Skinner's study involved operant conditioning, which is a type of learning that occurs as a result

of the consequences of an individual's behavior. Specifically, Skinner placed pigeons in a box

and delivered food to them at fixed intervals, regardless of their behavior. This type of
reinforcement is called continuous reinforcement.

As a result of this continuous reinforcement, the pigeons began to exhibit superstitious behavior,
such as turning in circles or pecking at the walls. Skinner interpreted this behavior as an
example of operant conditioning, where the behavior the pigeons exhibited was reinforced by
the delivery of food, even though it was not actually related to the food delivery. This is an
example of primary reinforcement, where the delivery of food is an inherently reinforcing
stimulus.

Overall, Skinner's study demonstrated the power of operant conditioning to shape behavior,
even in situations where the behavior does not actually lead to a desired outcome. It also
highlights the importance of schedules of reinforcement in determining the frequency and
persistence of behavior.
skinner Strength and weakness ^

AO3 points for classical conditioning:

Strength:
Pavlov's work involving dogs demonstrated the framework of classical conditioning and
understanding learning behaviour. It showed the association between stimuli and behaviour.
These findings have been used to explain a wide range of human phenomena such as
addiction.

Practical application in therapy such as treating addiction.

Weakness:
Classical conditioning is reductionist because it solely focuses on the association of stimuli and
doesn't take into account other factors
Pavlov's study involved the use of animals which are of a different species to humans, meaning
the findings cannot necessarily be generalised to humans

AO3 points for operant conditioning:

Strength:
Practical application in therapy to encourage desirable behaviour such as combatting substance
abuse through reinforcement.

There’s a lot of research in support of the Operant Conditioning, including the study by Skinner
(1948) into pigeons.

Moreover, a lot of this research is strictly scientific, being carried out on animals in lab
conditions,
This makes it objective and valid due to controlled variables

Weakness:
The theory is reductionist because it focuses entirely on behaviours and ignores cognitions.
(Ignores perception, attention, problem solving ,etc)
Skinner's use of pigeons is not generalisable to humans
Schedules of reinforcement

Skinner (1948) carried out a famous experiment called “Superstition in the Pigeon”. Eight
pigeons were starved to make them hungry then put in a cage. At regular intervals every 15
seconds, a food dispenser would swing into the cage for 5 seconds then swing out again. When
the food was due to appear, the pigeons started showing strange behaviours, such as turning
anticlockwise who making swaying motions.

Skinner concluded the pigeons were repeating whatever behaviour they had been in the middle
of doing when the reinforcement was first offered to them. Because the food kept reappearing,
this senseless behaviour was strengthened. This is like a “superstition” when humans imagine
that, by doing something senseless (knocking on wood, crossing their fingers) they can make
something pleasant happen.
Fixed interval: Reward is given at a regular time. Example: Getting paid every Friday. Learning
is medium and extinction is medium.

Variable interval: Reward is given at unpredictable times. Example: Audience cheering for a
performer. Learning is fast and extinction is slow.

Fixed ratio: Reward is given after a specific number of behaviors. Example: Getting paid per
every 100 products built. Learning is fast and extinction is moderate.

Variable ratio: Reward is given after a varying number of behaviors. Example: Slot machines.
Learning is fast and extinction is slow.

AO3 points for SLT:

Strength:
Albert Bandura's bobo doll study regarding imitation of aggression has shown that social
learning theory does take place in children, meaning the research done does provide actual
evidence of its existence.

SLT can explain things that behaviourism cant, behaviourism struggled to explain complex
behaviour, SLT proposed that huge chunks of behaviour could be learnt in one go through
observation and imitation

Weakness:

Much of the research for SLT has been carried out on children or animals due to the difficulty of
placing adults in controlled situations with believable role models, so it is hard to generalise the
findings to adults and to humans in general.

Reductionist as it fixates on observational learning and doesn't account for the influence of
internal congitive processes.

Freud's psychosexual stages are proposed stages of human development. Freud suggested
that people people undergo these stages throughout their childhood.
Freud believed life was built round tension and pleasure, tension was due to the build-up of
libido and all pleasure came from its discharge.
The role of conflict was heavily emphasised in these psychosexual stages, for if the conflict
wasn't resolved, if a child struggles at a stage, they may become fixated on it and behaviours
and feelings that are typical of that stage, instead of fading, stay with them into adult life.

5 psychosexual stages:
Oral Stage
Age range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the
rooting and sucking reflex is important.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process, the child must become less dependent
upon caretakers.

If fixation occurs in the oral stage, individual would have issues with dependency or aggression,
oral fixation can result in problems with drinking eating or nail biting

Anal stage
Age range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder control

Primary focus: Controlling bladder and bowel movements

Major conflict: Toilet training

Success depends on how parents approach toilet training

Positive experiences lead to a sense of accomplishment and independence

Negative parental responses can lead to negative outcomes

Lenient approach can lead to an anal-expulsive personality (messy, wasteful, destructive)

Strict approach can lead to an anal-retentive personality (stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive)

Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage serve as the basis for people to
become competent, productive, and successful adults.
Phallic Stage
Age range: 3 to 6 years

Erogenous zone: Genitals

Primary focus of libido is on the genitals

Children discover differences between males and females

Boys view fathers as a rival for the mother's affections and experience feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and replace the father

Children fear punishment from the father for these feelings, known as castration anxiety

Girls experience penis envy, a similar set of feelings as boys

Children identify with the same-sex parent to possess the other parent

Freud believed that penis envy is never fully resolved for girls and that women remain
somewhat fixated on this stage
—

Latent Stage:
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

Primary Focus:

Development of superego while id's energies are suppressed

Development of social skills, values, and relationships with peers and adults
Description:

Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside of the
family
This stage is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is repressed or dormant
Sexual energy is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions
This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and
self-confidence
Possible Outcome:

Fixation can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult
---
Genital Stage:
Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again, with a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex.

The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas, with a growing
interest in the welfare of others.

