Anatomy and Physiology

The
Respiratory
System
Respiratory System
A system of organs
responsible for gas
exchange.
The main job of the
respiratory system is to
get Oxygen (O2) into
the body and waste
gases like Carbon
dioxide (CO2) out of
the body.
Function of Respiratory System
1. Inhalation and
exhalation of air
through airways to
and from the lung
(Ventilation)
2. To exchange gases
between the alveoli
and capillaries
(Respiration)
FUCTIONS OF RESPIRATION:
(DEFReSS)

1. Deliver O2 to blood for transport to

tissues/ cells
2. Excrete waste products of cellular
metabolism
3. Filter, cleanse, warm, humidify air to the
lungs
4. Regulate Blood pH
5. Sound for speech, singing
6. Stimulus for Olfaction
 Respiratory System
The respiratory system is responsible for transporting gases
to and from the circulatory system. 
 It involves both External and Internal respiration.
 EXTERNAL RESPIRATION- gas exchange between air
in ALVEOLI and blood PULMONARY CAPILLARIES

 INTERNAL RESPIRATION - gas exchange between

TISSUE CELLS and blood SYSTEMIC CAPILLARIES

Cellular Respiration or Aerobic Respiration involves the use

of oxygen to break down glucose in the cell. 
 Respiration
 All cells require a
continuous supply of oxygen
and must continuously get
rid of metabolic waste
product  carbon dioxide.
 Respiration simply means
ventilation or breathing  it
refers to the different
process by which cells
utilize oxygen, form carbon
dioxide, and convert energy
into useful forms.
 Anatomy
of the
Respiratory
System
The Human Respiratory System consist
of the:
> Nose,
> Nasal cavity,
> Pharynx
(Throat),
> Larynx
(voice box),
> Trachea
(windpipe),
> Bronchi,
> the Lungs,
> Bronchioles
> Alveoli
 Respiratory System
The respiratory
system may be
divided into the
Upper
Respiratory
Tract and Lower
Respiratory
Tract.
Two Division of Respiratory System
◦ The upper respiratory tract consists
of the parts outside the thoracic
cavity extending from the nasal
cavity up to the upper trachea.
◦ The upper portion of the respiratory
system filters , moistens, & warms
air during inspiration.
◦ The lower respiratory tract consists
of parts found inside the thoracic
cavity which includes the lower part
of the trachea and the lungs.
◦ The lower portion of the respiratory
system enables the exchange of
gases between blood and air to
regulate serum PO2, PCO2 & pH.
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
 Structures of the
respiratory system,
primarily an air
conduction system,
include the nose,
pharynx, and larynx.
 Air is filtered,
warmed, and
humidified in the upper
airway before passing
to lower airway.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
1. Nose
A Nose is the organ for
smelling, the only external
visible part of the
respiratory system
External nose is a framework
of bone
and cartilage, internally
divided into two passages or
nares (nasal cavities) by the
septum; air enters the
system through the nares.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
B. The septum is covered
with a mucous
membrane, where the
olfactory receptors are
located.
Turbinate, located
internally, assist in
warming and moistening
the air.
C. The major functions of
the nose are warming,
moistening, and
filtering the air.
What is a sinus?
 A sinus is a hollow, air-filled cavity. For the purposes
of this article, a sinus will referred to those hollow
cavities that are in the skull and connected to the
nasal airway by a narrow hole in the bone (ostium).
Normally all are open to the nasal airway through an
ostium. Humans have four pair of these cavities each
referred to as the:

• frontal sinus (in forehead),

• maxillary sinus (behind cheeks),
• ethmoid sinus (between the eyes), and
• sphenoid sinus (deep behind the ethmoids).
 Sinus
The four pair of sinuses are often
described as a unit and termed the
"paranasal sinuses." The cells of the
inner lining of each sinus are mucus-
secreting cells, epithelial cells and
some cells that are part of the immune
system (macrophages, lymphocytes,
and eosinophils).

