Endocrine System
Chemical Control
Messenger Molecules
-Cells must communicate with one
another to coordinate cell processes
within tissues and to maintain
homeostasis.
-Cell-to-cell communication is carried
out via messenger molecules.
Endocrine hormones
-Produced by endocrine (“ductless”)
glands and secreted into the
bloodstream.
-Endocrine hormones may affect a wide
array of target cells to produce multiple
effects.
-Two types: peptides (small proteins)
and steroids (lipids).
Hormones and Receptors
Peptide Hormones
Peptide hormones do not enter
the cell directly. These hormones
bind to receptor proteins in the cell
membrane.
When the hormone binds with
the receptor protein, a secondary
messenger molecule initiates the cell
response.
Because peptide hormones are
water soluble, they often produce
fast responses.
Steroid Hormones
Steroid hormones enter through the
cell membrane and bind to receptors
inside of the target cell.
These hormones may directly
stimulate transcription of genes to make
certain proteins.
Because steroids work by triggering
gene activity, the response is slower than
peptide hormones.
How do endocrine hormones “know”
which cells are their target cells?
Role of the Hypothalamus
The thalamus receives sensory
information, relays some to the
hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus monitors the body for
temperature, pH, and other conditions.
Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland
if conditions need to be corrected.
Role of the Pituitary
The pituitary is the “master gland”
that signals other glands to produce their
hormones when needed.
The anterior lobe of the pituitary
receives signals from the hypothalamus,
and responds by sending out the
appropriate hormone to other endocrine
glands.
The posterior pituitary receives
oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
from the hypothalamus, relays them to
the body as necessary.
Pituitary Hormones
Endocrine Hormones
Use the table on the last slide to
diagnose the following endocrine issues:
A patient who feels cold and listless
all the time.
A patient who is constantly keyed up
and nervous.
An elderly patient who is having
chronic trouble falling asleep at night.
Homeostasis and Hormones
Examples:
Thyroid and temperature control
Thyroid, Parathyroid, and calcium
Pancreas and glucose control
Knowing the following:
The thyroid produces thyroxine,
which increases metabolism.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone is
released by the pituitary.
Sketch a negative feedback loop that
controls body temperature regulation.
Temperature Control
Knowing the following:
Calcitonin from the thyroid
inhibits calcium release from the
bones.
Parathyroid hormone stimulates
release of calcium from the bones.
Sketch a negative feedback loop
that controls blood calcium level.
Blood Calcium
Knowing that:
Insulin from the pancreas lowers
blood glucose by stimulating body
cells to take up glucose.
Glucagon from the pancreas
increases blood sugar by stimulating
the liver to break down glycogen into
glucose.
 Sketch a negative feedback loop that
controls blood sugar.
Blood Sugar Control
Given this patient profile, can you make
a diagnosis?
Age – 14
Gender – Male
Exam: Normal weight, low blood
pressure
Lab tests: High blood glucose, low
levels of insulin.
Now how about this patient?
Age – 40
Gender – Male
Exam: Obese, high blood pressure
Lab tests: High blood glucose, normal
levels of insulin.
Other hormone roles
Controlling sleep cycles (melatonin)
Controlling reproductive cycles
(melatonin, sex hormones)
Growth (growth hormone)
Responding to stress or emergencies
(epinephrine and other hormones)
Hormones Everywhere!
Many other organs besides the endocrine
glands produce hormones.
Kidneys produce several hormones that
regulate blood pressure, which is
essential for kidney function.
The digestive system produces several
hormones that regulate appetite.
The Respiratory System
The process wherein the body takes in
oxygen and eliminates gaseous waste
products
The part of the body involved in the
process of respiration is called the
respiratory tract.
The respiratory tract is divided into three
parts: upper respiratory tract ( nose,
nasal passages, paranasal sinuses and
throat or pharynx), respiratory airways
(voice box or larynx, trachea, bronchi,
and bronchioles), and Lungs (respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs, and alveoli),
There are three types of respiration
Cellular respiration is the biochemical
oxidation of glucose and consequent
synthesis of adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)
Internal respiration there is an
exchange of oxygen (O2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) between the internal body
fluids(e.g., blood) and individual cells.
External respiration involves the
exchange of O2 and CO2 between the
environment and the organism.
The process of respiration involves three
main events
Breathing- the exchange of air between
the atmosphere and the air sacs of the
lungs. This is accomplished by
inspiration(inhalation), through which
oxygen (O2) passes into the cells lining
the inside of the lungs, and expiration
(exhalation), through which carbon
dioxide (CO2) passes from the lung cells
into the environment.
