Science Notes

Sunday, October 15, 2023 7:49 PM

Biology

1.1 Respiration

• Respiration -A series of chemical reactions that happens inside every living cells in
the mitochondria. It releases all energy from the food and it is in all living things.

• Aerobic respiration – It is the process by cell in our body which converts oxygen and
glucose into energy, carbon dioxide and water.

• Anaerobic respiration - a chemical process in which energy is produced without the

use of oxygen.

Air Passage in order:

nose/mouth --> larynx (voice box) --> windpipe (trachea) --> bronchus --> bronchiole --> air
sacs ---> gas exchange

Parts of Respiration and its functions:

• Larynx (voice-box) - makes sounds, allows us to speak and supports as an air
passage.
• Trachea (windpipe) - carries air to the bronchus
• Bronchiole - carries air from the bronchus, deep into each lung
• Bronchus - delivers air to the lungs
• Air Sacs - where oxygen goes into the blood and carbon dioxide comes out
• Lungs - where oxygen gets into the body
• Ribs - protects the Lungs
Intercostal Muscle - contracts the ribs so the capacity of lungs get bigger.
• Diaphragm - the contracts and flattens and the chest cavity enlarges, which pulls air
into the lungs

Quick Notes Page 1

Ignore the eye, I got bored ok

How does air go into the body?

1. Air goes into the body through mouth (or) nose – connected with trachea
(windpipe) - around cartilage. The Cartilage keeps the windpipe open and
prevent collapsing – air moving in and out

2. Trachea divides into two bronchi (supported by cartilage)

3. A bronchus, each lung

4. A bronchus divides into bronchioles (several smaller tubes) allowing air to

reach deeper

5. Bronchioles end by air sacs (many tiny structures) where diffusion

happens (oxygen goes into blood and carries CO2 out)

Breathing and Respiration Difference:

→ Breathing - is the process of inhaling and exhaling of the gases between the cells
and the environment.

→ Respiration - is a chemical process that takes place in the cell. The air that we inhale
brings oxygen to the lungs and is carried by the blood to the cells, where it breaks
down glucose which creates energy.

1.2 Gas Exchange

Gas exchange is the process that happens inside the air sacs, oxygen from the air

Quick Notes Page 2

 • Gas exchange is the process that happens inside the air sacs, oxygen from the air
goes into the blood and where the carbon dioxide from the blood goes back up into
the air.

• When oxygen gets into the blood, it dissolves, it goes into the red blood cells that
combines with hemoglobin, that is a red blood cell - that carries oxygen.

Air Sacs & Capillaries

• These holes are called air sacs. Another name for them is alveoli.
• There are also lots of very tiny blood vessels in the lungs, wrapped
around the air sacs. These blood vessels are capillaries.

Diffusion

• Diffusion is a process where oxygen particles move freely move through the thin
walled cells into the blood.

• In the diagram, the blood in a capillary on the left side has low oxygen and high
carbon dioxide. Meanwhile, air inside an air sac from outside the body has a lot of
oxygen and low in carbon dioxide. These gases exchange across the thin cell walls in
the alveolus which is where they transfer oxygen into the blood and take out carbon
dioxide.

Relationship between body mass the total area of air sacs

• The larger the body mass, the larger the total area of air sacs

• The larger the body mass of an organism, the more oxygen it will need because it
contains more cells that respires which are using up more oxygen.

• The total larger surface area needs more oxygen to diffuse into the body which helps
the respiring cells

Quick Notes Page 3

1.3 Breathing
• Breathing the process of moving air into and from the lungs to preform gas exchange,
to out carbon dioxide and bring in oxygen.

When you breathe in, these things happen:

• The intercostal muscles between the ribs contract (get shorter). This pulls the ribs
upwards and outwards.
• The diaphragm contract. This pulls the diaphragm downwards.
• They make up space inside the chest cavity. They increase the volume inside it.
• When the volume increases, the pressure inside the chest cavity and lungs
decreases.
• Air moves down through the trachea into the lungs, to fill the extra space.

When you breathe out, these things happen:

• The intercostal muscles between the ribs relax (return to normal size).
• This allow the ribs to drop down into their natural position.
• The muscles in the diaphragm relax. This allows the diaphragm to become its normal,
domed shape.
• These two movements make less space inside the chest cavity. They decrease the
volume inside it.
• When the volume decreases, the pressure increases. So, air is squeezed out of the
lungs.