The ego and superego are fully formed and functioning at this point, allowing individuals to
balance their urges with the demands of reality and social norms.

Successful completion of earlier stages leads to a well-balanced, warm, and caring individual.

Fixation at this stage can result in an inability to form fulfilling relationships and an imbalanced
focus on individual needs.

AO3 points for psychosexual stages:

Strength:
Freud's theory was one of the first to emphasise the importance of early childhood experiences
in shaping personality and behaviour, his theories have paved the way for psychoanalysis as a
form of therapy.

Weakness:
- Androcentric, focuses solely on male psychosexual development cannot be generalised to
females.
- Case study research on the recollections of his adult patients and study of children, cannot be
generalised to adults.

Counter-conditioning and graudated exposure

AO3 points for Systematic Desensitisation
Strength:
Capafons et al. (1998), 90% of the participants who received systematic desensitization
treatment for aerophobia showed significant improvement in their fear and were able to fly
without distress after treatment.

Systematic desensitization has a scientific basis and its effectiveness can be easily measured. It
is possible to observe the patient's progress in each session by comparing how far down the
hierarchy of feared stimuli they can proceed.

Weakness:

It can be unethical to expose a patient to something they find distressing. In fact, it could
backfire and make the patient even more frightened of that thing.

A problem might be that, in real life, sufferers do not get to choose when and how they
encounter the object of their fear (a spider might drop on you unexpectedly!) and they might
have no control over a real life situation. This means that the benefits of the therapy might not
generalise to real life situations.

Id: The most basic part of the psyche, consists of urges and desires, exists entirely in the
unconscious mind.
Based on the pleasure principle, it is purely desire, and not considerate of the environment or
sacrifices necessary to get what we want. The id is our innate, animalistic desire.
-
Ego: Second part of the psyche, exists within the conscious mind and based on the reality
principle, studies the world and makes decisions on behalf of the id.
It can defer gratification, meaning it puts off pleasure until later.
--
Super-ego: Third part of the psyche, based on the morality principle and acts as the sane guy in
the brain. It generates guilt and shame.

Psychoanalysis is a type of psychotherapy which seeks to treat mental health problems by

addressing unconscious conflicts and emotions.
The aim is to release repressed emotions and experiences.
Free association:
A technique in psychodynamic therapy in which a patient talks about whatever comes to their
mind.
The technique involves the therapist reading out a list of words, and the individual responds with
the first word that comes to their mind.

This is used in hopes that repressed memory fragments re-emerge throughout the course.

Dream Analysis:
A therapeutic technique known for its use in psychoanalysis.

IN psychoanalysis, dreams represent unconscious desires and conflicts.

They contain manifest and latent content.

Manifest content: information from the dream as the dreamer remembers it.
Latent content: Repressed, symbolic meaning embedded within the dream

After the symbols are pulled from the latent content, the therapist utilises free association,
naming each symbol and asking the client to spit out whatever comes to their mind upon
hearing it.

AO3 points for dream analysis:

Extremely qualitative data. The findings were detailed, Freud recorded everything and tested on
real individuals, which increased validity.

Real life application. Psychoanalysts employ Freudian dream analysis as a part of their
therapeutic repertoire.

Weaknesses:
Very subject interpretation because of the latent content. The dream is being interpreted by the
dreamer, which may not exactly be a source of reliable information. Misremembering a dream
can also happen.

Lack of scientific support: Dream analysis is based on a theoretical framework that has not been
studied extensively, empirically. Little Hans case study, cited as evidence for dream analysis, is
also not generalizable.
--

Transference is a psychological phenomenon in which an individual redirects emotions and

feelings, often unconsciously, from one person to another.
The therapist recognises this and uses it to understand the relationship between the patient and
the person whom the patient has transferred to them.
Paternal transference, maternal transference, etc.

In therapy, transference helps the therapist understand the projected feelings of the patient, and
appropriately challenge those beliefs.

The therapist may also inform the patient of situations where transference takes place.

Counter-transference: Occurs when a therapist transfers emotions to a person in therapy. e.g a

therapist who has had difficult relationship with their father and projects their feelings to their
male client.

A therapist must identify when they are counter-transferring

Counter-transference isn't always bad. If a client reminds a therapist of a younger sibling, the
therapist may feel protective and caring towards the client, which can lead to a more positive
interaction.
Object relations:
Humans are primarily motivated by the need for contact with others - the need to form
relationships

Aim of object relations therapist is to help an individual in therapy uncover early mental images
that may contribute to any present difficulties in one's relationships, and adjust them to improve
interpersonal functioning.

Object refers to significant others, or a part of a significant other.

1) The object as perceived by the self

2) The self in relation to the object
3) The relationship between self and object

In layman's terms,
1) How you see the person you like
2) How you feel when you're with that person
3) How you both interact and feel about each other

In object relations therapy, the therapist generally attempts to understand through empathic
listening and acceptance, the inner workings, needs and fears of a person.
Once mutual trust is established, the therapist guides the person in therapy into areas that may
be more sensitive or guarded, with the purpose of promoting greater self awareness and
understanding.

This therapy will help the individual understand how they are perceived and how others perceive
them.

Building positive relationships will be encouraged by the therapist and motivate the individual to
transfer the positivity to relationships outside of the counseling environment.
--
AO3 for Object Relations Therapy:
Strengths:
Long-lasting benefits: The insights and skills gained from object relations therapy can have
long-lasting benefits, helping individuals to improve their relationships and overall quality of life.

Holistic approach: Object relations therapy takes a holistic approach to mental health treatment,
exploring a person's past and present experiences, emotions, relationships, and sense of self to
help them develop more fulfilling relationships and a stronger sense of self.

Application to clinics.

Weaknesses:
Time-consuming: Object relations therapy can be a lengthy process, requiring regular sessions
over a prolonged period of time.

Quicker solution inducing methods may be required for people who engage in addiction or self
harm, this also may be desired by the participant themselves.