Diffusion- the transfer of O2 and Co2
across respiratory membranes. It
involves the diffusion of O2 from the air
sac into the blood and release the CO2
out of the blood.
3. Transport of gases- wherein oxygen
is carried into the cell and carbon
dioxide is delivered from the cells of the
lungs for release
.
The Nasal Cavities
Air enters the body through the openings
of the nose called the nostrils. Inside the
nostrils is a pair of passages called nasal
cavities that are separated from each
other by a bony partition called the nasal
septum. The nasal cavities are lined
with mucous membrane and coarse
hairlike projections called cilia. As you
breathe through the nose, air entering
the nasal cavity is moistened and
warmed by the blood flowing in the
capillaries of the mucous membrane.
The mucous membrane protects the
lungs from microorganisms and other
foreign materials. Cilia filter the air and
trap dust and other particles.
The Pharynx
The pharynx is also called throat. This is
a passageway that allows entry of air
into the respiratory tract and food and
liquid into the digestive system. This
common passageway divides into
smaller passages that lead air to the
larynx and food to the esophagus.
The Larynx
The larynx, a part more commonly
known as voice box, is located between
the pharynx and the trachea. In the
larynx, there are two elastic ligaments-
the vocal cords through which voice is
produced. Air coming from the lungs
causes the vocal cords to vibrate and
produce sounds. The length and tension
of the vocal cords determine the pitch of
the voice. For instance, a sharp pitch is
produced by short and tense vocal cords.
A low pitch is produced by long and
more relaxed vocal cords. The space
between the vocal cords is called the
glottis.
The larynx also has a framework of
cartilages that protrudes in front of the
neck. Part of this framework is a thyroid
cartilage known as Adam’s Apple
The epiglottis is a flap of elastic tissue
that forms a cover on the top of the
larynx. This structure ensures that food
and air enter the body through different
pathways. The epiglottis stops food or
liquid from entering the lungs.
. Most of the exchange of gases between
The Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is the main
passageway to the lungs. It is a tube
about 2.5cm wide that extends from the
lower portion of the larynx to the upper
part of the chest just above the heart.
The trachea is supported by the C-
shaped rings of cartilage that prevent it
from collapsing during inhalation.
The Bronchi
The trachea divides into two main stems
or bronchi, which leads to the lungs. The
right bronchus is larger in diameter than
the left. The bronchi are also supported
by rings of cartilage. Each bronchus
enters the lung at a depression called
hilus or hilum.
Air that reaches the bronchi is clean,
warm, and moist.
. as the pancreas, sweat and salivary
The lungs
The lungs are the primary organs of
respiration in which diffusion of gases
takes place through its extremely thin
and delicate tissues. The lungs are
located side by side in the
thoracic(chest) cavity, which is separated
from the abdominal cavity by the
muscular partition called the
diaphragm. The lungs are covered by a
thin tissue layer called the pleura. The
pleura keeps each lung moist and
enables it to move in the chest cavity
during breathing without friction.
Each lung is divided into lobes. The
right lung has three lobes and is slightly
larger than the left, which has two lobes
.
The Bronchioles
Inside the lungs, each bronchus branches
into bronchioles, which in turn branch
repeatedly into smaller tubes leading to
the alveoli. The bronchioles are the
smallest conducting tubes inside the
lungs. There is no cartilage in the
bronchioles.
The Alveoli
The smallest branches of bronchioles
finally lead to a microscopic, balloon-
like air sacs, the alveoli. The thin moist
wall of each alveolus provides easy
passage of gases. There are millions of
alveoli in each lung, providing a large
surface area for the exchange of gases.
the circulatory and respiratory systems
takes place in the alveoli.
Respiratory Diseases
Asthma is a respiratory disorder
characterized by the restriction in the
movement of air due to recurring
episodes of contractions of the bronchial
smooth muscle. Most cases of asthma
attacks result from allergic responses to
air pollution and foreign particles such
as dust, pollen, or other substances.
Bronchitis is an inflammation of the
bronchi that may result in swelling of the
bronchial lining, narrowing of the air
passages, and shortness of breath, this
disorder may cause by air pollution or
infections.
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that
affects the lungs and other organs such
glands, liver, and intestine. this disorder
is characterized by unregulated secretion
of chloride and sodium ions across
epithelial tissues resulting in thick,
viscous secretion. People with this
disorder have difficulty breathing
especially during the episode of lung
infection.
