Q. 29.25g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 500g water. What is the molality of the solution?

Ans
NaCl (Sodium Chloride)
Mw= 23+35.5=58.5
Ew= 58.5/1=58.5
wt / Mw
Molality (m)= x 1000
Wt of solvent ( g )
29.25/ ( 58.5 )
Molality (m)= x 1000
500
Molality (m)= 1 m
Hence, the strength of solution is 1molal.
Q. A sulfuric acid solution is 9.8% by mass of volume 99mL. Calculate its molarity and molality.
Ans
H2SO4 (Sulfuric Acid)
Mw= 2 x 1 + 32+ 4 x 14= 98
Ew= 98/2=49
Given
Strength= 9.8% w/w
Wt= 9.8g
Solution=100g
Wt of solvent= 100-9.8 = 90.2g
9.8/98
Molality(m)= x 1000
90.2
9.8/98
Molality(m)= x 1000=1.1m
90.2
Volume (V)=99mL
Then
m V
Or, =
M W ( solvent )
1.1 99
, =
M 90.2
Or, M = 1.002M
Primary and Secondary Standard Substances
Standard solution
A solution having known concentration is called standard solution.
Titration/ Standardization
The process of determination of concentration of a solution with the help of standard solution is called
titration.
Primary Standard Solution
Standard solution is prepared by dissolving a known mass of pure substance in water with a definite
volume is called primary standard solution
Primary Standard Substances
Those solutes which are used for the preparation of primary standard solution is called primary standard
substances.
Characteristics/Criteria/Properties/requisites/pre-requisites of primary standard substance
Following are properties of primary standard substances.
1. The substance must be easy to obtain, & in pure state.
2. The substance should not be hygroscopic ( absorb moisture), or efflorescent( release moisture) or
deliquescent( absorb moisture and become liquid).
3. The substance should not be affected by carbon-dioxide and air, and the composition should not be
change during storage and weighing.
4. It should have high relative molecular mass and equivalent wt to minimize weighing error.
5. The substance should be readily soluble in water under given condition.
6. The composition of substance should not change in its solid state or in solution form for sufficiently
long period of time.
Examples
1. Anhydrous sodium carbonate ( Na2CO3)
2. Oxalic Acid [ ( COOH)2.2H2O ]
3. Potassium Chloride ( KCl)
4. Sodium chloride (NaCl)
5. Potassium Iodate ( KIO3)
6. Mohr’s Salt [ FeSO4. (NH4)2SO4.6H2O]
7. Potassium Dichromate ( K2Cr2O7)
Secondary standard solution
Definition:- The solution whose strength is to be redetermined after its preparation with the help a
primary standard solution is called secondary standard solution.
Those substance used to prepare secondary standard solutions are called secondary standard
substance.
Examples
A. Copper Sulfate ( CuSO4.5H2O)
B. Sodium Hydroxide ( NaOH)
C. Acids ( HCl, HNO3, H2SO4)
D. Ferrous Sulfate ( FeSO4)
E. Potassium Permanganate ( KMnO4)

Preparation of Primary standard solutions

1. If reagent is solid
Weigh the solid according to formula
Wt= VEN/1000
and dissolve in small volume of water, then make final volume upto required final volume in volumetric
flask.
Q. Prepare 0.25N anhydrous sodium carbonate for 250mL
Ans
Na2CO3
Mw= 23x2+12+16x3=106
Ew= 106/2 =53
V= 250mL
N=0.25N
wt = VEN/1000= (250 x53 x 0.25)/1000= 3.31g
Dissolve 3.31g of Na2CO3 in small volume of water and dilute upto 250mL to prepare 0.25N 250mL
Na2CO3.
2.If the reagent is liquid
Stock Solution Dilute Solution
C1= Concentration of stock C2= concentration of dilute solution
V1= volume should be taken from stock V2= Volume of required solution.
Dilution formula
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
Q. Prepare 0.25N 250mL sulfuric acid from 8N sulfuric acid.
Stock Solution Dilute Solution
C1 = 8N C2= 0.25N
V1= ? V2=250mL
Dilution formula
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
V1 = (C2 x V2)/C1= (0.25 x 250)/8 = 7.8mL
Initally, take 100mL water in volumetric flask. Take 7.8mL 8N acid in pippette and drop it into flask
dropwise. Then make final volume upto 250mL by further addition of water.
Serial dilution
5N→ 4N→ 3N→ 2N→ 1N
Normality Factor (f)
Definition:
Normality factor is defined as the ratio of mass taken to the mass to be taken.
Formula
Normality factor ( f) = Mass taken/Mass to be taken
Significance
Exact normality = Given normality x normality factor
Example
Suppose we need to prepare 0.1N 250mL Na2CO3, then we need 1.325g sodium carbonate, but
during weighing, following weights were obtained
a. 1.350
f = 1.350/1.325 = 1.01
Exact normality = 0.1N x f= 0.1x1.01=0.101N
b. 1.320
f = 1.320/1.325=0.99
exact normality = 0.1 x 0.99= 0.099N
Law of chemical equivalence ( Normality Equation)
When acid and base react completely
No of equivalent of acid = No of equivalent of base ( Master)
1. When acid and base both are liquid
No. of eq. of acid= No. of eq. of base
NA x VA (L) = NB x VB (L)
NA x VA(mL)/1000 = NB x VB(mL)/1000