Use of observations:
An observation is a research method that involves observing and recording groups without
directly manipulating variables.
Uses:
- To gather information on natural behaviour in a natural setting
- To provide rich, detailed descriptions of behaviour
- To collect data on individuals who may be difficult to reach through other research methods

Observations gather both qualitative and quantitative data.

Qualitative through noting characteristics, behaviours and interactions of individuals or groups
being observed.
Quantitative through tallying, time sampling and event sampling

Event sampling is recording a behaviour as soon as it is performed

Time sampling is recording a behaviour at specific intervals
Tallying is literally recording the behaviour through a tally chart.
This provides quantitative data.
-
AO3 Points for observation:
Inter-rater reliability can help increase the reliability of observations

Gathers qualitative data which provides a rich, in-depth understanding of behaviour

Weakness:
Unreliable if certain measures arent in place, such as observers not detecting behaviours, or
subject interpretation of behaviour

Observer bias reduces validity as the observer becomes involved in the group being studied

Ethical issues with covert observations

Content analysis:
An observation that studies human behaviour indirectly. Usually through the medium of
magazines or TV shows.
It is a method used to numerically analyse qualitative data, converting it to quantitative data

It involves checking the

Manifest Content: Superficial understanding of the text
Latent content: Deeper meaning of the text which could include sexist depictions of women

Content is something people have created, these are called artefacts.

In content analysis, the most important process is categorising the data.

First, the artefacts are collected. A representative sample is required.
Then, a coding system is created such as the gender of the person in the kitchen
after this, the researcher tallies the frequency of each (in this example) man or woman in the
kitchen

AO3 points for content analysis

Strengths:
More reliable form of observation as it can be easily replicated so long as the artefacts are
publicly available.
Inter-rater reliability could also be used to increase the reliability.

It is an easy technique to use and not too time consuming, and allows statistical analysis due to
collecting quantitative data, this allows for a correlation to be shown

Ethical asf

High ecological validity because they are based on observations of real things people engage in
e.g magazines or tv shows

Weakness:
Observer bias is very prominent in any type of observation and can affect the validity of the
observation.
Causality cannot be established as it describes the data. An experiment must be performed to
investigate causality.

A case study is an in-depth investigation into one person or a group of people.

It involves using a range of research methods such as interviews, experiments and
observations.
Typically used for rare or unique individuals.

Freud used case studies to investigate Little Hans to provide support for his psychodynamic
theories (Oedipus Complex). He also used it for his Ratman and Wolfman studies.
It involved a series of dream analysis and free association. Freud encouraged them to say
whatever came to their mind without censoring them.

AO3 points for case studies:

Strength:
Provides an in-depth, qualitative analysis of the individual being observed which can provide
in-depth, rich information allowing deeper understanding of the phenomena.
Is used to study instances which would be otherwise unethical to set up.

Facilitates research into the matter being studied, which stimulate research into that field of
psychology

Weakness:
Can lack reliability as individuals or small groups are being studied extensively. Cannot be
replicated

Generalisability is lacking because once again, it is not done on a large amount of people and
the condition may be specific to those types of people.

Potentially unethical due to the intimacy that can be created between researcher and research
participant

The use of animals in laboratory experiments

Rats are used in psychological research due to how quickly they can reproduce.
This makes them useful lab rats and also helps establish generational influence in a shorter
amount of time.
Experimentation with animals offers a higher degree of control therefore higher validity
Humans and animals share - to some extent - features such as the nervous system which can
help generalise findings from animals to humans

Ethical issues regarding the use of animals:

Generalisation of animals to humans is pretty meh
Ethics regarding the use of animals in drug tests and other stuff which can cause harm to them

The scientific procedures act (1986) was a UK law that passes the following requirements:
Licensing to carry out animal research
Ethical review by a committee
Inspections by an authority
Public report on the use of the animals in the research

The Home Office Regulations contain:

Minimum conditions required for animal housing and care
How to carry out procedures on animals
Regulations on personnel training and competence in the use of animals
Inspections & Ethical Reviews

Watson and Rayner (1920) Little Albert: Conditioned Emotional Reactions

Aim: To investigate whether emotional responses could be conditioned in a controller laboratory
setting

Procedure:
- Carried out on a healthy, emotionally stable child called Albert, who was 9 months old at the
beginning of the study
- 9 months of age, Albert was presented with a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey ( @Loves
Ali, @jamal, @Worthless Human Being ), masks with and without hair and burning news
papers. Albert wasn't scared of any of them.

- At 8 months, 26 days, Albert was exposed to a hammer hitting a suspended steel bar three
times, he cried on the third strike.
- At 11 months, 3 days: Albert was presented with a white rat and just as his hand touched the
rat, the metal bar was hit by the hammer two times, albert began to jump violently and whimper

- At 11 months, 10 days. Albert was presented a rat with no sound, as well as blocks after the
rat was taken away. He played with the blocks. The rat was presented again and this time the
sound was made, Albert was startled and fell over. This was done a further two times before the
rat was shown on its own again.

- At 11 months, 15 days, Albert was shown the rat on its own two times, he played with the
blocks between each presentation.
After this, albert was shown the rabbit, the dog, a seal fur coat, cotton wool and Watson's head
to see if Albert would play with his hair. He was also presented with a Santa Claus Mask.
Blocks were given to him to calm him down

- At 11 months 20 days: Albert was presented with the rat alone, the rat was placed on his hand
and the steel bar hit. He was presented with the rat alone two more times, followed by the
rabbit.
He was given blocks to play with, followed by the rabbit again, and as Albert reached for the
rabbit, a steel bar was hit by the hammer.
The same procedure was carried out for the dog.

On the same day, Albert was taken to a well lit room and presented with the rat alone, the rabbit
alone, the dog alone, then the rat a second time followed by the rat and the loud noise.
Albert was then shown the rat on its own twice followed by the dog.