.
Emphysema is a disease that is often
referred to as chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD).
Emphysema result from the gradual
destruction of the walls of the alveoli or
air sacs. As a consequence of
emphysema, gas exchange is decrease
and air is retained in the lungs in most
cases. There is no cure for emphysema
yet and while its progress can be slowed
down through treatment, the damage it
can cause can be irreversible.
Lung Cancer is the uncontrolled or
unregulated division of cells that line the
respiratory tract. These rapidly dividing
cells do not develop into healthy lung
tissues. Instead, they from tumors that
can grow and become numerous. When
cancer cells reach the lymph and blood
supply in the lungs, they may spread to
other parts of the lungs or body. This
disease often progresses to an advance
stage before symptoms such as
coughing, sputum production, and
breathing difficulty are manifested. Most
cases of lung cancer occur in smokers.
Pulmonary fibrosis refers to the
thickening and scarring of the lung
tissues. This condition makes it difficult
for the lungs to supply oxygen to the
bloodstream. This disorder results in
shortness of breath leading to
deprivation of oxygen, which the
different parts of the body constantly
need. The most common cause of
pulmonary fibrosis is exposure to
environment agents such as asbestos,
silica, or coal dust.
The Human Body: The Reproductive
System
Review
Mitosis is the type of cell division that
occurs in non-reproductive cells.
Produces exact copies of the parent cell
Meiosis is cell division that occurs in
reproductive cells; gametes.
Produces egg and sperm cells with half
the genetic material of the parent cells.
23 chromosomes are contained in
gametes; this is so that when egg and
sperm meet, they produce offspring with
46 chromosomes.
Organs of the Male Reproductive
System
Penis
Urethra
Vas Deferens
Scrotum
Testes
Bladder*
*Not a part of the reproductive system
External Organs of the Male
Reproductive System
Penis: the external reproductive organ,
urethra passes through the penis and
allows urine and semen to exit the body.
Scrotum: a sac or pouch which holds the
testes.
The function of the scrotum is to
maintain the proper temperature of the
testes.
Sperm is destroyed unless a temperature
of 97o is maintained.
Internal Organs of the Male
Reproductive System
Bladder*: holds urine prior to urination.
Urine leaves the bladder via the urethra.
Urethra: a tube which allows urine and
semen to exit the body. Connects to the
bladder
Vas deferens: a tube which connects the
testes to the urethra and allows semen to
exit the body.
Testes: two glands which produce sperm
and hormones (testosterone)
Organs of the Male Reproductive
System
Let’s fill in our diagrams of the male
reproductive system.
Organs of the Female Reproductive
System
Vagina
Cervix
Uterus
Fallopian Tubes
Ovary
Organs of the Female Reproductive
System
Vagina: also called the birth canal, a
tube leading from the uterus to the
outside of the body.
Cervix: the lower portion of the uterus;
where the vagina and uterus meet.
Uterus: a hollow, fist-sized organ
located between the bladder and rectum.
Fallopian Tubes: also called oviducts;
are two tubes connecting the uterus with
the ovaries.
Organs of the Female Reproductive
System
Ovaries: small organs on the ends of the
Fallopian tubes responsible for the
production and release of eggs (ova-pl).
Females are born with all of the eggs
they will ever produce.
Ovaries alternate the release of eggs
each month.
Like testes, the ovaries produce
hormones-estrogen.
This release of the ova is called
ovulation.
Organs of the Female Reproductive
System
Lets label the parts of the female
reproductive system now.
The Menstrual Cycle
The menstrual cycle typically lasts 28
days; approximately 1 month.
One cycle is the amount of time from the
beginning of one period to the beginning
of the next period.
The beginning of a period is marked by
the release of the blood and lining from
the inside of the uterus.
This flow of blood typically lasts 3-7
days and is called menstruation.
The Menstrual Cycle
After menstruation, the ovaries release
hormones that tell the uterus to grow a
new lining and prepare to receive a new
egg.
As the uterus prepares a new lining, one
of the ovaries releases an egg. This is
called ovulation.
Ovulation occurs about halfway through
a woman’s cycle.
The egg travels through the Fallopian
tube. If it is not fertilized it breaks down
and is released with the lining and blood
of the uterus.