2. When acid is solid, base is liquid

No. of eq. of acid= No. of eq. of base
Wt/Ew = NB x VB(mL)/1000
3. When acid is liquid, base is solid
No. of eq. of acid= No. of eq. of base
NA x VA(mL)/1000 = Wt/Ew
Q. 0.18g divalent metal was completely dissolved in 100mL of 1.28N HCl solution. The volume then upto
200mL. 50mL of this solution requires 54.6mL of 0.22N NaOH solution for complete neutralization. Find
the equivalent wt of metal.
Acid Base
HCl, wt= 0.18
NA= 1.28N Mw=Mw
VA= X mL Ew=Mw/2(dibasic)
acid is solution metal is solid
If they react completely, then
no of equivalent of acid= no of equivalent of bas
NA x VA= wt/Ew
1.28 x X/1000 = 0.18/Mw/2
X= 281.25/Mw
Volume remaining= (100-281.25/Mw) acid with normality 1.28N
this solution is to be diluted to make 200mL dilute solution
for dilution
C1 = 1.28N V1=(100-281.25/Mw)mL
C2 =? V2 = 200mL
Use dilution formula
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
or, 1.28 x (100-281.25/Mw)mL = C2 X 200mL
or, C2 = (1.28/200)[100-281.25/Mw] N Acid solution
then, 50mL of this solution is taken to be reacted with base NaOH 0.22N 54.6mL .

Acid Base
If these solution react completely, then
NA=(1.28/200)[100-281.25/Mw] N NB=0.22N
VA= 50mL VB= 54.6mL
Normality equation
NA x VA = NB x VB

or, (1.28/200)[100-281.25/Mw]mL x 50 = 0.22 x 54.6mL

or, 0.0064 x 50 x [100-281.25/Mw] = 12.012
or, [100-281.25/Mw] = 12.012/0.32
or, [100-281.25/Mw] = 37.5375
or, 281.25/Mw= 100-37.5375= 62.4625
or, Mw= 281.25/62.4625 = 4.50
Ew=Mw/2=4.5/2=2.25
Q. 7.35g of dibasic acid was dissolved in water and diluted to 250mL. 25ML of this solution was
neutralized by 15mL of N NaOH solution. What is equivalent weight and molecular mass of the acid?
Ans
For preparation of acid solution
wt = 7.35g
Mw=Mw
Ew= Mw/2 ( Since acid is dibasic)
Volume (V) = 250mL
So, normality of this solution
N = [(wt/Ew)/V] x 1000 = [(7.35/Mw/2)/250]x1000 = 58.8/Mw
From this solution, 25mL was taken and reacted with N NaOH 15mL,
If so
Then
Na = 58.8/Mw Va=25mL
Nb= 1N Vb=15mL
Considering complete neutralization
Na x Va = Nb x Vb
58.8/Mw x 25 = 1 x 15
Mw = (58.8x25)/15= 98
Ew= Mw/2=98/2=49

Q. x g of CaCO3 requires 40mL of N/2 HCl for complete neutralization. Calculate x.

Ans
Acid Base
HCl CaCO3
Mw=36.5 Mw= 100
Ew=36.5 Ew=100/2=50
Va=40mL base is solid
Na=(N/2)=(1/2)N=0.5N
Acid is liquid
If they have reacted completely, then
No of equivalent of acid = no. of equivalent of base
Na x Va/1000 = wt/Ew
or, 0.5 x 40/1000 = x/50
or x= 1g CaCO3
Q. 1.0g of CaCO3 was dissolved in 50mL N/2 HCl solution. The solution was then diluted to 100mL.
Calculate the normality and pH of the diluted solution.
Ans
First, we carry out reaction between acid and base
Base Acid
CaCO3 HCl
Mw= 100 Volume ( V)= 50mL
Ew=100/2=50 Normality ( Nb)= N/2=0.5N
wt= 1.0g acid is liquid
base is solid
No of equivalent of base No of equivalent of acid
= wt/Ew= 1/50= 0.02 eq = Na x V/1000 = 0.5 x 50/1000
 =0.025 eq
Since, the no of equivalent of acid > no of equivalent of base
The resulting solution should be acidic and its pH should be less than 7.
So, the amount of acid left = 0.025eq – 0.02 eq= 0.005eq
Volume has been diluted to 100mL
Hence, Volume (V) of final diluted solution=100mL
Normality (N) = No of equivalent / Volume x 1000
= 0.005/100 x 1000
= 0.05N HCl solution
= 0.05M HCl
HCl======> H+ + Cl-
1mole 1 mole 1mole
0.05M 0.05M