1 Year, 21 days: Albert was presented iwth the Santa Claus mask followed by the fur coat, the
rat, the rabbit and the dog, and blocks in between each presentation

Results:
11 Months 10 Days
1st presentation - Withdrew hand the moment it touched rats nose
2nd presentation - whimpered and moved his body away from the rat
3rd presentation - Albert began to cry and crawled away from the rat

11 months 15 days:
1st presentation (Rat): Albert began to whimper when he saw the rat the first time
2nd presentation (Rat): The second time, he crawled away from it

1st Presentation (Rabbit): crawled away from the rabbit upon presentation
1st Presentation (Dog): Tried to move away from it, but began to cry after dog got too close

1st Presentation( Seal fur coat): Withdrew his body

1st Presentation (Cotton Wool): Kicked it away and withdrew his hands

Refused to play with Watson's hair

Showed negative reaction to the Santa Claus Mask

11 Months 20 Days:
1st Presentation (rat): withdrew his body
2nd Presentation(Rat): Tried to crawl away from the rat

1st Presentation (Rabbit): leant over it and began to whimper

2nd Presentation (Rabbit): Crawled away from it and began to whimper

Lecture Theatre:
Weak initial reaction to rat, hands out to avoid it
Slight fear to rabbit
Turned away from the dog and cried

Post-sound
Crawled away and whimpered upon exposure to the rat and rabbit
Cried when the dog barked and fell over
1 Year 21 Days:
Withdrew from the Santa Claus mask
Moved hands away from the fur coat. Cried when he accidentally touched it.
Moved arm away from the rat when rat was put on arm
Pushed rabbit away with his feet
Cried after the dog was presented

Capafons et al
Aim: TO investigate whether systematic desensitisation was an effective treatment for
aerophobia

Procedure:
41 people who had a fear of flying
20 were put in the treatment, 21 in the control.
Volunteer sampling via media campaign.

The patients gave an interview on their life history and their fear of flying using the IDG-FV.

Anxiety in relation to flight was measured a plethora of EMV and EPAV tests.
The EPAV scales measured catastrophic thoughts and physiological anxiety, and the EMV
scales measured fear during and before flying and fear without any involvement.
Heart rate, muscle tension and skin temperature were also measured.

A video tape of a person making their way to the plane from packing a case to reaching the
destination and touching down was used

Patients were questioned pre and post treatment.

They were asked to rate how afraid they were of flying if there was no alternative to reach their
destination
And what symptoms they experienced whilst flying.

Patients were interviewed on their own. They completed the IDG-V in the 1st interviews, and
other scales were completed in later interviews.
They were then invited to watch the video and have a psychophysiological assessment.

Before the video, patients spent 3 minutes without the phobic object and then watched the video
fully involved.
After the video, treatment was administered.
Patients had about 2 one hour sessions per week, all had 12 sessions, with the max being 15.
The treatment involved counter conditioning and graduated exposure with an emphasis on
hierarchy. They used the techniques of stop thinking and brief relaxation
----
Results:
There was no difference in any of the measurement scales before treatment and the control
group

However, there was a significant difference between those who had treatment on all measures
apart from fear and the control group

10% of patients had no reduction in their aerophobia

Conclusions:
Systematic desensitization is effective at reducing aerophobia

Bastian et al
Aim:
The investigation aims to explore the dehumanizing consequences of playing violent video
games towards oneself and others.

Study 1 focuses on the self-perception and perception of others in a violent video game context
where players were violent towards each other.

Study 2 focuses on the effect of playing violently against computer avatars compared to human
opponents on self-perceived humanity.

Procedure:

Study 1:
The game was Mortal Kombat.
106 participants aged from 17 to 34 were assigned one of two groups
Participants viewed the same screen but were separated by a wall
52 played Mortal Kombat, 54 played Spin Tennis, a non violent game.

Players were asked how much they enjoyed the game and how frustrating it was on a scale of 1
to 7
Participants rated themselves and their opponents on eight human nature items.

They had to consider their experiences while playing the game when answering the items.

Four of the items were positive, such as feeling emotional and responsive.

Four of the items were negative, such as feeling like an animal and lacking self-restraint.
---
Results:
Study 1:
Significant difference between two groups on rating of self-humanity and humanity of other
player.
Non-violent players perceived themselves and other player as possessing more humanity

Study 2:
Significant difference once again in self-rated humanity with non-violent players rating
themselves as more human.
No statistical difference in co-player humanity, showing us that playing violent video games with
another person affects how human we feel and not how human we perceive others.
--
AO3 For Bastian Et Al:
weakness: Players played for a short amount of time (around 15 minutes per session) whereas
actual video game players often spend hours on games. This study only measured the short
term effect of dehumanisation and there's no telling whether extended sessions might increase
humanity

Weakness:
Demand characteristics as the background of participants was never checked for - some of
them might have engaged in said games beforehand and may know about their dehumanising
effect in advance, which may affect how they answered the questionnaires. This reduces validity
--
Strength:
Large age range (17-34 iirc) which helps generalise the effects to a much wider demographic
and population

Strength:
Standardised procedure as they were playing for a set duration and were asked to answer the
same questions. This helps increase reliability
Role of Central Nervous System:
Consists of the brain and spinal cord, processes all human behaviour.
It is responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body

The cell body contains the nucleus which houses the genetic material. It also provides the
neuron with energy due to the presence of mitochondria
Dendrites receive messages from other neurons in order to trigger an action potential (electrical
impulse) within the cell
Axon passes electrical impulses towards the axon terminals

Towards the top of the axon is the axon hillock, where the nerve impulse is triggered from.

Myelin sheath provides an insulating layer to the axon and helps speed up the rate of message
transmission

Terminal buttons pass nerve impulses from the cell body to the parts of the body that they
control or activate
The terminal buttons contain vesicles that store neurotransmitters

Neurons are specialised cells that generate an electrical impulse that travels down the axon to
release neurotransmitters via stimulation of the terminal button, releases neurotransmitters to
the synaptic cleft
-
Neurotransmitters transmit signals between neurons in response to electrical signals called
action potentials. They bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron and induce an impulse
Synaptic transmission helps neurons communicate with each other and pass on electrical
impulses
-
Action potential is when the neuron's charge reaches -55mV, this causes an impulse along the
axon towards the axon terminals at the end of the neuron, signalling the release of
neurotransmitters
-
Neuron is stimulated by positive particles and is depolarised.
After a brief period, the positive particles are pushed outside the neuron, repolarising it.