Menstrual Cycle Timeline
The Menstrual Cycle and Fertilization
If the egg is fertilized by a sperm cell,
the egg will implant in the lining of the
uterus and begin to develop.
Zygote: The first cells of a new
organism; the time from fertilization to
implantation.
Embryo: The zygote is called an
embryo from implantation to 8 weeks.
Fetus: After 8 weeks of development,
the embryo is known as a fetus.
Twins
Multiple eggs are released or there is
more than one ovulation. Both (or
more) eggs are fertilized and you have
fraternal twins.
One egg is released but splits in two.
Identical twins are made. If the egg
does not completely split in two,
conjoined twins are produced.
Human Excretory System
Excretory System
Excretory System
Four Organs of the Excretory System
Cellular Waste
Liver – Some Functions
Functions in Excretion
Detoxifies Blood
Filters Bacteria, alcohol, drugs, toxic
substances
Changes them into inactive or less toxic
forms.
Liver Produces Urea
Functions in Excretion
Forms Urea
Changes toxic wastes (ammonia – from
break down of amino acids) to Urea.
Urea  Blood  Kidneys
Filtered out & excreted in Urine
Lungs –Main Function
Skin
Sweat Glands
Help cool body: Heat escapes through
millions of pores in skin surface
Excrete perspiration (evap. cooling)
99% H2O
Mineral Salts
Urea
Kidneys & Urinary System
Urinary System – excretes waste and
maintains homeostasis of body fluids.
Kidneys (main organ of the system)
Ureters
Bladder
Urethra
Kidneys & Urinary System
Kidneys
Two
Fist sized
Bean shaped
Kidneys- Functional Units & Product
Nephron (about one million per
kidney)
Microscopic units that filter blood of
wastes.
H2O and waste taken from blood into
nephron
Form URINE
Urinary System - continued
Ureters
Narrow muscular tubes
Connect Kidney  Bladder
Urinary System - endpoint
Urethra
Tube leading from Bladder  outside of
body
Failures of Homeostasis
Bladder & Kidney Infections caused by
bacteria from colon/rectum entering
urethra.
Kidney Stones - crystallization of
mineral salts & uric acid that block
passage of urine
Kidney Disease - caused by long term
diabetes, infections, & chemical
poisoning
Gout – form of arthritis where excess
production of uric acid leads to deposits
of crystals in joints (esp. toes)
The Nervous system
Communicate to
maintain homeostasis
There are two systems used for
communication in your body:
The nervous system controls and
coordinates functions throughout the
body and responds to internal and
external stimuli with the use of nerves
The endocrine system performs a similar
function with the use of hormones
Nervous Response
Stimulus: any change that results in a
change in the organism.
temperature, light, pressure, sound,
smell, etc.
Response: any change that results in a
change in the organism. contraction of
muscle cells secretion by a gland
stimulation of another nerve fiber.
Neurons
Messages carried by the nervous system
are electrical signals = impulses
Nerve cells that transmit impulses =
neurons
Sensory neurons: carry impulses from
sense organs to the spinal cord and brain
Motor neurons: carry impulses from the
brain and spinal cord to muscles and
glands
Interneurons: connect sensory and motor
neurons and carry impulses between
them
Parts of a Neuron
Cell body = largest part containing
nucleus and cytoplasm (most metabolic
activity occur here)
Dendrites = short, branched extensions
spreading out from the cell body and
they carry impulses from the
environment or other neurons towards
the cell body
Axon = long fibers that carry impulses
away from the cell body and ends at the
axon terminal
Nerves
Neurons bundle together to form nerves
Some nerves may be only a few neurons,
and others may be hundreds or
thousands
The myelin sheath may insulate axons
by surrounding it
There may be some gaps in the myelin
sheath called nodes
Impulses jump from one node to the
next, increasing the speed impulses
travel
Resting Nerve
Nerve impulses are electrical
The electric potential is created as the
result of a sodium - potassium pump
It uses ATP to pump sodium ions (Na+)
out and potassium ions (K+) in = active
transport
This results in a negative charge inside
the cell membrane and positive charge
outside = resting potential
Nerve Impulse
An impulse begins when a neuron is
stimulated by another neuron or by the
environment.