[H+]=0.05M
pH = -log[H+]= -log[0.05]= 1.3

Q. calculate molality of 1L of 93% H2SO4 solution of w/v. The density of the solution is 1.84g/mL.
Ans
93% w /v H2SO4 , Mw=98
93g H2SO4 dissolved in 100mL x 10= 1L ( pynometer density)
wt of solute wt of solution
= 100mL 93g ( 93%w/v) = 1.84g/mL x 1000mL
=1000mL 930g = 1840g
wt of solvent(g) = wt of solution – wt of solute= 1840-930=910g
Molality (m)= [no of mole of solute/wt of solvent (g)] x 1000
= [wt/Mw/Wt of solvent(g)]
=[ 930/98/910] x 1000 = 10.42 m
So, the molality of 93% w/v 1L H2SO4 is 10.42m ( 10.42molal)
Q. 500cc of 2N Na2CO3 are mixed with 400cc of 3N H2SO4. Then the volume was diluted to 1L. Will the
resulting solution be acidic, basic or neutral? Calculate the molarity of dilute solution.

Ans
Acid Base
H2SO4 Na2CO3
Mw=98 Mw=106

Ew=98/2=49 Ew=106/2=53
Acid is solution Base is solution
NA= 3N NB= 2N
VA=400cc=400mL VB= 500cc=500mL
No of equivalent of acid No of equivalent of base
= NA x VA/1000 = NB x VB/1000
= 3 x 400/1000 = 2 x 500/1000
= 1.2 equivalents = 1.00 equivalents
Since, the number of equivalent of Acid> no of equivalents of base
the resulting solution should be acidic.
The acid should be in excess.
No of equivalent of acid left ( excess) = 1.2 – 1 = 0.2 equivalents
Volume ( V) = 1L
Normality ( N) =[No of equivalent / Volume] x 1000
= [ 0.2/1000] x 1000 = 0.2 N
Molarity ( M)= N/V=0.2/2=0.1
Titration:
Definition:-
The method of quantitative chemical analysis which involves the determination of volume of standard
solution required to react with measured volume of solution of unknown strength is called titration.
Titrant:-
The solution of known strength ( standard solution ) is called TITRANT(BURETTE).
Titrand
The solution whose strength in unknown is called TITRAND ( FLASK)
Indicator
Definition:
To indicate the completion of the reaction between
titrant and titrand need an auxiliary chemical
substance is added which is called indicator.
Function:
The completion of titration is detected by some physical
change produce by one of the solution itself or by
indicator.
Mechanism:
Most indicators show their color changes either in
acidic medium or in alkaline.
For e.g., Phenolphtalein ( Acid)=> base
Methyl orange ( Base) => Red
End point:-
The point at which indicator show the completion of
reaction between titrant and titrand by sharp visual
change or the appearance of turbidity is called end
point of the titration.
Equivalence point/ theoretical end point/ Stoichiometric end point
During titration, a point will appear at which equivalent quantity of titrand is neutralized by titrant is
called equivalent point.
In the ideal titration, end point coincides with equivalence point but in practice the value of end point is
slightly different than the value of stoichiometric end point of equivalence point.
Titration error:
The difference between end point and equivalence point of titration is called titration error.
Q. How to minimize titration error?
In titration, indicator should be chosen in such a manner that it would avoid or minimize the titration
error.
Types of Titration
1. Acid-Base Titration ( Neutralization Titration)
2. Redox-Titration ( Oxidation-Reduction Titration)
3. Complexometric titration ( Complex formation titration)
4. Precipitation Titration
5. Potentiometric Titration
Acid-Base Titration
Definition
The titration which involve the reaction of free acid and free base or salt ( weak acids and bases) is
called acid-base titration.

