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The Human Respiratory and Cardiovascular System

Emaan Atif (BSCP-22S-0199)

Department of Clinical Psychology, Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University

CPSY3153: Health Psychology

Ms. Maryam Gillani

4th March, 2024

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The Human Respiratory and Cardiovascular System

The Respiratory System

The respiratory system in humans responsible for the exchange of gases, primarily

oxygen and carbon dioxide, between the body and the external environment. It facilitates the

intake of oxygen for cellular respiration and the removal of carbon dioxide, a waste product

generated by metabolic processes. It can be divided into two regions, upper respiratory tract,

and lower respiratory tract.

Upper Respiratory Tract

The upper respiratory tract includes the mouth, nose, nasal cavity, pharynx

(nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx), adenoid, larynx, and the epiglottis.

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1. Mouth. The mouth is the external opening through which air can enter the respiratory

system. It is also involved in processes such as ingestion, chewing, and speaking.

2. Nose and Nasal Cavity. The nose is the only external visible composed of nose,

cartilage, and fatty tissues. The external openings of nose are called nostrils and the inner

hollow spaces are called nasal cavities, which are partitioned by means of nasal septum.

Anterior parts of nasal cavities near the nostrils are called vestibules which contain hair. Both

nostrils and nasal cavities are lined by ciliated mucous membranes.

3. Pharynx. Pharynx is a cone-shaped passageway leading from the oral and nasal

cavities to the esophagus and larynx. It is a part of both digestive and respiratory system. It is

further divided into three parts: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx.

4. Nasopharynx. The nasopharynx is the upper part of the pharynx (throat) located

behind the nasal cavity. It is a passageway for air and connects the nose to the oropharynx.

5. Adenoid (Pharyngeal Tonsil). The adenoid, also known as the pharyngeal tonsil, is a

mass of lymphoid tissue located in the nasopharynx. It helps in immune responses,

particularly in children.

6. Oropharynx. The oropharynx is the middle part of the pharynx located behind the

mouth. It serves as a common pathway for both air and food and plays a role in the early

stages of digestion and respiration.

7. Laryngopharynx. The laryngopharynx is the lower part of the pharynx, connecting

the nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and esophagus. It plays a role in both breathing and

swallowing, preventing food from entering the airway during ingestion.

8. Larynx (Voice Box). The larynx is an enlargement in the airway at the top of trachea

and below the pharynx. The larynx is composed primarily of muscles and cartilages. On of

the cartilage is epiglottis. Inside the larynx there two vocal cords which are responsible for

vocalization.
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9. Epiglottis. The epiglottis is a flap-like structure in the larynx that prevents food and

liquids from entering the trachea during swallowing. It helps direct materials toward the

esophagus. The opening of the larynx is called glottis.

These components collectively make up the upper respiratory tract, playing crucial

roles in filtering, conditioning, and directing air before it reaches the lower respiratory tract.

The upper respiratory tract also serves as a barrier against potentially harmful particles and

microorganisms, contributing to the overall health and functionality of the respiratory system.

The Lower Respiratory Tract

It includes trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli, and lungs.

1. Trachea (Windpipe). The trachea is a tubular structure composed of cartilage rings

that connects the larynx to the bronchi. It allows the passage of air into and out of the lungs.

2. Bronchi. The bronchi are two large tubes that branch off from the trachea, leading to

each lung. They further divide into smaller bronchioles within the lungs.

3. Bronchioles. Bronchioles are smaller airways branching from the bronchi. They

continue to divide and become progressively smaller, ultimately leading to the alveoli.

4. Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli. Alveolar ducts are tiny passageways that connect

bronchioles to alveoli. Alveoli are microscopic air sacs located at the end of bronchioles

within the lungs. They are the primary sites for gas exchange, where oxygen is taken up by

the blood and carbon dioxide is released. There are 700 million alveoli in each lung, the wall

of each alveolus being 1micrometer thick.

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5. Lungs. Lungs are paired, spongy organs responsible for respiration. Each lung is

conical in shape, with its base resting on the diaphragm. The right lung has three lobes, while

the left lung has two lobes. They contain bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli. The right and left

lungs are separated medially by the heart and mediastinum, which is the area between the

lungs.

6. Pleura. The pleura is a double-layered membrane surrounding the lungs and lining

the chest cavity. It consists of the visceral pleura (attached to the lungs) and the parietal

pleura (lining the chest wall). The pleural cavity between them contains a small amount of

fluid, reducing friction during breathing movements and facilitating lung expansion and

contraction.

These components collectively make up the lower respiratory tract, where the main

function is the exchange of gases between the air and the bloodstream. The trachea, bronchi,

and bronchioles conduct air into the lungs, while the alveoli provide a vast surface area for

efficient gas exchange. The entire lower respiratory system is essential for the oxygenation of

blood and the removal of carbon dioxide, supporting the overall respiratory function and

maintaining proper oxygen levels in the body.

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The Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, arteries, and veins.

The Heart

 The heart is a fibromuscular organ that, by contracting and relaxing, pumps blood

throughout the body.