1.4 Respiration
• Respiration is the process that the body uses to release energy from digested food
(glucose)

Facts About Glucose:

• All of our energy comes from the food that we eat.
• Carbohydrates are especially good for giving us energy.
• When we eat food containing carbohydrates, our digestive
• system breaks the carbohydrates down to a kind of sugar
• called glucose.
• The glucose goes into our blood.
• The blood delivers glucose to every cell in the body.
• The cells use the glucose to get the energy that they need.

Aerobic respiration formula

Glucose + Oxygen —› Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
[ Reactants ] [ Products ]

→ The air we breathe out contains less of the reactants (because they have been used
up by respiring cells) and, therefore, less oxygen. It contains more of the products
and, therefore, more carbon dioxide.

Heat Production

Quick Notes Page 4

 • Chemical energy stored in the glucose is transferred to other substances, so the
cells can use it. In this process, some of the energy changes to heat energy. So the
respiring cells get warmer.

1.5 Blood

• Blood is red due to red blood cells

• The liquid part of the blood is called a blood plasma.
• The blood contains red blood cells
• The blood delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide, it moves around the body
inside the blood vessels. The heart pumps constantly to keep the blood moving.

Plasma

• Plasma is the liquid part of blood.

• Pale yellow liquid
• It is mostly water.
• The red and white blood cells are transported around the body in the blood plasma.
• Carbon dioxide is produced in every body cell by respiration.
• The carbon dioxide dissolves in blood plasma and is carried away from the cells.
• Transport red blood cells, white blood cells, dissolved glucose, dissolved carbon
dioxide.

How Cells deliver

• Every cell needs a good supply of glucose and oxygen

• The blood moves around the body inside blood vessels which keeps it pumping to keep
the blood moving.

Red Blood Cells White Blood Cells

They do not have nuclei or mitochondria They always have nuclei
Round dent in the middle, red spherical, colorless
Contains a pigment called hemoglobin which carries oxygen. They attach themselves with a chemical called antibodies to
kill pathogens
The oxygen combines with hemoglobin. Takes their cytoplasm and digests to kill them
It forms a very bright red compound called oxyhemoglobin It is called phagocytosis
Transports oxygen from the lungs to all cells in the body Destroy pathogens (bacteria, virus) that get in the body
As it has no nucleus it can have more space for haemoglobin The antibodies stick to the pathogen which kills them
directly sometimes.
It can travel through tiny capillary as is small Some white blood cells are larger
It won't use the carried oxygen as there is no mitochondria as They defend us from pathogens as they are harmful to us.
aerobic respiration happens inside the mitochondria

______________________________________________________________

Unit 4 - Ecosystem

4.1 The Sonoran Desert

Quick Notes Page 5
4.1 The Sonoran Desert
• Habitat - a place where an organism lives
• Ecosystem - a network of interactions between living and nonliving things which
contains many different habitats.
• Ecology - the study of ecosystems
• Predator - an animal that kills and eats other animals.

Food Chain
• It shows the transfer of energy within the ecosystem
• A food web consists of all the food chains in a single ecosystem
• The arrows represent energy in the form of chemical energy in food, passing from
one organism to another.
• A food chain consists of decomposer, producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, tertiary consumer and an apex predator
• The producers use energy from the Sun to make food by photosynthesis; this makes
energy available for all other organisms in the food web.

➢ Decomposer - an organism that breaks down dead organic material [fungus,

invertebrate]

➢ Producer - an organism that makes their down food by photosynthesis and has their
own source of energy where they don't have to rely to eat to gain energy [plants,
grass]

➢ Primary consumer - an organism, usually a herbivore, that eats the producer to gain
energy. [rabbit, grasshopper]

➢ Secondary consumer - an organism, usually a carnivore, that eats the primary

consumer to gain energy. [snake, fox]

➢ Tertiary consumer - an organism, usually a omnivore/carnivore, that eats the

secondary consumer [bear, wolf]

➢ Apex Predator - an organism (known as the top predator) is an organism at the top of
the food chain without natural predators of its own. [lion, tiger]

Quick Notes Page 6

 4.2 Different Ecosystems

• Habitat - a place or area where an organism naturally resides in or where they live.

• Invasive species - Invasive species are animals or plants from another region of the
world that don't belong in their new environment.