Functions of the sinuses include

humidifying and warming inspired air,
insulation of surrounding structures
(eyes, nerves), increasing voice
resonance, and as buffers against facial
trauma. The sinuses decrease the
weight of the skull.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

2. Pharynx
 commonly called
the throat.
 is a muscular
passageway about 5
inches long that
serves as a common
passageway of food
and air.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Pharynx
Air passes through the nose to the
pharynx, composed of the three
sections:
1. Nasopharynx: located above
the soft palate of the mouth,
contains the adenoids and
openings to the eustachian
tubes.
2. Oropharynx: located directly
behind the mouth and tongue,
contains the palatine tonsils; air
and food enter body through
oropharynx.
3. Laryngopharynx: extends
from the epiglottis to the sixth
cervical level.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
3. Larynx
The muscular cords protected by
circular cartilage  also called as
voice box, routes air and food into
a proper channel and plays a role
in speech.
Located inferior to the pharynx.
Connects upper and lower airways;
framework is formed by the hyoid
bone, epiglottis and thyroid,
cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages.
The opening of the larynx is called
the glottis.
Thyroid cartilage – Adam’s apple
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Larynx
At the top of the trachea is the
Larynx. Inside, and stretched
across the Larynx are two
highly elastic folds of tissue
(Ligaments) called the Vocal
Cords. 
Larynx opens to allow
respiration and closes to
prevent aspiration when food
passes through the pharynx.
Vocal chords of larynx permit
speech and are involved in the
cough reflex.
 UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT

When food is swallowed, a flap of cartilage called

Epiglottis, presses down and covers the opening to
the air passage.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Consists of
the trachea,
bronchi, and
branches, and
the lungs and
associated
structures.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
4. Trachea (windpipe)
Air moves from the pharynx to larynx to
trachea. (length 11-13 cm, diameter
1.5-2.5 cm. in adult). continues as
hyaline cartilages with inner ciliated
lining.
Extends from the larynx to the second
costal cartilage, (level of the 6th
cervical vertebra to the 5th thoracic
vertebra) where it bifurcates and is
supported by the walls of the trachea
are made up of 16 to 20 C-shaped
rings of tough flexible cartilage.
These rings of cartilage protect the
trachea, make it flexible, and keep it
from collapsing or over expanding.
 Trachea
• Consists of smooth
muscles and C-shaped
rings of hyaline
cartilage

Passageway of air
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The area where
the trachea
divides into
two branches
is called the
carina. Carina
Lungs
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
5. Bronchi
A. Formed by the division of the
trachea into two branches
(bronchi)
1. Right main-stem bronchus:
larger and straighter than the
left; further divides into three
lobar branches (upper, middle,
and lower lobar bronchi) to
supply the three lobes of right
lung.

Right main bronchus is shorter &

wider than the Left.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Bronchi
A. Formed by the division of
the trachea into two
branches (bronchi)
2. Left main-stem
bronchus:
 divides into the upper
and lower lobar bronchi,
to supply two lobes of
left lung.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Bronchi
Primary bronchi-right
and left bronchi are
formed by division of the
trachea. Subdivided into
smaller branches
(secondary and tertiary
bronchi and so on), finally
ending in the smallest
passageway the
bronchioles.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Bronchi
Bronchus

secondary bronchi

tertiary or
segmental bronchi

respiratory
bronchioles
 Anatomy of Respiratory System
6. Lungs
- two large, spongy organs occupying the thoracic
cavity on either side of the heart.
-composed of elastic connective tissue whose linings
are coated with surfactant.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Lungs
(Right and Left)
Main organs of respiration,
lie within the thoracic
cavity on either side of the
heart.
Broad area of lung resting on
diaphragm is called the
base; the narrow, superior
portion is the apex.
 Respiratory System
 The Lungs are the site of gas
exchange between the atmosphere
and the blood. 
 The Lungs are inside the thoracic
cavity, bounded by the rib cage
and diaphragm. 
 Lining the entire cavity and
encasing the lungs are Pleural
Membranes that secrete a serous
fluid that decreases friction from
the movement of the lungs during
breathing.
 The innermost membrane lying
next to the lung is the Visceral
Pleura; the outermost membrane,
lining the thoracic cavity, is the
Parietal Pleura.
 Relations of the Lungs
Floor is the diaphragm, which is
higher on the right;
 Heart lies in between and
anterior, occupying the (L) cardiac
notch

*Lobes of the lungs:

(R) lung= 3 lobes- upper, middle,

lower; fissures: horizontal,
oblique
(L) lung= 2 lobes: upper with
lingula, lower; fissure:
oblique
*** Lungs and associated structures
are protected by the chest wall.
Diaphragm
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Lung Division
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
CHEST WALL
A. Includes the rib cage, intercostal
muscles, and diaphragm.
B. Parietal pleura lines the chest
wall and secretes small amounts
of lubricating fluid into the intra-
pleural space (space between the
visceral and parietal pleura). This
fluid holds the lung and chest
wall together as a single unit
while
allowing them to move
separately.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
CHEST WALL
C. The chest is shaped and
supported by 12 pairs of ribs
and costal cartilages; the ribs
have several attached muscles.
1. Contraction of the external
intercostal muscle raises the
rib cage during inspiration
and helps increase the size of
the thoracic cavity.
2. The internal intercostal
muscles tend to pull ribs
down and in and play a role
in forced expiration.
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
CHEST WALL
D. The diaphragm is the major
muscle of ventilation (the
exchange of air between the
atmosphere and the alveoli).
Contraction of muscles fibers
causes the dome of the diaphragm
to descend, thereby
increasing the volume of the
thoracic cavity. As exertion
increases, additional chest
muscles or even abdominal
muscles may be employed in
moving the thoracic cage.
 Anatomy of Respiratory System
7. Pleural membranes
 each lung is line with visceral
pleura (serous membrane
covering the lungs) 
continuous with the parietal
pleura of the thoracic cavity /
chest wall.
 Space in between is the
pleural cavity or sac 
which is lubricated for easier
gliding of the lungs
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Bronchiole
 At the point a bronchus reaches
about 1 mm in diameter it no
longer has a connective tissue
sheath and is call a bronchiole.
A. In the bronchioles, airway patency
is primarily dependent upon elastic
recoil formed by network of smooth
muscles.
B. The tracheobronchial tree ends at
the terminal bronchioles. Distal to
the terminal bronchioles the major
function is no longer air conduction,
but gas exchange between blood and
alveolar air. The respiratory
bronchioles serve as the transition to
the alveolar epithelium.
 LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
Bronchioles
terminate in
alveoli tiny air
sacs surrounded
by capillaries.
Exchange of
gases in the
lungs occurs in
the alveoli.
 Respiratory Zones

Alveoli

Respiratory Bronchioles Alveolar duct

Alveolar
sacs
 Alveoli
 Contain macrophages
and pneumocytes:

Type I- simple squamous

epithelium sensitive to
neutrophilic lysozymes
Type II- secretes surfactant
Type III- alveolar
macrophage
 Structure of an Alveolus

Type I
(Squamous)
Respiratory Alveolar Cell
Membrane

SURFACTANT
Type III
(Macrophage)
Type II (Great) Alveolar Cell
Alveolar Cell
 Alveoli
Alveoli produce
surfactant, a
phospholipids
substance found in
the fluid lining the
alveolar epithelium.
Surfactant reduces
surface tension and
increases the stability
of the alveoli and
prevents their
collapse.
 When the alveoli inflate with inhaled air, oxygen diffuses into the blood in the
capillaries to be pumped by the heart to the tissues of the body. At the same
time carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, where it is
exhaled.
Respiratory Zone
Which includes
respiratory
bronchioles,
alveolar ducts,
alveolar sacs, and
alveoli, is the only
site of gas exchange
Alveoli
A scanning electron micrograph reveals the tiny sacs known as alveoli within a
section of human lung tissue. Human beings have a thin layer of about 700
million alveoli within their lungs. This layer is crucial in the process called
respiration, exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the surrounding blood
capillaries.
 Airways of the Lungs
When a person takes in a breath of
air, the air travels through the nose or
mouth, into the larynx, then into the
trachea, which is the main passageway
into the lungs. The trachea divides into a
right and left main bronchus. Each
major bronchus then subdivides into
smaller airway passages referred to as
bronchioles. As the airway passages
make their way out to the lung tissue, the
passages become smaller and are referred
to as respiratory bronchioles.
Eventually the bronchioles terminate into
small collections of air sacs known as
alveoli, which is where the actual
exchange of CO2 and Oxygen occur.
Respiratory System
Physiology of
the
Respiratory
System
Physiology of the Respiratory System
Air enters the respiratory system through the Mouth or Nose  It passes through the
Nasal Cavity which is richly supplied with arteries, veins, and capillaries.

