NUTRITION

Element of Macromolecule
Carbohydrate : Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Protein : Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur
Lipid : Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

Enzyme
Enzyme works by fitting substrate in its active site then producing the product hence
speeding up reaction.
low temperature = low kinetic energy, enzyme will be too slow to work
high temperature = active site denatured irreversibly, enzyme will no longer work

Food Test
Vit C : DCPIP —> blue black (-) Colourless (+)
Starch : Iodine —> Yellow Brown (-) Blue Black (+)
Protein : Biuret —> Blue (-) Violet (+)
Reducing Sugar : Benedict (Heat) —> Blue (-) Red Brick (+)
Lipid : Ethanol —> Colourless (-) White (+)

Roughage Fiber
The Function of Roughage Fiber in the digestive system is to keep the peristalsis movement
going hence preventing constipation. This happens because roughage fiber is made up of
things humans can’t digest and will regulate our digestion.

Organs
Anus : Located in the end of the digestive system
Function —> To throw feces or the undigested materials of digestion (Egestion)
Ileum : Located in the 3rd part of Small Intestine which is the middle of digestive system
Function —> Absorption of Nutrients (Absorption)
Mouth : Located in the first step of digestive system
Function —> Where Chemical (Amylase) and Mechanical Digestion (Teeth) occur

Photosynthesis
Equation : 6 CO2 + 6 H2O → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 h

Leaf Structure
Chloroplast : They contain chlorophyll which will then absorb sunlight, this light
energy will be converted into chemical energy by photosynthesis that happen in
chloroplast as well
Palisade : Have the most chloroplast to maximize light absorption
Xylem : Transport water and ion in the form of soluble salt from root to stem (One
Way)
TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Movement In and Out of Cell
Diffusion : The movement of molecule from the area of its higher concentration to the area
of its lower concentration
Osmosis : The movement of water molecules from the area of its higher concentration to
the area of its lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane

Hypertonic Solution on Plant Cell

Plant Cell becomes Plasmolyzed as there is more solvent and less water outside the cell,
the water in the cell goes outside the cell by osmosis leaving the cell with less water than
usual.

Heart Structure and Blood Cycle

Oxygenated Blood Cycle : Pulmonary Vein (From Lungs) → Left Atrium → Left Ventricle →
Aorta (To Whole Body)

Deoxygenated Blood Cycle : Vena Cava (From Whole Body) → Right Atrium → Right
Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery (To Lungs)

The Difference in the Blood Flow Direction of :

● Pulmonary artery : Carry Deoxygenated Blood from heart to Lungs

● Pulmonary vein : Carry Oxygenated Blood from lungs to heart

● Renal artery : Carry Oxygenated Blood from heart to Kidneys

● Renal vein : Carry Deoxygenated Blood from kidneys to heart

● Vena cava : Carry Deoxygenated Blood from whole body to heart

Difference Structure Between Artery, Vein, and Capillary

Blood Clotting Process

In a wound, platelets would be present and it releases an enzyme (Thrombin) which will
change Fibrinogen (Soluble protein in plasma) into fibrin which will then clot hence covering
the wound.

Distribution of Xylem & Phloem in Plant Root

Transpiration Process :
Order of transpiration: Xylem —> Mesophyll Cell —> Aerial Space —> Stomata

Explanation : Water from xylem will move to Spongy Mesophyll Cell by osmosis, which then
will evaporate into the aerial space found in the leaves, from there it diffuses out through the
stomata. This phenomenon which is called transpiration will trigger cohesive tension which
will pull water again through the xylem repeating the cycle and this pull is called the
transpiration pull.

Factors that Affect Transpiration

More transpiration :

- More Light Intensity

- More Density & Distribution of Stomata
- More Temperature
- More Wind Speed (External Factors)
- More Leaves

Less transpiration :

- More Thickness of Waxy Cuticle

- More Humidity
RESPIRATION

Definition:
chemical reactions that break down nutrient (especially glucose) molecules in living cells to
release energy

- In Eukaryote (Animal, Human, plants), done in Mitochondria.

- Usage:

o muscle contraction

o protein synthesis

o cell division

o active transport

o growth

o the passage of nerve impulses

o the maintenance of a constant body temperature

- The amount of energy is measured by using a calorimeter.

Aerobic Respiration

Definition: the chemical reactions in cells that use oxygen to break down nutrient
molecules to release relatively large amount of energy

Equation:

Anaerobic Respiration
Definition: the chemical reactions in cells that break down nutrient molecules to relatively
small amount of energy without using oxygen

- Anaerobic respiration happens during exercise. During exercise the amount of

oxygen needed for respiration is less than oxygen available in the blood, but the
muscle still needs the energy, hence doing the anaerobic respiration.

Equation:

- The products of anaerobic respiration are lactic acid, which makes tissue and
blood more acidic.

- Lactic acid is poisonous to the muscle and might cause cramps.