An impulse causes positively charged
sodium ions to flow in temporarily
reversing the charge of the cell
membrane = action potential
As the impulse passes, positively
charged potassium ions flow out and the
charges restore to the normal resting
potential
Synapse
At the end of the neuron, the impulse
reaches an axon terminal where the
impulse may be passed along to another
neuron or another cell
The location where a neuron can transfer
an impulse to another cell = synapse
The synapse is a small gap that separates
the axon terminal from the dendrites of
the next neuron or another cell
The terminals contain tiny sacs or
vesicles filled with neurotransmitters =
chemicals used by a neuron to transmit
an impulse across a synapse
The neurotransmitters stimulate the next
neuron
The impulse will continue with the
stimulation exceeds the cell’s threshold
Reaction activity
Reaction time = the amount of time
required for an impulse travel from your
sensory neurons to your motor neurons
The Nervous System
Neurons work together forming the
nervous system
There are two major divisions of the
nervous system:
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Parts of the Nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS):
Brain
Spinal Cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
Sensory division
Motor division
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system
Central Nervous System
The CNS is the control center of the
body:
Relays messages
Processes information
Analyzes information
Brain and Spinal cord
Both are
protected by bone
wrapped in 3 layers of connective tissue
= meninges
layers may have a space between them
filled with cerebrospinal fluid which
protects (shock absorber) and exchanges
nutrients and waste
Brain
About 100 billion neurons, mainly
interneurons
Major parts of the brain:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain stem
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Spinal Cord
Links communication between the brain
and the rest of the body
31 pairs of spinal nerves branch out from
the spinal cord connecting brain to body
Reflexes = quick, automatic responses to
stimuli are processed directly in the
spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Consists of nerves and associated cells
that are not part of the brain or spinal
cord
Receives information from the
environment and relays commands from
the CNS to organs and glands
Divided into two parts:
Sensory division: transmits impulses
from sense organs to the CNS
Motor division: transmits impulses from
the CNS to the muscles or glands
Somatic System
Part of motor division that regulates
activities that are under conscious
control (movement of skeletal muscles)
Some reflexes too
What is a Reflex?
A reflex is an involuntary behavior.
Reflexes are usually coordinated in the
spinal cord not the brain.
They are present from birth
They are automatic
They are meant to protect the body
Examples:
blinking (keeps your eyes hydrated)
pulling your hand away when you touch
something hot.
changing pupil size as you move from
dark to light.
Receptors & Effectors
Receptor: a specialized nervous tissue
that is sensitive to a specific stimulus.
nerve cells in skin
eyes
ears
taste buds
Effectors: the part/s of the body that
respond
muscles or glands
Reflex Arc
The pathway that an impulse travels:
1. from the sensory receptor
2. up the sensory neuron
3. over the synapse Balance = As head moves, fluid shifts
4. to the spinal cord (interneuron) and hair cells bend and send impulses to
5. over another synapse the CNS to determine body motion and
6. back down the motor neuron position
7. to the effector
Smell
Autonomic System Smell = ability to detect chemicals
Part of the motor division that regulates detected by chemoreceptors in nasal
activities that are automatic or passageway and send impulses to CNS
involuntary (heart beat and smooth through sensory nerves
muscle in digestive system and blood
vessels) Taste
Two parts that have opposite effects on How food tastes is strongly influenced
the organs they control: by smell
Sympathetic (“gas pedal”) Taste = ability to sense chemicals by
Parasympathetic (“brake”) chemoreceptors in taste buds mostly on
Sensory Receptors tongue (sweet, sour, salty and bitter –
Neurons that react directly to stimuli sensitivity is different on different parts
from the environment and send impulses of tongue)
to other neuron and CNS Touch
Light Skin = largest sense organ containing
Sound pain receptors, thermoreceptors, and
Motion mechanoreceptors
Chemicals Senses activity
Pressure Different parts of skin have different
Changes in temperature sensitivity because there’s a different
Sense organs numbers of receptors at different
Sensory receptors are concentrated in the locations
sense organs: Problems
Eyes Drugs = substance that changes the
Ears structure or function of the body
Nose Drugs can interfere with the action of
Mouth neurotransmitters at the synapse, which
Skin can disrupt the functioning of the
Types of Sensory receptors nervous system
Sensory receptors within each organ Stimulants
enable it to respond to particular stimuli. Increase the actions regulated by the
The five general categories of sensory nervous system by increasing the release
receptors are: of neurotransmitters at synapses
Pain receptors (increase heart rate, blood pressure, and
Thermoreceptors breathing rate)
Mechanoreceptors Amphetamines
Chemoreceptors Cocaine
Photoreceptors Nicotine
Caffeine
The 5 Senses Depressants
See Decrease the actions regulated by the
Hear nervous system (lowering heart rate,
Smell breathing rate, blood pressure, relaxing
Taste muscles, and relieving tension)
Touch Alcohol
See (Vision) Tranquilizers
Photoreceptors = sense light Alcohol
Hearing and Balance One of the most dangerous and abused
Sound = vibration in air detected by depressant drug that slows down
mechanoreceptors functioning rate of CNS
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) = a group
of birth defects caused by the effects of
alcohol on the fetus (heart defects,
malformed faces, delayed growth, and
poor motor development
Alcoholism = disease of people who
have become addicted to alcohol
Causes damage to liver where alcohol is
broken down
Addictions
Some drugs that act on neurons of the
pleasure centers of the brain can produce
an addiction = an uncontrollable craving
for more of the drug or dependence on a
drug
Cocaine – causes sudden release of the
neurotransmitter dopamine
Opiates – mimic natural endorphins to
overcome pain
Marijuana – produces temporary feeling
of euphoria and disorientation
Drug abuse = using any drug in a way
that most doctors couldn’t approve
Immune System
Guarding against disease
You wake up one morning with a stuffy
nose, slight fever, and fatigue. Do you
have a cold or the flu? Or are they the
same?