How synaptic transmission occurs:

Positive particles enter the neuron, depolarising it to -55mV
This sends an action potential through the axon and to the terminal button
this stimulates the release of neurotransmitters from the vesicles
they diffuse into the synaptic cleft and bind to their specific post-synaptic receptors
Excess neurotransmitters are reuptaken

Frontal lobe:
Deals with decision making and impulse control

Parietal Lobe:
Helps with perception and recognising faces and assigning faces to specific people so we can
recognise them

Temporal Lobe:
Assists with hearing sounds, understanding and creating speech and deals with memory
function

Occipital lobe:
Helps with our ability to see by processing visual information from our eyes and making sense
of this visual information

Different brain parts:

Corpus Calossum: The corpus callosum allows the left and right hemispheres to communicate
with each other.
Midbrain - Contains an area called the periaqueductal grey matter which links the amygdala and
hypothalmus with the prefrontal cortex. It is involved in coordinating and integrating information
from these three different regions to maintain optimal cognitive functioning

Limbic System
Limbic System: handles memory but also raw appetites and desires - sleep, hunger, aggression
and sex. It is thought to be the source of all our basic emotions.

Thalamus: handles all the messages coming in from the brain and routes them to where they
need to go.

Hypothalamus: regulates hunger, thirst, sexual arousal and sleep and it regulates hormone
production in the body.

Hippocampus:
It is important for forming new memories

Amygdala:
It is the brain's "emotion centre". It handles emotional responses to things, especially anger and
fear

Pre-frontal cortex: pre-frontal cortex (in the frontal lobe) is used for self-restraint, so if this is not
functioning well, there will be no "brake" on aggression.

Brain areas associated with aggression:

Midbrain - contains Periaqueductal grey matter, linking the amygdala and hypothalmus with the
prefrontal cortex.
Lesions to the PAG have shown to increase aggression in rats, so like u can be aggressive too
no?

Amygdala:
Centre for emotions, combines intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli and sensory input to give us an
instinctive reaction or feeling.
It's linked to the Pre-frontal cortex so that may lead to aggression

Hypothalmus: regulates hormone production including testosterone, which can influence

aggression in males

Pre-frontal cortex:
Self-restraint. Has connections to the amygdala and hypothalmus. Damage to this area leads to
problems with anger management, irritability and impulse control
--
AO3 points for brain aggression stuff:
Weaknesses:
Human brains are more complicated than animal brains so why tf are we generalising their shi
to us bro?

Brain functioning samples are not large e.g Phineas Gage was one case study and shi so like u
cant generalise it

Reductionist. Only considers the influence of brain structure on aggression

Strengths:
Biological basis for aggression is consistent with the genetic explanation which explains why
males across all cultures tend to be more physically aggressive than females

Raine et al study revealed reliable predictors for aggression such as reduced function in the
smaller amygdala, this helps support the impact of aggression using brain structures.

What are hormones: A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by
the blood

How are hormones linked to aggression?

Testosterone is the hormone linked to aggression and are androgenic in nature, meaning they
maintain male characteristics.

Wagner et al (1979) found that castration reduces testosterone levels in male mice. It was
observed that castrated mice had lower aggression levels, however, when injected with
Testosterone, their aggression levels returned back to normal

Another hormone linked to aggression is cortisol. Cortisol is a hormone that manages stress
levels. It inhibits aggression.

Tennes & Kreye report low levels of cortisol in aggressive school children

AO3 points for hormonal involvement in aggression:

Strengths:
studies conducted on mice by Wagner et al have shown that castration can decrease
aggression levels whereas injecting them with testosterone can increase it - testosterone linked
to aggression
Hawke et al found that castrated sex offenders had a decreased sex drive and less aggressive

Weakness:

Reductionist because it only focuses on the roles of hormones on aggression

Generalising from animal studies to humans is difficult

Direction of causality is not confirmed. High testosterone levels may not be because the person
was predisposed to them initially, it might be due to them being aggressive that they raise. It's a
case of whether the chicken came first or the egg.

Role of genes in aggression:

XYY Karyotype is a non-inherited genetic condition in which a male has an extra Y
chromosome, giving a total of 47 chromosomes.
Individuals with this condition are reported to exhibit more anti-social behaviours

The Warrior Gene - Monoamine Oxidase-A

The gene MAOA-A codes for the production of an enzyme called MAOA which is responsible for
the regulation of serotonin in the brain.
Low levels of serotonin are thought to lead to aggressive behaviour

MAOA-L codes for lower levels of MAOA. This leads to excess neurotransmitters such as
serotonin overstimulating receptors which can cause abnormal activity in areas of the brain
responsible for regulating mood

MAOA-H can cause low serotonin, serotonin regulates mood and with low levels, there is more
irritability and aggresission.
---
AO3 points for role of genes on aggression:
Strength:
Evidence from twin and adoption studies suggest that genes play a significant role in
determining aggressive behaviour -

Stuart et al (2014) researched 97 men who committed domestic abuse and found that MAOA-L
was present in them
Studies on animals have shown that breeding for aggressive behaviour results in aggressive
traits being passed down.

