1.

Respiratory system

Passage of air into the lungs

1. Air enters the body and is warmed as it travels through the mouth and nose.

2. It then enters the trachea.

3. The trachea divides into two bronchi. One bronchus enters each lung.

4. Each bronchus branches out into smaller tubes called bronchioles. Air travels through
these bronchioles.

5. At the end of the bronchioles, the air enters one of the many millions of alveoli where
gaseous exchange takes place.

Breathing
Breathing is the term given to the process of taking air into and out of the lungs.
 The process of inhalation and exhalation

Two important structures for breathing are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the chest (or thoracic) cavity from the rest
of the body.The intercostal muscles are found between the ribs and they control rib
movement.
Inspiration (breathing in)
The diaphragm contracts and moves downwards. The intercostal muscles contract and move
the ribs upwards and outwards. This increases the size of the chest and decreases the air
pressure inside it which sucks air into the lungs.

Expiration (breathing out)

The diaphragm relaxes and moves back to its domed shape. The intercostal muscles relax so
the ribs move inwards and downwards under their own weight. This decreases the size of the
chest and increases the air pressure in the chest so air is forced out of the lungs.

Composition of the air we breathe

Breathed in Breathed out

21% oxygen 16% oxygen

0.03% carbon dioxide 4% carbon dioxide

The human body is designed to take in oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. The respiratory
system, in combination with the cardiovascular system, is responsible for providing this
function.

Gas exchange
Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli in the lungs and takes place by diffusion. The alveoli are
surrounded by capillaries so oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the air in the alveoli
and the blood in the capillaries.

Diffusion is the movement of gas from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.

There is a high concentration of oxygen in the alveoli and a low concentration of oxygen in
the blood, so oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood.

There is a high concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood and a low concentration in the
alveoli, so carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli.

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are capable of combining with an iron-rich protein in the
blood called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin carries oxygen to be exchanged at the working
muscle and carbon dioxide to be exchanged at the lung.

As the blood moves through the capillaries in the alveoli, oxygen diffuses into it and

carbon dioxide diffuses out of it.

Capillaries surround the alveoli in the lungs. Both the capillaries and alveoli walls are very
thin - just one cell thick. They are made of semi-permeable membranes which allow oxygen
and carbon dioxide to pass through them.
2. Cardiovascular system

If you clench your hand into a fist, this is approximately the same size as your heart. It is
located in the middle of the chest and slightly towards the left.

The heart is a large muscular pump and is divided into two halves - the right-hand side and
the left-hand side.

The right-hand side of the heart is responsible for pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

The left-hand side pumps oxygenated blood around the body.

Each side of the heart consists of an atrium and a ventricle which are two connected
chambers.

The atria (plural of atrium) are where the blood collects when it enters the heart.

The ventricles pump the blood out of the heart to the lungs or around the body.

The septum separates the right-hand and left-hand side of the heart.

The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and right ventricle and opens due to a
build-up of pressure in the right atrium.

The bicuspid valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle and likewise opens
due to a build-up of pressure, this time in the left atrium.

The semilunar valves stop the back flow of blood into the heart. There is a semilunar valve
where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and another where the pulmonary artery leaves the
right ventricle.

Blood vessels leading into and out of the heart

There are four main blood vessels that take blood into and out of the heart.

The aorta is the largest artery in the body. It carries oxygenated blood away from the left
ventricle to the body.

The vena cava is the largest vein in the body. It carries deoxygenated blood from the body
back to the heart.

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away from the right ventricle to the
lungs.

The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.

3. Nervous System

The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the neuron (sometimes
called "neurone" or "nerve cell"). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of
ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells
via synapses, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that
allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess
an axon, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make
thousands of synaptic contacts; axons typically extend throughout the body in bundles called
nerves.
Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of
neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions. These include sensory
neurons that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and motor
neurons that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many
species the great majority of neurons participate in the formation of centralized structures (the
brain and ganglia) and they receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to
other neurons.
4. Human Digestive System
5. Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system is made up of the internal and external sex organs that
function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature
at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry
a foetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the uterus, Fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The
uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also
produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes.
The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as
the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal
opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.
At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the Fallopian tube into
the uterus. If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, a single sperm (1-cell) can enter and merge with
the egg or ovum (1-cell), fertilizing it into a zygote (1-cell).
Fertilization usually occurs in the Fallopian tubes and marks the beginning of embryogenesis.
The zygote will then divide over enough generations of cells to form a blastocyst,
which implants itself in the wall of the uterus. This begins the period of gestation and the embryo
will continue to develop until full-term. When the foetus has developed enough to survive outside
the uterus, the cervix dilates and contractions of the uterus propel the newborn through the birth
canal (the vagina).
6. Urinary System

The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood in the kidneys. In a healthy human the
kidney receives between 12 and 30% of cardiac output, but it averages about 20% or about 1.25
L/min.
The basic structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Its chief function is to
regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium by filtering the blood,
reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine.
In the first part of the nephron, Bowman's capsule filters blood from the circulatory system into
the tubules. Hydrostatic and osmotic pressure gradients facilitate filtration across a
semipermeable membrane. The filtrate includes water, small molecules, and ions that easily pass
through the filtration membrane. However larger molecules such as proteins and blood cells are
prevented from passing through the filtration membrane. The amount of filtrate produced every
minute is called the glomerular filtration rate or GFR and amounts to 180 litres per day. About
99% of this filtrate is reabsorbed as it passes through the nephron and the remaining 1%
becomes urine.
The urinary system is regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as antidiuretic
hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.