- Heavy breathing and increased heart rate are still present even after the
exercise is over to pay the oxygen debt. High heart rate enables transport of
lactic acid from muscle to the liver, and heavy breathing ensures that the oxygen
needed to break down lactic acid further is present in the liver. (Lactic acid
breakdown in the liver = aerobic respiration)

Gas Exchange System

Gas Exchange need:

- Thin and large surface area

- Well ventilated
- Near blood supply

Process: diffusion
Happened in: alveolus (lungs), gills, stomata, etc.

Human Respiratory System

Function: help body to take oxygen from the environment and release carbon dioxide to the
environment (breathing)

Ribs movement during breathing (inspiration and expiration)

Gas Composition During Human Breathing

Test of CO2

CO2

is measured by using limewater (cloudy) or sodium hydrogen carbonate indicator.

CO2 is a little bit acidic (yellow).

Carbon dioxide and oxygen composition in capillary and alveolus

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Terms to know :

Pathogen: a disease-causing organism > part of pathogen can be recognize as antigen

Infection: entry of pathogen into the body

Types of pathogens

Innate Immunity :

Mechanical barriers: skin & hairs in the nose

Chemical barriers: mucus & stomach acid

Cells mediated : phagocytosis and antibody

production by white blood cells

Adaptive immunity :

Characteristic : Specific & involve lymphocytes, specifically because antibodies need to be

fit with antigen on the surface of the pathogen.
Lymphocytes with specific antibodies recognize antigen, then it clones itself into plasma cells
& memory cells.

Plasma cell: release antibody which will disappear after no more antigen.

Memory cell: still in the body, and will quickly divide itself into plasma cells when same
antigen present (this is the basic foundation of vaccination)

Active vs passive Immunity :

● Active immunity: defense against a pathogen by antibody production in the body

· Natural: sickness

· Artificial: vaccination/ immunization by injection/oral taking of inactive

pathogen/part of pathogen that play role as antigen

● Passive immunity: antibody acquired from other organisms; this is only short term
because no memory cell produces.

Natural: maternal antibodies, across placenta or in the breast milk (important

as baby has not fully developed to produce their own antibody

Artificial: injection of serum which contain antibody

Vaccination :
Process: harmless pathogen which has antigens is given by injection or oral. These
antigens trigger an immune response which will then cause lymphocytes to produce
antibodies, the lymphocyte will then clone itself into plasma cell (Keep producing antibodies
until the pathogen is gone) and memory cell (Remember the antigen of the pathogen). In the
end memory cells are produced that give long-term immunity
COORDINATION & RESPONSE

Urine Composition

Urine : Urea, Water, Salt, and Glucose

How Urea Is Produced

Amino Acids are brought by the blood to the Liver, in there, the excess of amino acids
will go through a process called deamination, therefore the excess amino acids will be
changed into carbohydrate (For liver to use) and ammonia —> which will then be
converted into urea, after that, the urea will then be release into the bloodstream to be
filtered by Kidneys.

Effect of Adrenaline on Blood Glucose and Pulse Rate

Pulse Rate : Increases To pump more blood (Contain Glucose and Oxygen) into the muscle
which will then be used more respiration to provide energy

Blood Glucose Level : More glucose for respiration —> more energy produced

How Glucagon Works

Produced in : Pancreas

Target Organ : Liver and Muscle

Function : Changing Glycogen into Glucose which will then increase the Blood Glucose
Level

Synapse

Definition : The process of which an impulse from presynaptic neuron jumps to a

postsynaptic neuron

Process : The impulse can't jump between neurons, so the presynaptic neuron releases
vesicles containing neurotransmitters which will then diffuses into the postsynaptic
neuron and binds with its receptor causing an impulse in the postsynaptic neuron hence
continuing the impulse.

The Function of each Kind of Neuron

Sensory (Receptor): carry impulse from receptor to CNS

Relay (Interneuron): connect a neuron with another neuron. Located in CNS

Motor (Effector): transmit impulse from CNS to effector

The Density of rods and cones on the Fovea and Blind Spot

Fovea : Contains no rods only cones

Blind Spot : No rods or cones

Effect of Auxin in the Shoot and Root

In shoots : Any concentration promotes growth.

In root : High concentration inhibits growth but small concentration promotes growth.

The Function of Synthetic Auxin (2,4-D)

Synthetic Auxin (2,4-D) is used as weedkillers (herbicides) for broadleaf plant (dicotyledons)
It works by killing plant by stimulating rapid, uncoordinated, and distorted growth of some
body parts while seriously inhibiting the functioning of other parts.

This happens because any concentration of auxin promotes growth in shoot but too high
inhibit (Declining) growth in root therefore, when these types of auxin is used in high
concentration, there will be imbalance of growth in some parts of the plant

Further Explanation —>The shoots which have Normal growth will be supplied by the roots
which have declining growth, therefore the supply of nutrients that is brought by the roots will
not be enough for the shoots which will lead to the death of the plant.
GRAPH REQUIREMENTS
How to make a line graph:

● Complete Label and Unit

● Data plotting cross (x) or encircle data points (⊙)

● Using the ruler to join the plots

● Right axes labeling

● Choose the scale that makes all plotted points occupying at least 50% of the gird

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