The nasal airways are lined with cilia and kept moist by mucous secretions.

The combination of cilia and mucous helps to filter out solid particles from the air and
warm and moisten the air, which prevents damage to the delicate tissues that form the
respiratory system.

The moisture in the nose helps to heat and humidify the air, increasing the amount of
water vapor the air entering the Lungs contains.

As air is pushed back from the nasal cavity, it enters the Pharynx. The Pharynx is located
at the back of the mouth and serves as passageway for both air and food.
Physiology of the Respiratory System
When food is swallowed, a flap of cartilage called Epiglottis, presses down and covers
the opening to the air passage.

From the Pharynx, the air moves through the Larynx and into the Trachea, which leads directly to
the lungs  these passageways must filter out dust, dirt, smoke, bacteria, and a variety of other
contaminants found in air.

Air rushing through the voice box causes the vocal cords to vibrate producing sound
waves.

Within the thoracic cavity, the trachea divides into two branches, the Right and Left
Bronchi.  Each Bronchus enters the lung on its respective side. 

The Lungs are the site of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood. 
The Lungs are inside the thoracic Cavity, bounded by the rib cage and diaphragm. 
Physiology of the Respiratory System
Lining the entire cavity and encasing the lungs are Pleural Membranes that secrete a
serous fluid that decreases friction from the movement of the lungs during breathing.

The innermost membrane lying next to the lung is the Visceral Pleura; the outermost
membrane, lining the thoracic cavity, is the Parietal Pleura.

The further branching of the Bronchial Tubes resulting into smaller and smaller branches
called Bronchioles.

The Bronchioles continue to subdivide until finally ending into clusters of tiny hollow air
sacs called Alveoli  exchange of gases in the lungs occurs in the alveoli.

The alveoli is the functional unit of the lungs, consisting of thin, flexible membranes that contain an extensive
network of capillaries.  These membranes separate gas from liquid.  The gas is the air we take in through our
respiration, and the liquid is blood.
Physiology of Respiratory System
 During a 24 hour period, lungs oxygenate more than
5700 liters of blood with more than 11,400 liters of air
in the lungs
 Respiratory System
THE MECHANISM OF BREATHING
◦ Breathing is the entrance and exit of air into and
from the lungs.
◦ Ventilation is the term for the movement of air to
and from the Alveoli.
◦ Inhalation/Inspiration is the pulling of air into
the lungs while Exhalation/Expiration pushes air
out of the lungs these two actions deliver
oxygen to the alveoli, and remove carbon dioxide.
Physiology of Respiration
A. Mechanism of inspiration
Respiratory muscle contract

Thorax increases in size

Intrathoracic pressure decreases

Lungs increase in size

Intrapulmonic pressure
decreases

Air rushes from positive

pressure in the atmosphere to
negative pressure in the alveoli

Inspiration is complete
Physiology of Respiration
B. Mechanism of expiration

Respiratory muscle relax

Thorax decreases in size

Intrathoracic pressure increases

Lung decrease in size

Intrapulmonic pressure increases

Air expelled from higher pressure in

the lung to lower pressure in the
atmosphere

Expiration is completed
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
A. Provides for re-oxygenation
of blood and release of CO2 ;
gas transfer occurs in the
pulmonary capillary bed.
B. Pulmonary arteries arise from
the right ventricle of the
heart and continue to the
bronchi and alveoli,
gradually decreasing in size
to capillaries.
C. The capillaries, after contact
with the gas-exchange
surface of the alveoli,
reform to form the
pulmonary veins.
D. The two pulmonary veins,
superior and interior, empty
into the left atrium.
 Pulmonary Veins
The pulmonary veins are
large blood vessels that carry
oxygenated blood from
the lungs to the left atrium of
the heart.
 In humans there are four
pulmonary veins, two from
each lung.
 They carry oxygenated blood,
which is unusual since almost
all other veins carry
deoxygenated blood.
 Pulmonary Artery
The pulmonary
artery carries
deoxygenated blood fro
m the heart to the lungs.
It is one of the
only arteries (other than
the umbilical arteries in
the fetus) that carry
deoxygenated blood.
 GAS EXCHANGE
Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli
A. Alveolar ducts arise from the respiratory
bronchioles and lead to the alveoli.
B. Alveoli are the functional cellular units of
the lungs; about half arise directly from the
alveolar ducts and are responsible for about
35% of alveolar gas exchange.
C. Alveoli produce surfactant, a phospholipids
substance found in the fluid lining the
alveolar epithelium. Surfactant reduces
surface tension and increases the stability of
the alveoli and prevents their collapse.
D. Alveolar sacs form the last part of the
airway; functionally the same as the
alveolar ducts, they are surrounded by
alveoli and are responsible for 65% of
the alveolar gas exchange.
GAS EXCHANGE
Ventilation
 External respiration
 Air flow

Perfusion
 Internal respiration
 Blood flow
 CARBHEMOGLOBIN

4. transported to
alveoli

2
3. quickly release
bicarbonate ions out
to plasma

Conversion of CO2 to Bicarbonate Ion HCO3

 OXYHEMOGLOBIN/ CARBHEMOGLOBIN

 OXYHEMOGLOBIN (HbO2)
 O2 attaches in hgb molecules
 pH regulation

 CARBHEMOGLOBIN (HCO3)
 Bicarbonate- Most CO2 dissolved in plasma
 Cannot go directly in the alveoli

 Most CO2 conversion to Bicarbonate happens inside

the RBC

 CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) Poisoning

Breathing in Humans
As the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, the pectoralis minor
and intercostal muscles pull the rib cage outward.
The chest cavity expands, and air rushes into the lungs through the
trachea
to fill the resulting vacuum. When the diaphragm relaxes to its normal,
upwardly curving position, the lungs contract, and air is forced out.
 Respiratory System
The Mechanism of Breathing
◦ Inhalation and Exhalation are actually produced by movements of
the large flat muscle called the Diaphragm and the Intercostal
muscles.
◦ The Diaphragm is located along the bottom of the ribcage and
separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
◦ Before inhalation the diaphragm is curved upward into the chest. 
◦ During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves down,
causing the volume of the thoracic cavity to increase.
◦ When the diaphragm moves down, the volume of the thoracic
cavity increases and the air pressure inside it decreases.
Defense Mechanisms

1. Mucociliary system
- Production of mucus and cilia action
2. Secretory immunity
- Production of antibody in mucosal secretions

that initiates immune response- Macrophage

3. Surfactant – keeps alveoli open
4. Irritant reflex
- Reflex bronchospasm, followed by coughing
How do the lungs protect
themselves?
How do the lungs protect themselves?
The lungs have several ways of protecting themselves from
irritants.
First, the nose acts as a filter when breathing in, preventing large particles
of pollutants from entering the lungs. If an irritant does enter the lung, it
will get stuck in a thin layer of mucus (also called sputum) that lines the
inside of the breathing  tubes. An average of 3 ounces of mucus are
secreted onto the lining of these breathing tubes every day. This mucus
is "swept up" toward the mouth by little hairs called cilia that line the
breathing tubes. Cilia move mucus from the lungs upward toward the
throat to the epiglottis. The epiglottis is the gate, which opens allowing
the mucus to be swallowed. This occurs without us even thinking about
it. Spitting up sputum is not "normal" and does not occur unless the
individual has chronic bronchitis or there is an infection, such as a chest
cold, pneumonia or an exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD).
How do the lungs protect themselves?

The lungs have several ways of protecting

themselves from irritants.
Second: Another protective mechanism
for the lungs is the cough. A cough,
while a common event, is also not a
normal event and is the result of
irritation to the bronchial tubes. A cough
can expel mucus from the lungs faster
than cilia.
How do the lungs protect themselves?
The lungs have several ways of protecting themselves from
irritants.
Third: The last of the common methods used by the lungs to
protect themselves can also create problems. The airways in
the lungs are surrounded by bands of muscle. When the
lungs are irritated, these muscle bands can tighten, making
the breathing tube narrower as the lungs try to keep the
irritant out. The rapid tightening of these muscles is called
bronchospasm. Some lungs are very sensitive to irritants.
Bronchospasm may cause serious problems for people with
COPD and they are often a major problem for those with
asthma, because it is more difficult to breathe through
narrowed airways.
Thank You!!!