 The heart is, essentially, the center of a rapid-transit system that carries oxygen to body

cells and removes carbon dioxide and other wastes from cells.

Integrated Body Systems

 Under healthy conditions, the cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive systems are

integrated: The digestive system produces nutrients, and the respiratory system furnishes

oxygen, both of which circulate through the blood to various parts of the body.

 In addition, the endocrine system affects the cardiovascular system by stimulating or

depressing the rate of cardiovascular activity

Structure of Human Heart

The heart is a muscular organ located in the chest.

Location in the Mediastinum. The heart is situated in the mediastinum, the central

compartment of the chest between the lungs.

Pericardium. The heart is enveloped by the pericardium, a double-layered membrane

providing protection and reducing friction during heartbeats. The outer layer is the fibrous

pericardium, and the inner layer is the serous pericardium.

Anatomy of the Heart. The heart is divided into four chambers: two atria (upper

chambers) and two ventricles (lower chambers).

a. Atria. The heart has 2 atria (singular; atrium) or upper chambers.

 Right Atrium. Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and

inferior vena cava.

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 Left Atrium. Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins.

b. Ventricles. The lower 2 chambers of the heart are called ventricles.

 Right Ventricle. Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery.

 Left Ventricle. Pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body via the aorta.

Structure of Walls of the Heart

Epicardium. Outer layer, the thin serous membrane comprising of the smooth outer

surface of the heart.

Myocardium. Thick, muscular layer made up of cardiac muscle cells, responsible for

pumping blood. The myocardium of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right due to its

role in systemic circulation.

Endocardium. Smooth inner lining, providing a surface for blood flow and

preventing clotting. The heart valves are formed by a fold of endocardium, making a double

layer of endocardium with connective tissue in between.

Thickness of the Wall of Each Chamber

 Right Atrium and Ventricle. Walls are thinner as they pump blood to the nearby

lungs for oxygenation.

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 Left Atrium and Ventricle. Walls are thicker, especially the left ventricle, as it

pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body.

Heart Valves

1. Atrioventricular (AV) Valves. There are 2 atrioventricular valves.

 Tricuspid Valve (Right Side). Between the right atrium and ventricle.

 Mitral (Bicuspid) Valve (Left Side). Between the left atrium and ventricle.

2. Semilunar Valves. There are 2 semilunar valves.

 Pulmonary Semilunar Valve. Guards the entrance to the pulmonary artery from the

right ventricle.

 Aortic Semilunar Valve. Guards the entrance to the aorta from the left ventricle.

Arteries

Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. The largest artery is the aorta, carrying

oxygenated blood from the heart to the body, which branches into smaller arteries. Arteries

branch into arterioles and then into capillaries. All arteries carry oxygenated blood apart from

the pulmonary artery.

Veins

Transport deoxygenated blood back to the heart. The superior and inferior vena cava

are large veins that return blood to the right atrium. The superior vena cava returns

deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart, while the inferior vena cava returns

blood from the lower body. All veins except the pulmonary vein carry oxygenated blood and

empty into the left atrium chamber.

Capillaries

Microscopic vessels connecting arteries and veins. Facilitate the exchange of oxygen,

nutrients, and waste products between blood and body tissues.

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Blood

Red Blood Cells (RBCs). Contain hemoglobin and transport oxygen from the lungs

to the tissues.

White Blood Cells (WBCs). Part of the immune system, defend against infections.

Platelets. Cell fragments that aid in blood clotting.

Plasma. The liquid component of blood containing water, electrolytes, proteins,

hormones, and waste products.

Vascular Pathway

The cardiovascular pathway involves two interconnected circuits: pulmonary

circulation and systemic circulation.

 Pulmonary Circulation. In pulmonary circulation, deoxygenated blood returning

from the body enters the right atrium of the heart through the superior and inferior vena

cava. From there, it flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle, which

contracts to pump the deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary

artery. This artery carries the blood to the lungs, where it undergoes oxygenation. The newly

oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins, entering the left atrium.

 Systemic Circulation. In systemic circulation, the left atrium propels the oxygenated

blood through the mitral valve (Bicuspid) into the left ventricle. The left ventricle contracts,

pumping the oxygenated blood through the aortic valve into the aorta, which then distributes

it to the rest of the body. As the oxygen is utilized by tissues, deoxygenated blood returns to

the heart via the superior and inferior vena cava, restarting the circulation process. This

continuous cycle ensures the efficient exchange of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body,

supporting its metabolic needs.

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Cardiovascular Control System

Involves the autonomic nervous system and hormones (e.g., adrenaline) to regulate

heart rate, blood pressure, and blood vessel constriction or dilation.

Coronary Circulation

Blood vessels (coronary arteries and veins) supplying the heart muscle with oxygen

and nutrients.

The cardiovascular system functions to maintain the circulation of blood, ensuring

that oxygen and nutrients reach cells and tissues while removing waste products. This

coordinated effort supports the body's metabolic processes and overall homeostasis.