Ecosystem

→ A network of interactions between living and nonliving things which contains many
different habitats.
→ They can be many types, some examples of them are mangrove forests, sea ice and
rice paddy field.
→ Not all of ecosystems are natural like the rice paddy field, as they are grown by
people and it serves as a natural habitat for fish, birds and algae.

______________________________________________________________

Chemistry

2.1 Dissolving

3 states of matter:

Solid

Quick Notes Page 7

 ➢ Solid
➢ Liquid
➢ Gas

• Dissolve - a solid gradually disappearing in a liquid

• Solute - a substance that disappears/dissolve [salt, sugar]
• Solvent - the substance the solute dissolves in [water]
• Solution - a mixture of solute and solvent [salty water]

• Opaque - unable to see through it because it is blocking light

• Transparent - able to see it because light passes through
• Translucent - not able to see it clearly because only some light passes through

• Element - a single material like gold

• Compound - two materials like sedimentary rock, hard to separate as atoms of
different elements are chemically combined.
• Mixture - a compound and element mixed by two or more materials.

2.2 Solutions and Solubility

• Concentrated Solution - a solution in which a large amount of solute is dissolved
• Dilute - a solution in which a small amount of solute is dissolved
• Soluble - substance that will dissolve in a given solvent
• Insoluble - substance that will not dissolve in a given solvent
• Saturated solution - a solution in which no more solution can be dissolved

Comparing solubility

• To compare the solubility of different solutes you must measure how much solute will
dissolve in a known amount of solvent

Temperature and Solubility

• Most solute will dissolve more quickly and easily in hot water than cold water

2.3 Planning a solubility investigation

• Variable - things can be changed in an investigation
• Independent variable - the variable that is changed in an investigation [Temperature]
• Dependent variable - the variable that changed in an investigation due to the
independent variable, can be measured [Number of Spatulas]
• Control variable - things that are kept the same in the investigation so the test is
fair [Volume of water]
• Range - the difference between the highest and lowest values
• Interval - the size of the change of value of the independent variable

2.4 Chromatography
• Paper chromatography - a method for separating mixtures of dissolved chemicals
using a special paper

Quick Notes Page 8

 using a special paper
• Chromatogram - the resulting separation of substance's after carrying out a
chromatogram.
• Doing a test again results in more accurate results.

______________________________________________________________

Unit 5 Materials and the structure

Unit 5.1 The structure of the atom

• Atoms - tiny particles of matter

• Deflected - causes something to change directions to turn aside from a straight
course
• Electrical charge - physical property of matter that causes force when placed a
electromagnetic field
• Electrons 0 negatively charged particles, no mass
• Protons - positively charged particles [ Protons and
Electrons are the Same size and mass]
• Neutrons - negatively charged particles
• Neutrons - neutral charged particles
• Subatomic particles - particles that are found inside an atom

Element Key
It shows an element's chemical symbol, atomic number and mass
- Atomic Number = Proton

Quick Notes Page 9

 JJ Thompson

• British scientist
• Discovered electrons in 1890's
• In his model, electrons are scattered throughout the structure
• Plum pudding model (fruit cake)

Ernest Rutherford

• Scientist from New Zealand

• Discovered protons in 1909
• Discovered nucleus in 1911
• Gold foil experiment
• His experiment fired fast moving particles, at a very thin gold foil, most particles
passed through the foil, only few particles (1 in 1800) got deflected (direction of it
was changed)

James Chadwick

• Scientist from New Zealand with Ernest Rutherford

• Discovered neutrons in 1932

Quick Notes Page 10

 •

5.2 Purity
• Purity is how pure a substance is

Purity of Silver

• Examples of silver objects are silverware and rings

• To calculate the purity you divide the parts out of 1000 parts
• 925/100 x 100 = 92.5% purity

Purity of Carbon

• Examples of carbon are charcoal, coal and diamond

• Diamonds are made from carbon
• Pure diamonds are colorless and translucent
• If mixed with nitrogen it will be yellow
• If mixed with boron, it will be blue
• Rarest diamond is green, it is formed when atom per 100 of carbon atoms are
replaced by nitrogen, nickel or hydrogen

Purity of Gold

• Purity of gold is 24K (24 Carat)

• It changes from coppery to yellow-gold color depending on its purity
• To calculate you have to calculate, you divide the parts out of 24 parts
• 18/24 x 100 = 75%

Quick Notes Page 11