Respiratory system

introduction
We will be talking about:
1- Organs that make up the respiratory
system.
2- The anatomy and histology of the
respiratory system
3-Processes of Respiration (Internal and
External respiration).
4- Process of Ventilation.
5- Gas exchange and where it occurs.
6- Transport of gases by blood.
7- the diseases.
Main Parts Of The Human Respiratory
System
In the human thorax, the following can be found:
Air Pathway Anatomy: Anatomy:
• Nose • Lungs
• Pharynx • Ribs & Intercostal Muscles
• Larynx • Pleural Muscles
• Trachea • Diaphragm
• Bronchi
The organs that make the respiratory
system
 • Nose

• Nasal cavity

• Naso-pharynx

• Larynx

• Trachea

• Bronchus

• Bronchioles

• Alveolar ducts

• Alveoli(air sacs)
 The nose:
Each nasal cavity is bounded by a wall of spongy bone, hyaline
cartilage and skeletal muscle.

• The nasal cavity includes the respiratory area which is present in the
posterior part of the nasal cavity; it’s covered by pseudo-compound ciliated
epithelium with goblet cells.
• Cilia from pseudo compound ciliated epithelium, and mucus from the goblet
cells are along the inside wall of the nasal cavity trap and they remove dust
and pathogens from the air which flows through the nasal cavity.
• Also the cilia moves mucus down the nasal cavity to the pharynx where it can
be swallowed.
Anatomy of the nose
• Looks like a pyramid.
• The nasal cavity is divided
into two nasal passages.
• Nasal passages are covered
by a moist mucous
membrane.
• Air, as it passes, is made
moist & warm to protect the
lungs from the harmful
effects of dry air.
• Fine hairs filter the dust
particles present in the air.
Functions of the Nose:-
• Provides an airway for respiration.
• Moistens and warms entering air.
• Filters and cleans inspired air.
• Resonating chamber for speech.
• Detects odor in the air stream.
pharynx
Pharynx
The pharynx is one of the organs found in
the respiratory system.
The pharynx is part of the throat located
behind the mouth and nasal cavity BUT
above the esophagus and larynx.
It is found in both vertebrates and
invertebrates however the structure is not
the same.
It connects the nasal cavity with the larynx. Its
surface is lined with pseudo compound ciliated with
goblet cells.
It is 2 to 3 cm wide and 3 to 4 cm long.
It provides a passage for air during breathing.
The nasopharynx remains open even when
surrounding muscles flex so that the person can
continue to carry on respiratory functions.
larynx
 larynx
The larynx, commonly called the voice box, is
an organ found in the neck.
The larynx houses the coal folds (vocal cords),
which are essential for phonation. The vocal
folds are situated just below where the tract of
the pharynx splits into the trachea and the
esophagus.
 Larynx function:-
The larynx connects the pharynx with the trachea.
It has two functions:-
1. Prevention of food and fluid from entering the respiratory passages.
2. Production of voice (the larynx is also known as the voice box.)
The larynx is formed by elastic cartilage also the epiglottis.
The larynx is lined with pseudo-compound ciliated epithelium with goblet cells
in between , except the vocal chords and the anterior surface of the epiglottis
which are covered only with compound squamous epithelium.
Trachea
Trachea
It is formed of a tube about 20 cm long. It is divided below
into two primary bronchi.
It is kept open all the time because of the presence of about
20 c-shaped or incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage of its
wall.
It is incomplete ring of hyaline because this allows the
trachea to collapse slightly to allow food to pass down the
esophagus.
The trachea is lined with pseudo compound ciliated cells.
Functions of Trachea
Provides a clear airway for air to enter and exit
the lungs.
The epithelium lining the trachea produces
mucus that traps dust and other contaminants
and prevents it from reaching the lungs.
Cilia moves the mucus towards the pharynx
where it can be swallowed and digested in the
gastrointestinal tract.
Bronchi
 Bronchi
• The trachea (windpipe) conducts inhaled air into the
lungs through its tubular branches, called bronchi. The
bronchi then divides into smaller and smaller
branches (bronchioles), finally becoming microscopic.
• The bronchioles eventually end in clusters of
microscopic air sacs called alveoli.
Anatomy of the Bronchi
• Primary bronchi are located in the upper portion of the lungs,
with secondary bronchi near the center of the lungs. Tertiary
bronchi are located near the bottom of these organs, just above
the bronchioles.
• No gas exchanges occur in any of the bronchi.
Function
The main function of the bronchi and bronchioles is to carry air from
the trachea into the lungs. Smooth muscle tissue in their walls helps
to regulate airflow into the lungs.

The bronchi and bronchioles use the mucus and cilia of their
epithelial lining to trap and move dust and other contaminants away
from the lungs.
The lung
 Lungs
 The human lungs are the main organs of the respiratory system.
 They are a pair of large, spongy organs.
 Responsible for gas exchange between our blood and the air.
• There are two lungs each one is present at one side in the thoracic cavity.
• The right lung has three lobes, while the left lung has two lobes.
• Each lung is formed of bronchial tree, alveolar ducts, alveoli, blood
vessels.
• The alveoli are the primary site of gases exchange with the blood.
• The lung contains about 300,000,000 alveoli.
Each lung is formed of :

Bronchial tree

Alveolar ducts

Alveoli ( about 300 millions for gases exchange

with the blood)

Blood vessels
Lung Anatomy
Lungs
Location: In the thoracic cavity.
Function: where gases exchange with the blood.
• The right lung has 3 lobes whereas the left lung
has 2 lobes.
• The lobes are filled with small, spongy sacs called
alveoli.
• The lungs’ tissue surface is almost 40 times greater
than the body’s outer surface, making the lungs
one of the largest organs in the body.
Alveoli
• Alveoli are the functional units of the lungs that
permit gas exchange between the air in the
lungs and the blood in the capillaries of the
lungs.
• Each alveolus is a hollow, cup-shaped cavity
surrounded by many tiny capillaries.
alveoli
• At the end of each alveolar duct there are a number of sac-like
structures called alveoli, it is within these structures that surfactant is
produced.(Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension of a liquid,
the interfacial tension between two liquids, or that between a liquid and a solid)

• The alveoli are grouped together like a lot of interlinked caves, rather
than existing as separate individual sacs.
Structure and Function
• Gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place in the alveoli.
• Oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses through the walls of the alveoli
and adjacent capillaries into the red blood cells.
• The oxygen is then carried by the blood to the body tissues. Carbon
dioxide produced by the body’s metabolism returns to the lung via the
blood.
• It then diffuses across the capillary and alveolar walls into the air to be
removed from the body with expiration.
The alveoli have a structure specialized for efficient gaseous exchange:
• Walls are extremely thin.
• They have a large surface area in relation to volume.
• They are fluid lined enabling gases to dissolve.
• They are surrounded by numerous capillaries.
1. Nose
• Each nasal cavity is bounded by a wall of:
• Spongy bone
• Hyaline cartilage
• Skeletal muscle
• The nasal cavity includes the respiratory area.
• This is present in the posterior part of the nasal cavity.
• It is covered by pseudo-stratified (compound) ciliated epithelium
with goblet cells.
3-Trachea
 It’s lined with pseudo compound ciliated
epithelial cells.

 Made of incomplete rings of hyaline

cartilage.
respiration
Respiration.
There are two processes of respiration:
1. Internal or Cellular Respiration
2. External Respiration
1. Internal or Cellular Respiration
Location: Mitochondria in cells.
Main function: To release energy.
Aerobic Respiration:
• It requires oxygen and it releases lots of energy.
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP
Anaerobic Respiration:
• It does not require oxygen but releases much less energy in
comparison.
• C6H12O6 lactic acid + ATP
During these 2 process ATP is formed, which is then broken down and hydrolyzed
to form ADP + phosphoric acid, and energy is given out.
2. External Respiration
• Is simply the process of ventilation.
• Main and only function is to take in oxygen from the air and
return carbon dioxide.
Ventilation
Ventilation
The human respiratory system consists of a tube leading from the nose
and mouth down to two lungs. The lungs have millions of specialized
cells called alveoli. These cells filter oxygen from the air to directly
provide to the blood. This is possible because of the tiny blood vessels
called capillaries that surround the alveoli.
The process of ventilation is divided into two parts: inhaling and
exhaling.
Inhalation:
It is the intake of air through the change of pressure and volume due to
the movement of muscles (intercostal muscles, the diaphragm) and the
movement of the rib cage. The diaphragm relaxes and goes downwards,
and the inner intercostal relaxes and the outer intercostal muscles
contract, the ribcage goes outwards and upwards to increase the volume
of the lungs, decreasing the pressure inside the lungs, making air (gas)
move from a region of high pressure (atmosphere) to a region of low
pressure… and that is the process of inhalation.
Exhalation:
It’s the process of releasing air (gas) inside the lungs to the atmosphere…
The diaphragm contracts and goes upwards, decreasing the volume of
the lungs, and the inner intercostal contracts and the outer intercostal
muscles relaxes, the ribcage goes inwards and downwards to (decreasing
the volume of the lungs, increasing the pressure inside the lungs) this
causes air to leave the lungs going back to the atmosphere.
Breathing is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the
diaphragm. This dome-shaped muscle is located below the lungs, and it
compresses and expands the lungs to make the body perform the
subconscious reflex of breathing. The diaphragm does this about 12 to 20
times every minute, changing according to what an individual is doing.

People in a state of panic might hyperventilate, or breathe much faster

than normal, in an effort to introduce more oxygen to the blood in an
emergency. This biological reflex is one of the few that can be consciously
controlled. Anyone hyperventilating can calm themselves down by
forcing more measured breathing.
Alveoli and Gas Exchange
• Air enters the body through the nose is warmed filtered and passed
through the nasal cavity. Air passes the pharynx. The upper part of
the trachea contains the larynx after passing the larynx the air moves
into the bronchi that carries air in and out of the lungs.
• Bronchi are rein enforced to prevent their collapse and are lined with
ciliated epithelial and mucous producing cells.
• Bronchi branch into smaller and smaller tubes known as bronchioles.
• Bronchioles terminate into grape like sac cluster known as alveoli.
Alveoli are surrounded by a network of thin walled capillaries (to
complete the respiration process)
Transport of gases by blood
 Transport of oxygen by the blood
• At rest, the cells of a human needs about 50,000,000 of oxygen per
minute. After oxygen enters the blood capillaries in the lungs it diffuses
into the red blood cells and unites with the respiratory pigment known
as haemoglobin in the form:-
Hb+O2 HbO2

• The arrow indicates that the reaction is reversible, in other words it can
go in either direction. In the lungs the reaction goes to the right from
oxyhaemoglobin, and in the tissues, it goes to the left releasing O .
2.
• This process is controlled by two factors:

(1) The amount of oxygen present.

(2) A lower extent of the amount of carbon dioxide.

• In the lungs the concentration of the oxygen is relatively

high and thus the oxyhaemoglobin is formed. In the
tissues, the oxygen is little and accordingly
oxyhaemoglobin breaks down releasing oxygen to
diffuse to the tissue cells.
• As regards that carbon dioxide reacts with water forming
the carbonic acid (H CO ) and so an increase in CO
2 3 2

increases the acidity of the blood and accordingly

decreases the oxygen carrying the capacity of the
haemoglobin.

• Oxygen (O ) released from haemoglobin by combined

2

effect of low oxygen tension and high carbon dioxide

tension.
Transport of carbon dioxide(CO ) by the 2

blood.
• Some carbon dioxide is carried in loose chemical union with
haemoglobin as carbaminhaemoglobin and small amount is
present as carbonic acid,H CO ,but most of the latter is converted
2 3

into bicarbonates of sodium or potassium.

• Carbon dioxide passes from tissues to the blood and from the
blood to the lungs by simple diffusion from a region of high
tension to a region of low tension.
• The process of converting carbon dioxide into carbonic
acid in the capillaries of the tissues and of converting
carbonic acid into carbon dioxide in the lung capillaries is
catalyzed (speeds up) by an enzyme called carbonic
anhyrase.
Notice:
All veins inside the body takes deoxygenated blood except
pulmonary vein. All arteries inside the body take oxygenated
blood except for the pulmonary artery.
Diseases of Respiratory System
The most common problems of the respiratory system
are:

• Emphysema:
Long-term smoking often causes emphysema. In
emphysema, the lungs produce an excessive amount of
mucus and the alveoli become damaged. It becomes
difficult to breathe and get enough oxygen into the blood.
• Lung cancer:
Caused by an abnormal growth of cells in the
lungs, lung cancer is usually caused by
smoking cigarettes. It starts in the lining of
the bronchi and takes a long time to develop,
so it's generally a disease in adults. Symptoms
include a persistent
cough that may bring
up blood, chest pain,
hoarseness, and
shortness of breath.
• Asthma:
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that
causes airways to tighten and narrow. This
narrowing of the airways prevents air from flowing
properly, causing difficulty breathing, sometimes to
the point of being life-threatening. Management of
asthma starts with an asthma management plan,
which usually involves avoiding asthma triggers and
sometimes taking medications.
• Bronchitis
In bronchitis, which is a common disease of
adults and teens, the membranes lining the
larger bronchial tubes become inflamed and an
excessive amount of mucus is produced. The
person develops a bad cough to get rid of the
mucus. Cigarette smoking is a major cause of
chronic bronchitis in teens.