MAOA gene variance is linked to aggression

Weakness:
Reductionist as only considers the role of genes on aggression

Deterministic as it assumes that if someone has the gene, they will be aggressive. Raises
ethical question as to whether people should be punished because of their genetic
predisposition

Role of internal pacemakers

Internal pacemaker: Internal mechanisms which determine the biological rhythms of a body, the
sleep-wake cycle in specific
Main part responsible: Superchiasmatic nucleus, pineal gland

External zietgebers: Factors in the sleep-wake cycle which act as external cues to correct the
body clock
Example: Light, Temperature, Social cues

They work together to synchronise the biological clock

Circadian Rhythm: A 24 hour rhythm in a human

Circadian Sleep-wake cycle: A circadian rhythm generally triggered by the day-night cycle

e.g
Light levels fall low (External zietgeber)

💤
SCN responds by signalling the pineal gland to release melatonin(Internal Pacemarker)
This causes the baby to sleep

AO3 Points for Internal Pacemakers:

Strength:
Hamsters which had their SCN removed had their circadian rhythms disappear completely

Miles et al found that this one blind man had a bodily rhythm of nearer to 25 hours, suggesting
we have internal factors.
Weakness:
Animal study generalisation is stupid
Miles et al failed to consider different types of blindness as some blindnesses can perceive light

AO3 points for External Zietgebers

Strengths:
Siffre (1975) found that his sleep wake cycle in an underground cave went to about 25 hours,
suggesting that external zietgebers are required to reset it back to 24.

Campbell and Murphy shone light at knees it disrupted participant sleep wake cycles by up to
three hours.

Practical application - helps employees who work night shifts darken their room to sleep more
quickly.

Weakness:
Siffre's 1975 study did not consider artificial light so the validity is fucked
Studies like siffre's are sleep depravation studies which does not accurately represent the
average lad

Infradian rhythms are biolological rhythms that occur over a period longer than 24 hours.

The menstrual cycle is an example of an infradian rhythm.

The menstrual cycle is affected by endogenous and exogenous pacemakers.

The menstrual cycle is controlled entirely by hormones such as FSH and LH

Menstrual Phase: The menstrual phase marks the start of the menstrual cycle and lasts for
approximately 3-7 days. During this phase, the endometrial lining of the uterus sheds as a result
of low levels of progesterone and estrogen in the body.

Follicular Phase: The follicular phase starts after the menstrual phase and lasts for
approximately 7-14 days. During this phase, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is released by
the pituitary gland, which stimulates the growth and development of follicles in the ovaries.
These follicles produce estrogen, which causes the endometrial lining to thicken in preparation
for a potential pregnancy.
Ovulatory Phase: The ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle and lasts for
approximately 1-2 days. During this phase, luteinizing hormone (LH) is released by the pituitary
gland, which triggers the release of a mature egg from one of the follicles in the ovary. This
process is known as ovulation.

Luteal Phase: The luteal phase starts after ovulation and lasts for approximately 10-14 days.
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle in the ovary forms the corpus luteum, which produces
progesterone. Progesterone helps to maintain the thickened endometrial lining in the uterus,
preparing it for potential implantation of a fertilized egg. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus
luteum breaks down, and progesterone levels decline, leading to the start of a new menstrual
cycle.

--
Strengths of internal pacemakers for menstrual cycle:
Aim: To test the influences of olfactory senses on menstrual cycle
Pheromones can also influence the menstrual cycle.
Russel (1980) found that using a cotton bud on a woman's armpit, placing it in alcohol to get rid
of bacteria, and rubbing it on the lip of other women synchronized their menstrual cycles within
24 hours of exposure.
4/5 women in the study had their menstrual cycles synchronized

McClintock (1988) follow up study

Aim: Same as Russel
Procedure: Longitudinal study on 29 women aged 20-35 which had irregular menstrual cycles. 9
women sweat samples were collected, sterilised, and dabbed on upper lip of other 20 women.

results:
When donor was in the follicular phase, the other womens menstrual cycles shortened by
around 2 days.
When the donors were in ovulatory phase, the cycle shortened by around 1.5 days

Strengths:
Ecologically valid as women were in a dormitory (russel)
Large age range so more generalisable (McClintock)

Weakness:
However this was a short term study of only 5 months so like ig make what u will of it (Russel)
ONLY 5 women. Not generalisable (Russel)
Only 29 women not generlasible (McClintock)
Exogenous zietgebers effect on the menstrual cycle:
Pituitary gland is responsible for the release of FSH and LH
It is also sensitive to light so it may exert an influence on the cycles
If light is low and melatonin is released, it may affect the start and end of the menstruation cycle.

AO3 points for external zietgeber effect on menstrual cycle:

Reinberg (1967) studied the case of a caucasian young woman who lived in a cave for three
months
Her menstrual cycle shortened to 25.7 days instead of the normal 28 days.
It took 1 year for it to return back to normal.

Strengths:
High experimental validity due to being in a controlled environment

Used objective measures to test for difference in menstral cycle e.g cervical mucus

Weakness:
One woman was used Not generalisable
She was caucasian not generalisable
No control group, decreased validity.

Seasonal Affective Disorder is an infradian rhythm linked to light.

People suffer from depression depending on the season or the time of year.

Explanations for SAD:

Evolutionary. During winter, reduced food available and more difficult to live. So lower mood and
energy will help conserve that energy to help them live longer, it also promotes reproduction as
women need energy to do that.

Lack of light. Melatonin is released more due to low lights in winter cuh like daylight is less.
Serotonin released less so feelings of lethargicness and sadness are more common

AO3 points for SAD:

Strengths:
Research done on 126 residents in Denmark rated their depression severity on a scale from
September to May. There was a negative correlation between minutes of sunshine and
depression severity

Studies done also showed that 68 SAD patients began releasing melatonin earlier and later
compared to control groups. Disrupts the sleep wake cycle and can fuck ur emotions up

Weakness:
Self-reported data from victims can make it difficult to ensure the findings are valid and accurate
Small sample sizes used so it may not be generalisable

Therapies for SAD:

Light Therapy:
Light boxes are used which filter out UV light and are brighter than the outdoors, but less bright
than the sun.
It is done before 8 AM and for around 30 minutes.
AO3 points for Light Therapy

Strengths and weaknesses of light therapy:

Fewer side effects compared to drugs
If a light box is bought, it's a one-off cost compared to drugs which you have to continually
invest into
Weakness:
Side effects such as eyestrain and nausea
Buying a light box is expensive and inconvenient

Therapies for SAD:

Antidepressants:
SSRIs are used for SAD, prevents reuptake of serotonin in the synapse, which allows serotonin
to bind to receptors for longer periods of time

Ao3 points for SSRIs

Strength:
SSRIs are more convenient to use as they are administered as a pill instead of having to travel
to a light box.
SSRIs are more effective in treating depression which can combat low mood, fatigue, etc.