Should you go to your doctor for an
antibiotic? Why or why not?
The not-so-common cold
A “cold” is an infection of the mucus
membranes of the respiratory tract by a
rhinovirus.
Over 100 rhinoviruses have been
identified, which is one reason why we
don’t become immune to “the cold.”
Virus vs. Bacteria
Colds and influenza are caused by
viruses.
Viruses are which is a non-living particle
that contains genetic material, and
hijacks your cells to reproduce.
Viruses cannot be “killed” with
antibiotics.
Virus vs. Bacteria
Bacteria are living organisms that have a
metabolism, have DNA, and can
reproduce on their own.
Bacteria can be killed with antibiotics
because these substances target key
processes in bacteria, such as production
of the bacterial cell wall.
Viruses and bacteria are everywhere.
Some of them want to invade your body.
How does your body defend itself
against viruses and bacteria?
Defense Against Disease
First line of defense
Non-specific defenses are designed to
prevent infections by viruses and
bacteria. These include:
Intact skin
Mucus and Cilia
Phagocytes
Role of skin
Dead skin cells are constantly sloughed
off, making it hard for invading bacteria
to colonize.
Sweat and oils contain anti-microbial
chemicals, including some antibiotics.
Role of mucus and cilia
Mucus contains lysozymes, enzymes
that destroy bacterial cell walls.
The normal flow of mucus washes
bacteria and viruses off of mucus
membranes.
Cilia in the respiratory tract move mucus
out of the lungs to keep bacteria and
viruses out.
Role of phagocytes
Phagocytes are several types of white
blood cells (including macrophages and
neutrophils) that seek and destroy
invaders. Some also destroy damaged
body cells.
Phagocytes are attracted by an
inflammatory response of damaged cells.
Role of inflammation
Inflammation is signaled by mast cells,
which release histamine.
Histamine causes fluids to collect around
an injury to dilute toxins. This causes
swelling.
The temperature of the tissues may rise,
which can kill temperature-sensitive
microbes.
Role of fever
Fever is a defense mechanism that can
destroy many types of microbes.
Fever also helps fight viral infections by
increasing interferon production.
While high fevers can be dangerous,
some doctors recommend letting low
fevers run their course without taking
aspirin or ibuprofen.
Ouch!
Why aren’t non-specific defenses
enough? Why do we also need specific
defenses?
Specific defenses
Specific defenses are those that give us
immunity to certain diseases.
In specific defenses, the immune system
forms a chemical “memory” of the
invading microbe. If the microbe is
encountered again, the body reacts so
quickly that few or no symptoms are felt.
Major players
The major players in the immune system
include:
Macrophage
T cells (helper, cytotoxic, memory)
B cells (plasma, memory)
Antibodies
Some vocabulary:
Antibody: a protein produced by the
human immune system to tag and
destroy invasive microbes.
Antibiotic: various chemicals produced
by certain soil microbes that are toxic to
many bacteria. Some we use as
medicines.
Antigen: any protein that our immune
system uses to recognize “self” vs. “not
self.”
Antibodies
Antibodies are assembled out of protein
chains.
There are many different chains that the
immune system assembles in different
ways to make different antibodies.
Antibodies as Receptors
Antibodies can attach to B cells, and
serve to recognize foreign antigens.