Example
HCl + NaOH======> NaCl + H2O
HCl + Na2CO3======> NaCl + CO2+ H2O
Indicator
End point is detected by the use of acid-base indicator or pH indicator.
Redox Titration
Definition
The titration involving oxidizing agents and reducing agent is called redox titration.
Examples
1. Oxidizing agent:- KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, I2, KIO3, KBrO3, H2SO4
2. Reducing agent:- Mohr’s Salt [ FeSO4. (NH4)2SO4.6H2O], Sodium thiosulfate ( Na2S2O3), Oxalic acid
[ (COOH)2]
[Permanganometric titration]
KMnO4 + (COOH)2+ H2SO4 ==> K2SO4+ MnSO4+ CO2+ H2O
Indicator:- No external or internal indicator is required because disappearance of pink color indicate the
completion of reaction, so KMnO4 acts as self indicator.

Complexometric Titration
Definition:-
The titration which involve the formation of complex compound is called complexometric titration.
Example
This method is exclusively applied for calcium by reacting with EDTA ( Ethylene Diamine tetra acetic
acid)
Ca++ + disodium EDTA==> Caclium EDTA complex + 2Na+
Indicator
Eriochrome black-T
Application
This type of titration can be applied for estimation of hardness of water, quantification of calcium in
medicines, or in biological fluid like blood , plasma, serum etc.
Precipitation Titration
Definition:-
It is the type of titration which involve the formation of precipitate by the combination of ions of titrant
and titrand
For e.g.,
NaCl + AgNO3===========> AgCl + NaNO3
White precipitate
This type of titration is guided by solubility product principle.
Indicator:
In above titration , Potassium Chromate ( K2 CrO4) is used as indicator.
Ag+ + CrO4- - ======> Ag2CrO4 ( Red)

Selection of Indicator on Acid – Base titration

Acid Base PH ( equivalent point) Indicator

Strong Strong 3-11 Phenolpthalein

Methyl orange

Strong Weak 3-8 Methyl Orange

Weak Strong 6-11 Phenolpthalein

Weak Weak 6-8 None

Titration curve:-
A curve obtained by plotting a graph of pH of solution versus volume of alkali added is called titration
curve
Nature of titration curve
AB==> Smooth increase in pH value of resulting solution, due to addition of base and reaction with acid.
BC==> Near the end point or equivalence point, there is sudden rise in pH value represented by BC.
CD===> This segment represent that the alkali will be adding in excess, and smooth increase.
The sudden rise or steep rise in pH value during titration indicates the neutralization in acid- base
reaction.
Q. What mass of 50% pure CaCO3 is required to neutralize 40mL N/2 HCl?
Q. Calculate the molarity of 36.5% (w/v) HCl solution having density 1.15g/mL?
Na Va = Nb Vb
Acidimetry:-
It is the process of finding out concentration of acid by reacting with known volume of standard base
solution and volume of acid consumed during the titration.
Alkalimetry:-
It is the process of finding out the concentration of alkali by reacting with known volume of standard
acid solution and volume of alkali consumed during titration.

Q. 12g of commercial zinc is made to react with excess dilute H 2SO4. The total volume of H2 gas liberated
was found to be 4.2L at 570mmHg and 279K. Determine the percentage of Zinc.
( Atomic mass of Zinc = 65)
Ans
Zn + H2SO4============> ZnSO4 + H2
1 mole 1 mole 1 mole 1 mole
65g 98g 161g 2g
Wt of hydrogen
PV/T
Given STP
P1 =570mmHg P2=760mmHg
V1=4.2L V2=?
T1= 279K T2= 273K

PV
= constant
T
P 1V 1 P 2V 2
=
T1 T2
570 x 4.2 760 XV 2
=
279 273
V2 = 3.08L H2 = 3080mL
1mL H2 at STP = 0.000089g
3080mL = 0.000089 x 3080 = 0.27412g
( wt of hydrogen at given temperature and pressure)

PV= nRT
P = 570mmHg= (570/760)atm
V= 4.2L Mw = 2
T= 279K
R= 0.0821 L.atm.K-1mol-1
Using Idea gas equation
PV=nRT
PV = (wt/Mw)RT
wt = (P x V x Mw)/(RT)= [ (570/760) x 4.2 x 2]/(0.0821 x 279
wt = 0.2750g hydrogen

The wt of hydrogen at given temperature, pressure and volume is = 0.2750g H2

2g H2 can be produced by 65g Zn

0.2750g H 2 can be produced by = (65/2)x0.2750g Zn
= 8.93g Z
Then
% yield = [Experimental yield/ Theoretical yield]x 100
= (8.93/12)x 100 = 74.47%
Hence, the zinc was 74.47% pure.
----------O-------------