Respiratory system of Human

Respiration
• Process which involves taking in oxygen into the cells, using it for
releasing energy by burning food and then eliminating the waste
products like carbon dioxide and water from the body
• It is a catabolic process as the food is broken down into simpler
form.
• In short, respiration is a biochemical activity taking place within the
protoplasm of the cell and results in the liberation of energy
 Respiratory system of Human
Breathing and respiration
Breathing Respiration
i. Mechanism by which organisms i. It includes breathing and
obtain oxygen from the air and oxidation of food in the cells of
release carbon dioxide the organism to release energy
ii. It is a physical process ii. It is a biochemical process
iii. It involves lungs of the organism iii. It involves the mitochondria in
the cells where food is oxidized to
release energy
 Respiratory system of Human
Types of respiration
Aerobic respiration
i. Oxygen is required
ii. Such organisms are called
aerobes
iii. Occurs in mitochondria
iv. Involves the process of glycolysis
where glucose is broken down to
pyruvic acid
Anaerobic respiration
i. Oxygen is not required
ii. Process is called anaerobiosis
iii. It involves the process of
glycolysis in the cytoplasm.
iv. It is the metabolic pathway that
converts glucose C 6H 12O 6 , into
pyruvate CH 3 COCOO− + H+ .
 Respiratory system of Human
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
iv. Pyruvate is converted to CO2, water iv. Pyruvate then enters different
and energy by Krebs cycle pathways and forms different
C 6H 12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + products
energy(686kcal) C 6H 12O6 2C 3H6O3 +energy(56kcal)

v. 38 ATP are generated v. 2 ATP are generated

vi. Occurs in all higher organisms vi. Generally found in micro organisms
, yeast and parasitic worms
(prokaryotes)
 Respiratory system of Human
Types of aerobic respiration
Direct respiration Indirect respiration

• It is the exchange of oxygen (of air) • In this type special respiratory

with CO2 of the body cells organs like skin, buccopharyngeal
lining, gills, and lungs are used

• Without special respiratory organs • It also involves the blood

or blood e.g. aerobic bacteria,
plants, sponges
 Respiratory system of Human
Types of indirect respiration
External respiration Internal respiration
• A physical process in which an • Also called tissue respiration
organism takes in oxygen and gives
out CO2
• May involve respiratory surface • Food is broken down into simpler
such as integument, gills, trachea molecules within the cells and
or lungs energy is produced
• E.g. gas exchange between air in • E.g. gas exchange between tissue
the alveoli and blood in pulmonary cells and the blood in systemic
capillaries capillaries
 Respiratory system of Human
It is chiefly divided into two components:
1. Respiratory tract
2. Respiratory organ
1. Respiratory Tract- A passage which allows movement of inspired
and expired air in and out of the lungs. It consists of
i. Nostrils
ii. Nasal chambers
iii. Internal nares
iv. Pharynx
v. Larynx
vi. Trachea
 Respiratory system of Human
i. Nostrils-The two nostrils are the openings
of the nasal cavity and lie above the
mouth . They are separated by the
septum.
ii. Nasal chambers- A pair of passages in the
head above the palate. They are separated
from each other by a septum. Each nasal
chamber is divided into three regions:
a. Vestibular region
b. Respiratory region
c. Olfactory region
 Respiratory system of Human
a. Vestibular region- Lies within the external naris, short and lined by
hairy skin. Acts as a filter and prevents the entry of dust particles.
b. Respiratory region- The middle region lined with respiratory
epithelium. Ciliated and rich in mucous glands.
c. Olfactory region- The upper region of the nasal chamber, lined
with olfactory epithelium. Acts as an organ of smell.
 Respiratory system of Human
iii. Internal Nares-Openings of
nasal chambers in the roof
of nasopharynx and are
closed by uvula during
swallowing
iv. Pharynx- It is divided into
three parts:
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Larngyopharynx
 Respiratory system of Human
v. Larynx
• Often called Adam’s apple. More prominent in men than in women.
• A cartilaginous box helps in sound production hence called sound box .
Enlarged upper end of the trachea situated in the neck on the level of the
4th to the 6th cervical vertebrae.
• Open into laryngopharynx by a slit like aperture called glottis.
• The glottis bears a leaf like cartilaginous flap called the epiglottis
 Respiratory system of Human