Antigens as Effectors
Free antibodies can bind to antigens,
which “tags” the antigen for the immune
system to attack and destroy.
Antigen recognition
Cells of the immune system are
“trained” to recognize “self” proteins vs.
“not self” proteins.
If an antigen (“not self”) protein is
encountered by a macrophage, it will
bring the protein to a helper T-cell for
identification.
If the helper T-cell recognizes the
protein as “not self,” it will launch an
immune response.
Helper T cells
Helper T-cells have receptors for
recognizing antigens. If they are
presented with an antigen, they release
cytokines to stimulate B-cell division.
The helper T-cell is the key cell to signal
an immune response. If helper T-cells
are disabled, as they are in people with
AIDS, the immune system will not
respond.
B cells
B-cells in general produce antibodies.
Those with antibodies that bind with the
invader’s antigen are stimulated to
reproduce rapidly.
B-cells differentiate into either plasma
cells or memory B-cells. Plasma cells
rapidly produce antibodies. Memory
cells retain the “memory” of the invader
and remain ready to divide rapidly if an
invasion occurs again.
Clonal Selection
Role of antibodies
Antibodies released into the blood
stream will bind to the antigens that they
are specific for.
Antibodies may disable some microbes,
or cause them to stick together
(agglutinate). They “tag” microbes so
that the microbes are quickly recognized
by various white blood cells.
“Killer” T cells
While B-cells divide and differentiate, so
do T-cells.
Some T-cells become cytotoxic, or
“killer” T-cells. These T-cells seek out
and destroy any antigens in the system,
and destroy microbes “tagged” by
antibodies.
Some cytotoxic T-cells can recognize
and destroy cancer cells.
Calling a halt
When the invader is destroyed, the
helper T-cell calls a halt to the immune
response.
Memory T-cells are formed, which can
quickly divide and produce cytotoxic T-
cells to quickly fight off the invader if it
is encountered again in the future.
Why is it important for the immune
system to have a way of stopping the
immune response? Why not just keep
going and fight off everything as it
comes?
Helping the immune system
Medical science has created to systems
for augmenting the human immune
system:
Antibiotics (NOT the same as
antibodies)
Vaccines
How antibiotics work
Antibiotics help destroy bacteria (but not
viruses).
Antibiotics work in one of several ways:
Slowing bacteria reproduction.
Interfering with bacterial cell wall
formation.
Antibiotic myths
Antibiotics are not antibodies.
Antibiotics do not weaken our immune
system. They help it by weakening
bacteria.
Humans do not become “immune” to
antibiotics. Bacteria that resist
antibiotics and are not completely
destroyed may multiply, producing more
antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
Vaccine history
Variolation: The deliberate inoculation
of people with secretions from smallpox
(Variola) sores, by inhaling the dried
secretions or rubbing them on broken
skin. Used for centuries in Asia and
Africa.
Vaccine history
Vaccination: (From vacca, Latin for
cow.) Invented by Edward Jenner in
1796. Jenner knew that dairy maids who
had contracted cowpox never got
smallpox. He inoculated a boy with
secretions from cowpox sores, and
showed the boy was immune to
smallpox.
How vaccines work
Modern vaccines are created from killed
bacteria or viruses, or fragments of
proteins from these microbes.
The proteins are recognized as antigens
by our immune systems. This causes a
mild immune response. Memory T-cells
and B-cells remain ready to fight off the
illness if it is encountered again.
Vaccine myths
The flu vaccine does not give you the
flu. Some people get the vaccine too
late, or catch a cold and think they have
the flu.
Vaccines are not less effective than a
“natural” infection with the illness. The
immunity is the same, and a mild
response to a vaccine is much less risky
than a full-blown infection of measles.
The proposed link between vaccines and
autism turns out to have far less
experimental support than was originally
reported.
Why will antibiotics work against
bacteria but not viruses?
Why don’t antibiotics kill your own
cells?
But I caught a cold... again!
Because there are over 100 different
known rhinoviruses, it’s possible to
catch colds again and again.
In addition, cold viruses can mutate
quickly. No sooner do we have
immunity to one form than along comes
another.
How did I get this cold?
To catch a cold, a rhinovirus must reach
the mucus membranes of your upper
respiratory system.
Your hands pick up rhinoviruses from
surfaces. Every time you touch your
eyes or nose, or eat something with your
hands, the viruses get a free ride. Like
Mom said, wash your hands!