Weaknesses:
Serious side effects such as constipation, erectile dysfunction, etc.
Dependency/Addiction

Michel Siffre
Aim:
To investigate the effects of prolonged isolation on the human circadian rhythm and subjective
time perception.

Procedure:
Michel Siffre spent six months living alone in a subterranean cave in Texas. During this time, he
had no external cues to indicate the passage of time, such as natural light or communication
with the outside world. He kept a diary throughout his time in the cave, recording his activities
and subjective experiences.

Results:
Siffre's diary entries revealed that his subjective experience of time became increasingly
distorted as he spent more time in isolation. He reported feeling like days were longer or shorter
than they actually were, and sometimes lost track of how long he had been in the cave. His
sleep-wake cycle also became disrupted, with periods of extended wakefulness followed by
long periods of sleep.

Conclusion:
Siffre's study provides evidence that external cues such as natural light and social interaction
are important for regulating the human circadian rhythm and subjective time perception.
Prolonged isolation can lead to distortions in time perception and disruption of sleep-wake
cycles. These findings have implications for astronauts and others who may experience
prolonged isolation in space or other extreme environments

Strengths:
Longitudinal study - done over 6 months. Shows long term effects of being isolated.
Rich in qualitative data and quantitative - wrote in a diary, shaved his beard, measured
everything

Weaknesses:
Artifical light acts as externel zietgeber, reduces validity
One person not generalisable

Correlation: A way of analysing relationships between variables

Co-variables; Two variables that can be plotted against each other to indicate the type of
relationship
No IV and DV manipulation.
goo goo ga ga — 04/09/2023 11:56 AM
AO3:
Strengths:
Cheap and less time consuming

More ethical as less interventionist

Weakness:
Does not consider factors of 3rd variable
Does not establish causality

CAT (Computerised Axial Tomography) scans

Used to take images of any part of the body including the brain
Involves passing multiple X-ray beams to the head at many different angles to gather more
information.

AO3 points for CAT scans:

Strengths:
CAT scans can produce three-dimensional images from different angles without being affected
by overlap of organs, making them very useful for detecting brain damage.

A CAT scan is non-invasive and painless. However, if a dye like iodine is used it is invasive to
an extent.

Weaknesses:
Radiation exposure can cause damage to unborn foetus and to humans in general
Very costly to perform

goo goo ga ga — 04/09/2023 8:36 PM

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scans
Patients are injected with fluorodeoxyglucose as a tracer.
The blood will absorb the tracer and a task will be used to stimulate the brain and encourage
activity.
Brain will use up the glucose an d the FDG will emit positrons and releasing gamma rays,w hich
the scanner picks up.
High activity areas will show high concentration of gamma rays.
AO3
Strength:
PET Scans have been consistently shown to measure what they claim to e.g Broca's areas
have constantly been linked to speech using PET scans

Reliable as repetition is consistent and does not change as much

Weakness:
Radiation exposure cancer
Invasive procedure due to the taking of Fluroodexyglucose
Expensive asf
---
fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

Scans blood flow in the brain to measure activity.

Head placed in a powerful electromagnet, and changes in blood flow in the brain are used to
produce images of neural activity.
Haemoglobin in RBC changes its magnetic properties depending on whether it is carrying
haemoglobin or not. These are picked up by the scanner and a map of neural activity is created.

AO3 Points for fMRI

Strengths:
Extremely non-invasive and least risky.

fMRI scans have good spatial resolution.

Greater spatial resolution allows psychologists to discriminate between different brain regions
with greater accuracy.

Weakness:
Extremely expensive
the results of an fMRI scan can be difficult to interpret

AO3 points for brain scranning as a whole:

Helps identify specific brain regions associated with aggression which can help develop
targeted treatment
Provides objective data that can be used to justify research more reliably

Weakness:
EXPENSIVE!
Is not entirely representative of the entire population

Twin Studies:
MZ twins - 100% identical
DZ twins - 50% identical

They have the same genotype. Which means that the effect of genes on behaviour can be
observed for aggression.

Monozygotic twins come from a split in one egg.

DZ are formed when two eggs are released and two sperm are released.

You can raise em up and see aggression

AO3 Points for Twin Studies:

Strengths:
Can show a genuine effect of genes on behaviour and understand the links between em since
the monozygotes are like 100% identical

Weakness:
Lacks generalisability as not everyone in the world is 100% or 50% identical.
Cannot establish causality

Raine et al
Aim:
To see whether there was a difference in brain functioning in a group of murderers compared to
a control group

Procedure:
Examined 41 people, 39 males 2 females who were charged with murder but pleaded NGRI and
compared them with 41 controls.

Mean age of 34.3

Murderers were not receiving medication at the time of the brain scan

Control group was the same sex as the murderers and did not take medication. COmpletely
healthy.

All of the patients took Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) and were required to work at a continuous
performance task that was based around target recognition for 32 minutes

They were then given a PET scan

Level of activity in right and left hemispheres of the brain was measured using techniques called
cortical peel and box.
Cortical peel compares the absolute glucose values for each region of the brain being scanned
relative to other areas of the brain within that area.
Box techniques involve placing an interest box on places and measuring the volume within that
box.