vi. Trachea-or windpipe

• approximately 4 inches long
• extends from larynx to the middle of thoracic cavity where it
divides into to bronchi (the right and left primary bronchi)
• One major branch enters each lung.
• primary bronchus divides into the secondary bronchi
• The secondary bronchi subdivides into smaller tertiary bronchi
and further into still smaller bronchioles
• The small terminal bronchioles give off the respiratory
bronchioles which divide into alveolar ducts
• This is called bronchial tree
 Respiratory system of human
Bronchioles
• Smallest branches of the
bronchi
• Terminal bronchioles end
in alveoli
 Respiratory system of human
Alveoli
• Structure of alveoli
• Alveolar duct
• Alveolar sac
• Alveolus
• Gas exchange takes place
within the alveoli in the
respiratory membrane
• Covered with pulmonary
capillaries on external
surfaces
 Respiratory system of Human
Respiratory organs
• The main respiratory organs are a pair of lungs
• The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli comprise
the lungs
• The lungs are two in number
• Lungs are covered by a double layered pleura with pleural fluid in
between them
• Lungs are divided into lobes by fissures
• The right lung has three lobes while the left lung has two lobes
 Respiratory system of Human
Diaphragm
• a sheet of skeletal muscles, dome
shaped muscular partition
separating thorax from abdomen
• performs an important role in
respiration
 Respiratory system of Human
During inhalation
• Ribs move out
• Diaphragm moves down
• External intercostal muscles contract
• Making the chest cavity bigger
• Air then rushes into the lungs and they
inflate
During exhalation
• Ribs move downwards and inwards
• Diaphragm moves up
• Internal intercostal muscles contract
• Chest cavity is reduced
• Air rushes out of the lung
Mechanism breathing
 Respiratory system of Human
External respiration
Oxygen movement into the blood
• The alveoli always has more oxygen than the blood
• Oxygen moves by diffusion towards the area of lower concentration
• Pulmonary capillary blood gains oxygen
Carbon dioxide movement out of the blood
• Blood returning from tissues has higher concentrations of carbon dioxide
than air in the alveoli
• Pulmonary capillary blood gives up carbon dioxide
Blood leaving the lungs is oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-poor
Respiratory system of Human
 Respiratory system of Human
Gas Transport in the Blood
Oxygen transport in the blood
• Inside red blood cells attached to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin [HbO2])
• A small amount is carried dissolved in the plasma
Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
• Most is transported in the plasma as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
• A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on hemoglobin, but at
different binding sites than those of oxygen
• In the form of carbamino hemoglobin compound
 Respiratory system of Human
Chloride shifts or Hamburger phenomenon
• When there is a greater concentration of bicarbonate in the
erythrocytes than in the surrounding blood plasma.
• Some of the bicarbonate will leave the erythrocytes and move down
its concentration gradient into the plasma in exchange for chloride
(Cl–) ions.
• This phenomenon is referred to as the chloride shift and occurs
because by exchanging one negative ion for another negative ion,
neither the electrical charge of the erythrocytes nor that of the
blood is altered.
 Respiratory system of Human
• At the pulmonary capillaries, the chemical reaction that produced
bicarbonate is reversed, and carbon dioxide and water are the
products.
• Much of the bicarbonate in the plasma re-enters the erythrocytes in
exchange for chloride ions. Hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions join
to form carbonic acid, which is converted into carbon dioxide and
water by carbonic anhydrase.
• Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the erythrocytes and into the plasma,
where it can further diffuse across the respiratory membrane into
the alveoli to be exhaled during pulmonary ventilation.
 Respiratory system of Human
Internal respiration
• Exchange of gases
between blood and body
cells
• An opposite reaction to
what occurs in the lungs
• Carbon dioxide diffuses
out of tissue to blood
• Oxygen diffuses from
blood into tissue
 Respiratory system of human
Bohr’s Effect
• The effect of carbon dioxide and acidity favor the formation of
Oxyhaemoglobin at low concentration of CO2 and H+ ion and causes
the dissociation of Oxyhaemoglobin releasing O2 at high
concentration of CO2 and H+ ion.
• This shift in curve of oxyhaemoglobin due to concentration of
carbondioxide at given partial pressure of oxygen, is known as Bohr
effect.
• The amount of Oxygen take up by Haemoglobin at particular time
to from Oxyhaemoglobin is called percentage saturation.
 Respiratory system of human
• The graph of percentage of O2 saturation of haemoglobin plotted
against partial pressure of Oxygen (PO2) is called Oxygen
dissociation curve.
• The Oxygen dissociation curve is S-shaped (sigmoidal shape).
• The curve indicates that haemoglobin has high affinity to Oxygen.
• In human arterial blood have PO2 of about 95-100 mmHg, at this
level percentage of O2 saturation of Hb is about 97 %. This indicates
the formation of Oxyhaemoglobin is favored.
• Similarly, the venous blood have PO2 of 40mmHg,at this level
percentage of O2 saturation of Hb is about 70%.
 Respiratory system of human
Effect of Carbon-dioxide on Oxygen dissociation curve:
• The effect of CO2 on Oxygen dissociation curve is known as Bohr effect.
• It has been found that increase in concentration of CO2 decreases the
amount of oxyhaemoglobin formation.
• according to Bohr effect, for any particular partial pressure of Oxygen,
the affinity of Haemoglobin toward Oxygen decreases and favors
dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin when the partial pressure of
carbondioxide increases.
• It means, higher CO2 concentration causes the dissociation of HbO2
releasing free O2.
 Respiratory system of human
• Increase in PCO2 shifts the O2 dissociation curve downwards. Higher
PCO2 lowers the affinity of haemoglobin for O2.
• Bohr effect is very important physiological phenomenon, because
uptake of oxygen in lungs and its releases in the tissue is regulated
by the concentration of CO2 and H+ ion as well as the partial
pressure of O2. So, this phenomenon made possible the cellular
transport and release of O2.
• PCO2 is lower in lungs than tissue, so Hb has higher affinity for O2,
therefore it favors HbO2 formation and transport of O2 from lungs to
tissue. similarly PCO2 is higher in tissue, so it favors dissociation of
HbO2 releasing free O2 and transport of CO2 from tissue to lungs.
 Respiratory system of Human
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
• Normal breathing moves about 500 ml of air with each breath - tidal
volume (TV)
• Residual volume of air – after exhalation, about 1200 ml of air
remains in the lungs
 Respiratory system of Human
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
• Amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume
• Usually between 2100 and 3200
ml
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
• Amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled
• Approximately 1200 ml
• Vital capacity
• VC= TV+IRV+ERV
• About 3000-4500 ml
 Respiratory system of Human
• Total lung capacity(TLC)
• Total volume of air in lungs and air passage
• TCL=VC+RV
• 5000-6000ml