

Some are single celled

Have a cell wall made of chitin

Store sugars as glycogen

Animal kingdom:

Fish: covered in scale, breathe through gills, no constant internal body temperature,
reproduce external fertilization

Amphibians: moist scale, external fertilization, can breathe through skin and lungs, do not
maintain a constant internal temprature

Mammals

Reptiles

Diffusion osmosis active transport

Carbon dioxide

Oxygen is inhaled into the lungs

Blood carry’s the oxygen from the lungs to all the cells

Oxygen moves into the cells by diffusion

Oxygen is used up by mitochondria to synthesize ATPs

Carbon dioxide is produced as a result

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the blood cells

Carbon dioxide is carried to lungs from where it is inhaled

Diffusion is a passive process

Passive: does not require energy to take place

Osmosis:
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from high water potential to low water potential
across a semi permeable membrane

Dialysis -> semi permeable

Diffusion can take place in both gasses and liquids

Osmosis only takes place in water molecules

Three types of solutions

 Hypertonic: water potential is lower than the cell, it results in the movement of water
outside the cell.
 Isotonic: where the water potential of the solution is the same as the cell

 Hypotonic:

Test Results
Concentration / % Initial weight /gm Final weight/gm Change fw-iw
Pure water 5.35 5.89 10.09
10 5.62 3.98 30.72
25 4.18 4.36 4.30

Dependent variable = weight of the potato

Independent variable= concentration of solution

Constant=initial weight, same potato, volume of solution for every solution should have been
same

Active Transport
Is an energy-consuming process by which substances are transported from regions of low
concentration to regions of high concentration against a concentration gradient.

Can only take place in living cells. It is the opposite of diffusion.

Cells move from low concentration to higher concentration.

A.T (active transport ) requires energy in the form of ATPs.

Carbohydrates:

So we can make ATPs.

Pasta

Bread

Rice

Cereals

Protein:

Form structure components e.g. muscles, hair and skin.

Meat, fish

Eggs

Milk

Lipids (Fat ) :

Storage molecules

Oils

Margarine

Vitamins :
Vitamin A

Vitamin B

Vitamin C

Vitamin D

Vitamin A : Carrots

Vitamin B : Cheese & meats

Vitamin C : Oranges

Vitamin D :

Doesn’t provide you with energy

Fibers :

Doesn’t provide you with energy

Aten for healthy functioning of gut

Any plant based food

Dried fruit

Minerals:

Fe: apples

Zn: Oysters

Ca: Milk

Doesn’t provide energy

Organic Molecules (it needs to have Carbon and hydrogen in order to be labeled as organic
molecules)

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Lipids
Nucleic acids

20th October, 2023

Friday
Polymers wall

Monomers  bricks

Carbohydrates:
 Monosaccharides (Monomers)
- Glucose -------------------------------------------> It is required for the process of respiration
- Fructose which synthesize ATPs
- Galactose

 Polysaccharides (Polymers)
- Cellulose ] Thousands of
- Starch ] glucose
- Glycogens ] molecules

Glycogen  Storage CHD of body

Plants make cellulose using glucose. Cellulose makes the cell wall in plants.

24th October 23

Tuesday

Protein:
Amino acids help in the building of muscles

Make HB -> needed to carry oxygen in RBC

Proteins are enzymes -> accelerate the chemical reaction in out body

Anti-bodies -> protect us against pathogens

Functions of protein

1- Digestion of food by ENZYMES

2- Transport of oxygen by HAEMOGLOBIN
3- Provide immunity by ANTIBODIES and ENZYMES
4- Form structures E.g hair ( keratin), muscles (actin)
5- Energy store for developing embryo

Test for protein: biuret test

Method:

2- Take a test tube with biuret solution(light blue color) in a petri dish crush the food
sample that’s being tested, add the crushed food to the biuret test tube.
If the food contains protein it will change its color to lilac ( light purple)
3- Mix well

Lipids:

If a lipid is from a animal source it’s fat ( solid at room temperature)

If it's from a plant source is oil ( liquid at room temperature )

The monomers of lipids are fatty acids.

Fats are the second choice of body to make ATPs you body would prefer to make it with
carbohydrates being the first choice because of the ease of breaking it down.

Fats are long term store of energy

Fats under your skin provide insulation

27th October 23

Friday
Vitamin A:-

- Carrots
- Disease:-night blindness

Vitamin c:-

- Citrus fruits:- lemon, oranges

- Disease:- scurvy

Vitamin d/ca:-

- Function:- healthy functioning of bones and teeth

- Sunlight, milk
- Disease:- osteomalacia

Minerals:-

Fe-iron

Function= to make hb -> hb carries oxygen in RBCs. Hemoglobin

Food source= pomegranate, apple

Deficiency/disease= Anemia

Fibers/roughage

Cells walls -> cellulose-(remains undigested)

In the absent of fibers the intestines will not push the food forward

Constipation

Colon cancer

7th November 23

Tuesday

Enzymes:
An enzyme is a biological catalyst which increases the speed of chemical reaction without
getting utilized itself

- The substance on which an enzymes act is called a substrate

- Enzymes are proteins in nature

Active site:

The active site is a special shape on the enzyme which is complementary to the substrate

How does temperature effect the enzyme activity

- Optimum level
- Denaturation of enzymes
 Amylase
Starch-> maltose

17th November 23
Friday

Graph diff phases:

If u get temperature graph u talk about the rate of reaction and how the temperature
has a effect on it.

Tuesday

28th November 23
Respiration:-

Aerobic -> oxygen

Aerobic-> in the absence of oxygen

Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + ATPs

Glucose -> lactic acid + 2 ATPs

Need for energy

- Every organism need a supply of energy for example

- Making muscles contract
- Making metabolic reactions happen for example joining of amino

Source of energy

- Food that we consume is the source of energy

- Carbohydrates, proteins and fats all contain energy, the body can make use of it
- Food that is eaten is digested in digestive system, absorbed in to the blood and then
distributed to all parts of body
- Only after the food has been absorbed in to the cells, energy can be extracted out of it
- The process of releasing energy from the food us called respiration
- Respiration is an example of metabolic reaction

Anaerobic respiration in yeast

- In yeasts, fermentation results in the production of ethanol and carbon dioxide- which
can be used in food processing:
- Bread- carbon dioxide causes dough ti rise, the ethanol evaporates during baking
- Alcohol – ethanol is the intoxicating agent in alcoholic beverages (concentrations above-
14% damage the yeast)

Inhaling:-
In alveoli the O2 concern tration is higher compared to blood so oxygen moves from
alveolar air to blood. CO2 conc in alveoli is low compared to blood in the capillaries so
CO2 moves from blood to alveoli and it is exhaled out.
The purpose of breathing is to maintain the concentration gradient between alveolar air
and blood.

Ventilation: