Endocrine System

• Endocrine system is the collection of endocrine glands that produces

hormones which regulates metabolism, growth and development,
tissue functions, reproduction etc.
Differences between endocrine and exocrine
glands
Endocrine Glands Exocrine Glands
They pour their secretion to blood. They do not pour their secretion to blood.
They are ductless glands. They are ducted glands.
They produce hormones. They produces enzymes, and other
substances like mucus, saliva, tear etc.

They act at distant site. They act at nearby site.

Eg. Thyroid gland, adrenal gland etc. Eg. Salivary glands, sweat glands, tear glands
etc.
Hormones
• Hormones are chemical messenger that control and coordinate the
activity of the body.

• Functions of hormones
• Hormones coordinates the body functions
• Some hormones regulate metabolic activity of the body. Eg. Insulin play role
in glucose metabolism
• Some hormone play role in maintaining internal environment of body like
temperature, pH of body fluids etc.
• They play role in reproduction, physical growth, general metabolism etc.
Endocrine glands in human body
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Parathyroid gland
• Adrenal gland
• Islets of Langerhans (Pancreas)
• Gonads (Testes and Ovary)
• Pineal Body and Thymus gland
Pituitary gland
(A master gland as it controls and regulates the
functions of other endocrine glands)
• Structure: It is pea sized, small and oval shaped gland.
• Location: It lies in the head, at the base of the brain, beneath the hypothalamus.

• This gland is attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk like structure of brain.

• Hypothalamus is small area of brain which controls the release of hormone from
pituitary gland.

• Pituitary gland can be divided into three regions: anterior lobe, intermediate lobe
and posterior lobe. Anterior lobe and intermediate lobe are collectively called
adenohypophysis and posterior lobe is called neurohypophysis.
Hormones produced by pituitary gland
Adenohypophysis Neurohypophysis

1. Somatotrophic hormone or Growth hormone (GH) 1. Oxytocin

2. Thyroid stimulating hormones (TSH) 2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

3. Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

4. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

5. Leutenizing hormone (LH)

6. Prolactin

7. Melanocyte Stimulating hormone

Functions of hormones produced adenohypophysis
of pituitary gland
• Somatotrophic hormone or growth hormone: It regulates growth and
division of body cells, especially in bones and skeletal muscles.

• Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): It stimulates thyroid gland to

stimulate thyroxine.

• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH): It stimulates the adrenal

cortex (outer part of adrenal gland) to produce cortisol (a steroid
hormone).
• Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): In female, it stimulates production of
ovum (egg) from the follicle present in ovary.
• In male it stimulates the production of sperms by testes.

• Leutenizing hormone (LH): It stimulates ovulation (release of ovum from

follicle) and formation of corpus luteum.
• In male, it stimulates the interstitial cells of testes for the production of testosterone.

Q. What are gonadotrophic hormones?

• Those hormones produced by pituitary gland which stimulate gonads for production
of hormones are called gonadotrophic hormones. Ovulation, in female, is also
stimulated by a gonadotrohic hormone called FSH.
• Prolactin: It is secreted during pregnancy to prepare breast for
lactation (production of milk after child birth).

• Melanocyte stimulating hormone: This hormone is secreted by

intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. It has role in darkening of
skin and protection of skin from uv rays.
Functions of hormones produced neurohypophysis
of pituitary gland
• Oxytocin: It stimulates the contraction of uterus during child birth.
During breast feeding, oxytocin causes the contraction of breast
muscles and push the milk toward baby’s mouth.

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): It help kidneys to regulate the volume of

urine production. They provide the information for the reabsorption
of water to the nephrons.
Disorder of pituitary gland
•Hypersecretion of anterior pituitary
hormones
• Gigantism is observed in person who had excessive growth hormone
in childhood. It is generally characterized by extraordinary height of
the body which may be more than 7.5 feet.

• Acromegaly is due to hypersecretion of GH in adults which is

characterized by abnormal increase in size of bones of face, hands
and feet.
• Hyposecretion of anterior pituitary hormones

• Dwarfism: it is caused due to hyposecretion of growth hormone from

childhood. It is characterized by small height and sexual immaturity.

• Simmons disease: It is also due to deficinency of growth hormone in

adult. It is characterized by loss of body weight.
Disorder of posterior pituitary
• Diabetes insipidus: this is very rare condition caused by
Hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), usually due to damage
to the hypothalamus.
Thyroid Gland
• Structure: It is butterfly shaped bilobed gland, connected to each
other by a narrow structure of connective tissue called isthmus. It is
richly supplied with blood vessels and weighs about 25 grams.
• Location: it is located at the neck just below the larynx; each lobe on
either side of trachea.
Hormones of thyroid gland
• Thyroid gland produces following hormones
• Thyroxine (T4)
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Calcitonin

• Thyroxine consists of four atoms of iodine whereas triiodothyronine consists

of three atoms of iodine. The release of T3 & T4 into blood vessels is
stimulated by TSH.
• Triiodothyronine is active form and thyroxine is inactive form of thyroid hormone.
Functions of hormones produced by thyroid
glands
• Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3):
• They regulate basal metabolic rate, i.e. energy required to keep body
functioning at rest.
• They regulate the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
• They also help in the normal growth and development of skeleton and
nervous system.

• Calcitonin:
• It is secreted by parafollicular or C-cells in thyroid gland when calcium level is
high in blood. It helps to maintain the level of calcium in blood by promoting
deposition of excess of calcium in bones.
Deficiency of thyroid hormones
• Deficiency of thyroid hormones is called hypothyroidism which leads to following
disorders:
• Cretinism: it is caused due to deficiency of thyroxine hormone during childhood.
It results in retarded physical, mental and sexual growth. Other symptoms include
low heart beat, low blood pressure, dry skin, low body temperature.
• Myxoedema: it is caused due to deficiency both T4 and T3 in adult. It results in
low metabolic rate, slow heart beat, low body temperature, retarded sexual
growth.
• Simple goiter: it is the enlargement of thyroid gland due deficiency of T4, T3 and
low level of secretion of TSH. It is due to low intake of iodine in diet.
• Hashimoto’s disease: it is an autoimmune disorder which destroy cells of thyroid
gland, thus result in hypothyroidism.
• Overproduction of thyroid hormone is called hyperthyroidism. It
causes following disorder:
• Grave’s disease: it is an immune disorder which is characterized by
bulging of eyeballs, loss of body weight due to rapid of oxidation of
food. Also, there is increase in heart beat and body temperature.
Parathyroid Gland
• Structure and location: Each lobe of thyroid gland has two parathyroid
glands on its posterior surface, i.e. four parathyroid glands. These
parathyroid glands are small and round in shape.
• Each parathyroid glands measure about 4-6 mm in length and weighs
about 50-200 mg.
• Functions: It secrete hormone called as parathyroid hormone or
parathormone (PTH). When calcium level falls in blood, the secretion of
parathormone increases.
• PTH increase the level of calcium in blood by following ways:
• It increases the absorption of calcium from small intestine.
• It increases reabsorption of calcium from nephron tubules.
• It causes release of calcium from bone to blood.
Disorders of parathyroid gland
• Hypoparathyroidism : Deficiency of parathormone is called hypoparathyroidism.
It is characterized by abnormally low blood calcium level.
• Low blood calcium level causes:
• tetany (spasm of hand and feet).
• Psychiatric disturbance.

• Hyperparathyroidism: Over secretion of parathormone is called

hyperparathyroidism. It is characterized by rise in blood calcium level by releasing
calcium from bones.
• HYPERPARATHYROIDISM has following effects:
• Loss of calcium from bone result into weak, soft and brittle bones. This condition
is called osteoporosis.
• Deposition of excess calcium in kidney may lead to kidney stone.
Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal Gland)
• Structure and Location: There are
two adrenal glands present at the
top of each kidney, so they are
also called as suprarenal gland.
• They are small and triangular in
shape, each measuring about 4 cm
in length and 3 cm thick.
• The glands are composed of two
parts: outer cortex and inner
medulla. These parts have different
structure and functions.
Adrenal cortex
• Adrenal cortex is the outer region of adrenal gland which has three
zones: zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis.

• Different zones of adrenal cortex secrete different hormones.

Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
• Adrenal Cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones. They are
collectively called adrenocorticoids.

• They are mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and sex corticoids

(gonadocorticoids).
• Mineralocorticoids secreted by zona glomerulosa. They regulate water and
electrolyte balance. Aldosterone is the main mineralocorticoids which stimulate
reabsorption of sodium by renal tubules and excretion of potassium in the urine.
• Glucocorticoids secreted by zona fasciculata. They regulate mainly carbohydrate
metabolism. When glucose level is low in blood, they stimulate gluconeogenesis
(formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate molecules like proteins and fats).
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoids.
• Sex corticoids secreted by zona reticularis. These include mainly androgen (male sex
hormone) which regulate the proper functioning of male sex organs and
development of secondary sexual characteristics. Female sex hormones like
oestrogen and progesterone are also sex corticoids which regulate normal
functioning of female sex organs and development of secondary sexual
characteristics.
Adrenal Medulla
• It represents inner part of adrenal gland.
• It secretes two types of hormone: adrenaline (epinephrine) and nor-
adrenaline (nor-epinephrine).
• These two hormones are structurally similar and have similar effects, which
includes:
• Constriction of blood vessels
• Rise in blood pressure
• Increase in pulse rate
• Cardiac output
• Conversion of glycogen into glucose
• Increase oxygen consumption
• Dilate pupils

• Adrenaline is produced during emergency, hence called emergency

hormone. However, nor-adrenaline works under normal condition.
Disorder of Adrenal Glands
• Hyposecretion of mineralocorticoids:
• Addison’s disease: it is caused due to deficiency of minralocorticoids,
mainly aldosterone, which result in sodium, potassium and water
imbalance in body.
• It leads to low sodium level, high potassium level and low blood pressure.

• Hypersecretion of mineralocorticoids:
• Conn’s syndrome: this is due to excessive secretion of mineralocorticoids.
• It leads to excessive reabsorption of sodium and water which causes
• increased blood volume and blood pressure
• and excessive secretion of potassium
• Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids:
• Cushing’s syndrome: it is due to excessive secretion of
glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol.
• It includes moon face, excess protein break down which leads wasting of
muscles of limbs and abnormal obesity.

• Hypersecretion of sex corticoids (Adrenal virilism):

• It is caused due to the over secretion of sex corticoids, mainly androgen.
• Excessive production of androgen in female causes development of secondary
sexual characteristics of male like appearance of moustache and beard, and
hoarseness of voice etc. And, in male, it may leads to infertility.
Islets of Langerhans (endocrine part of
Pancreas)
• Pancreas is a heterocrine or mixed gland because it has both
endocrine as well as exocrine function.
• Islets of Langerhans: These are the groups of specialized cells of
pancreas distributed throughout the pancreas. They secrete
hormones, i.e. they make up the endocrine part of pancreas.
• Islets of Langerhans consists of following types of cells:
• α-cells: secretes glucagon
• β-cells: secrete insulin
• δ-cells: secrete somatostatin
Hormones of Islets of Langerhans and their
function
• Glucagon: This hormone stimulates the conversion of glycogen to
glucose in liver and skeletal muscles. Thus, it glucagon play role in
maintaining blood glucose level by rising it.
• Insulin: It increases utilization of blood glucose by body cells. Thus,
insulin play role in maintaining blood glucose level by lowering it.
• Somatostatin: In pancreas, it inhibits the secretion of both glucagon
and insulin.
Disorders of Islets of Langerhans
• Diabetes mellitus: it is due to deficiency of insulin in body. It is of two
types: insulin dependent and non-insulin dependent diabetes.

• Insulin dependent diabetes: It is caused by failure of β-cells to produce appropriate

amount of insulin.
• Non-insulin dependent diabetes: It is due to non-recognition of insulin by body cells.
Thus, body cells could not utilize blood glucose.

• Diabetes mellitus is characterized by:

• High blood glucose level
• Presence of glucose in urine
• Excessive urination
• Increase thirst
• Delayed healing of wounds
• Weakness
• Hypoglycaemia: it is a condition caused due to excessive secretion of
insulin (or less secretion of glucagon) which results in low glucose
level in blood.
• It is characterized by:
• Weakness
• Profused sweating
• Irritability
• Unconsciousness
• Convulsions (body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly)
Gonads
• Gonads are the primary sex organs that includes testes (male gonads)
and ovary (female gonads). They produce sex hormones.

• Hormones of testes: The interstitial cells of testes (Leydig cells)

produce testosterone (an androgen hormone).
• Function of testosterone:
• It stimulates production of sperms.
• It stimulates development of secondary sexual characteristics like beard,
moustache, hoarseness of voice etc. in male.
• It stimulates normal functioning of male secondary sex organs like seminal
vesicles, prostrate glands etc.
• Hormones of ovary: Ovaries produce three hormones: oestrogen, progesterone
and relaxin.

• Oestrogen is produced by Graffian follicle.

• Functions of oestrogen:
• Stops FSH being produced (so that only one egg matures in a cycle).
• Repairs, thickens and maintains the uterus lining.
• Stimulates the pituitary gland to release LH.

• Progesterone is produced by Corpus lueteum.

• Functions of progesterone:
• Maintains the lining of the uterus during the latter part of the menstrual cycle and during
pregnancy.
• Relaxin is produced by corpus luteum during the late stage of
pregnancy for the preparation of child birth.
• Functions of relaxin:
• Relaxin relax ligaments of pelvis (hip bones), and softens and widens the
cervix to make the child birth easier.
Pineal Body (Pineal Gland or Epiphysis)
• Pineal gland is small, cone-shaped,
reddish brown structure which is
located in between cerebral
hemisphere of the brain.
• It secretes two hormones:
melatonin and serotonin.
• Function of melatonin: it is
produced by pineal gland at night.
It is also called as sleep hormone.
• Function of serotonin: it causes
constriction of blood vessels
(vasoconstriction).
Thymus gland
• Thymus gland is present in between lungs, in front of heart.
• It is largest during childhood, but shrinks after puberty. Its effect on
body’s defense last throughout the life.
• It produces thymosin hormone.
• Function of thymosin:
• Thymosin stimulates development of certain kind of WBC called as T-cells (a
kind of lymphocytes).