Results:
NGRIs had less activity in their prefrontal cortex, parietal brain regions,
Lower activity in amygdala
the differences in brain activity did not appear to be due to any differences in age, gender,
schizophrenia,
handedness, ethnicity, or history of head injury

Conclusions:
Raine et al concluded that multiple brain regions are involved in violent behavior, but it's not the
sole cause.
Differences in brain regions predispose them

AO3 for Raine

Strengths:
Objective data gathered which can increase the validity and reliability(PET scans)
Inclusion of control helps properly illustrate the differences which once again can establish
validity

Weakness:
Not generalisable as only 41 participants from experimtnal group used.
Subjective PET scan readings as it is simply colours

Brendgen et al
Aim:
To determine the extent to which social aggression can be explained by genetic factors, shared
environmental factors or non-shared environmental factors in comparison to physical
aggression

Procedure:
Participants were a part of a longitudinal study and were all pairs of twins from Montreal,
Canada.
Same sex twins were assessed for physical resemblance at 18 months old to determine mono
or di zygotic

When children were 6, data was collected to assess their social adaptation in kindergarten,
written consent by parents was taken and peer reports and teacher ratings were also collected
The peer reports assessed aggression and prosocial behaviour in children.
The children were given photographs of three children and were given a description followed by
circling the child who fit that description.

Teachers had to rate the social and physical aggression of the twins in their class using the
preschool social behaviour scale and the Direct and Indirect aggression scales.
The social aggression scale measured the extent that the teachers rated a child as trying to
make others dislike a child.
Physical aggression was measured by the extent teachers thought the children got into fights

Result:

Brendgen et al found that when it came to physically aggression, monozygotic twins scored
twice as high in correlation compared to dizygotic twins.

For physical aggression, 63% of the variance is due to genetic factors and 37% is due to
non-shared environmental factors as rated by teachers.

For social aggression, non-shared environmental factors account for 60% of the variance, while
genetic factors and shared environmental factors each account for 20% of the variance as rated
by teachers.
--
For peer ratings, physical aggression was influenced by 54% genetics and 46% non-shared
environmental factors, while social aggression was influenced by 54% non-shared
environmental factors and genetic factors and shared environmental factors each accounted for
23% of the variance.

Conclusion:
Environmental factors have a greater influence on social aggression

physical aggression is influenced by a mixture of genetic factors and

environmental factors that were not shared between the twins.

Strengths :
Naturalistic study = High ecological validity
Holistic as he looked at both environmental and genetic factors
Ethical - parental consent

Weakness:
Self-reported data can reduce the validity and reliability
Sample size was focused on pre-school kids may not reflect to adults or older ppl
McDermott et al
Aim:
Investigating the effect of MAOA gene on environmental provocation

Aim:
Genetic samples of 78 male participants were taken and divided into MAOA-H and MAOA-L
(Low and high)

Aggression was measured by the amount of unpleasant hot sauce participants would give to an
opponent in a 'power-to-take' game when they knew the opponent did not like the taste of the
hot sauce. More hot sauce even if clear dislike? = more aggression.
-
Participants played a power-to-take game where they made earnings from a vocabulary task.
Anonymous person could take a portion of their earnings, participant could punish this person
by giving them hot sauce.
(Anon wasnt real)

They played 4 rounds.

Every round they were told they had a new supply of hot sauce and could use it to punish their
opponents or trade it in for $$$

Amount of money taken by participants was either 80% or 20% (high or low take)

Results:
MAOA-L administered hot sauce 13% more than MAOA-H in the high take and 6% more in low
take conditions
MAOA-L administed 25% more maximum hot sauce in the High take conndition than MAOA-H
and also administered 6% maximum hot sauce in the low take condition

Conclusion:
The greater the provocation through monetary loss, the more aggressive people are towards the
person they see as responsible for their loss.
MAOA-L were more aggressive in every condition

Strengths:
+ Standardised procedure as participants played the same game and experienced the same
percentages taken (80 and 20)
+ High experimental validity due to controlled variables such as gender and how many rounds
they played
Weakness:
- Low ecological validity as task lacks mundane realism
- Lacks generalisability 78 male ppts

Practical study learning theories:

Aim: To observe the gender of the individuals interacted with by people in elementary school

Procedure:
Event sampling was chosen for this observation.
Prior to the observation, coding categories were made.
These coding categories were Interaction between members of the same gender (verbal) and
whether they conversed with each other or if they were playing together.
We then made our way to the playground for recess at exactly 10:25 AM and stayed there for 10
minutes and recorded each behaviour as it happened.

Results:
33% boy-to-boy interactions
27% girl-to-girl interactions
40% same gender interaction

Conclusion:
Based on the event sampling observation, it was found that same-gender interactions were
more common than interactions between individuals of different genders in elementary school
during recess.
--
S:
Coding categories were developed prior to the observation which increases strength
Collecting during recess where elementary school children are most likely to be present

W:
Observation was conducted once meaning it is not representative of the whole elementary
school population
Event Sampling limited as observer may be available for limited amount of time. They cannot
record another behaviour whilst they are in the middle of recording
Observation Bias.

-
Practical study Bio psych:
Title: Relationship between Brain Sex and Aggression Scores in Adolescent Males
Introduction: This study aimed to investigate the potential relationship between brain sex and
aggression scores in adolescent males. Brain sex refers to the degree to which an individual
exhibits characteristics typically associated with male or female brains.

Methods: A sample of 20 males aged 16-18 completed a brain sex quiz and an aggression
score quiz. The brain sex quiz ranged from masculine(100) to feminine(0) while the aggression
score quiz (0-100) measured the level of aggression exhibited by each participant. A scatter
graph was plotted to visualize the relationship between brain sex and aggression scores. A
Spearman's rho value was calculated to determine the strength and direction of the relationship.

Results: The Spearman's rho value for the relationship between brain sex and aggression
scores was 0.318, indicating a positive but weak correlation between the two variables.

Conclusion: The results suggest that there may be a weak positive relationship between brain
sex and aggression scores in adolescent males. Further research with larger sample sizes and
more diverse populations is needed to confirm these findings and explore potential underlying
mechanisms.

S:
Use of quantitative data allows for statistical analysis which increases validity
Standardised procedure - all were asked to perform the same quiz

Weakness:
Self-reported data is subjective which can decrease validity
20 participants is not generalisable