Viruses may also ride on re-circulated
air, or reach you if someone sneezes
right at you.
Cold myths
Colds and “the flu” are different
illnesses. Not every respiratory infection
is “the flu.”
Colds are not caused by getting chilled.
This belief comes from medical ideas of
prior centuries, when it was believed that
illness was caused by an imbalance of
“humors,” and that a person with a cold
actually had too much “coldness.”
“Feed a cold, starve a fever” also comes
from prior centuries, when it was
thought that people with a cold had too
much “cold” and “moisture” in their
bodies, and needed food to increase heat,
while people with fever had too much
“dryness” and “heat,” so needed less
food to cool them down.
Cold vs. “Flu” (influenza)
Stomach flu?
Influenza is a respiratory virus. Strictly
speaking, there is no stomach flu.
There are, however, viruses that attack
the digestive system. Norovirus and
rotavirus cause the nausea, vomiting,
and diarrhea that many people call
“stomach flu.”If left untreated, the rapid
dehydration these viruses cause can be
fatal.
Bacterial food poisoning can also cause
fast-onset vomiting and diarrhea.
Echinacea for colds?
Echinacea is supposed to “strengthen”
the immune system.
Studies in petri dishes showed Echinacea
stimulated white blood cells to produce
more virus-killing peroxides, but
controlled human trials have not had
consistent results.
Vitamin C for colds?
Vitamin C is necessary for making
collagen, and for many body functions.
Absorption of Vitamin C increases
during illness. It also has a very slight
antihistamine effect.
Vitamin C won’t cure a cold, but may
support some aspects of immune
response.
Zinc for colds?
Some studies have shown that moderate
use of zinc lozenges slightly decreases
the duration and severity of colds.
However, too much zinc can suppress
the immune system, and can reach toxic
levels. Zinc nasal sprays can destroy
olfactory receptors.
Vitamin D for colds?
New research suggests that Vitamin D
plays a role in immune response, and
may be critical for fighting off viruses.
Vitamin D is fat-soluble and can
accumulate to toxic levels. A blood test
can determine if a person needs to take
Vitamin D.
Evolution of the flu
Flu viruses also mutate quickly.
The same form of the flu may have the
ability to infect several different
vertebrate animals.
Different forms may hybridize their
genetic material, causing new strains to
develop in a single generation.
New Flu
Flu Pandemic
The deadly 1918 flu pandemic has been
recently identified as an avian flu.
Unlike common flu, it killed mostly
young, healthy people.
The recent H1N1 flu, mostly a swine flu,
had many avian genetic markers similar
to the 1918 flu.
Allergies
Allergies are an immune system reaction
to harmless antigens.
Some, such as pollen, may get in
through the respiratory system.
Fragments of food proteins may get
through the digestive system.
The next time these proteins are
encountered, the immune system attacks
them.
Achoo!
Pollen is a harmless protein, yet we can
become allergic to it.
Most of the symptoms are caused by
histamines released by mast cells. That
is why antihistamines are used to treat
allergies.
Autoimmune disorders
Autoimmune disorders occur when the
immune system fails to recognize a
protein as “self” and launches an attack.
Multiple sclerosis, lupus, and
rheumatoid arthritis are examples. None
of these can be cured, but drugs can help
slow the progress of these diseases.
Cancer
Cancer occurs when the mechanisms
that control cell division fail, and body
cells divide out of control.
Cytotoxic T-cells can recognize and
destroy these cells. But if division is too
rapid, the T-cells cannot keep up.
Some cancer research involves assisting
cytotoxic T-cells in recognizing and
destroying cancer cells.
AIDS
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome) is caused by an infection by
the HIV (Human Immunodeficiency
Virus), which attacks and destroys T-
helper cells. Because it attacks the
immune system directly, finding a
vaccine has been difficult.
Some drugs can slow down HIV
reproduction, but no cure exists yet.
Prevention is still the best “cure.”
AIDS
AIDS Prevention
HIV is a fragile virus that cannot live
outside the human body for more than a
few minutes.
Preventing HIV spread comes down to
preventing exposure to body fluids of an
infected person.
SCID
Severe Combined Immune Deficiency is
a genetic condition in which one or more
genes for proteins crucial for the
immune system are defective. Children
born with SCID have no immune
system.
Gene therapy has been used to inject a
good copy of the defective gene into
blood cells or bone marrow cells. In
several cases this has been effective,
though it is still experimental.