HOMEOSTASIS

 The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is

called homeostasis
 Some of the physiological factors controlled in homeostasis in mammals are:
o core body temperature
o metabolic wastes, particularly carbon dioxide and urea
o blood pH
o blood glucose concentration
o water potential of the blood
o the concentrations in the blood of the respiratory gases,oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
 Internal environment is all the features and condition inside our body which
surrounding by tissue fluid.
 Three features of tissue fluid that influence cell activities are:
o temperature
low temperatures slow down metabolic reactions; at high temperatures
proteins, including enzymes, are denatured and cannot function
o water potential
 if the water potential decreases, water may move out of cells by
osmosis, causing metabolic reactions in the cell to slow or stop
 if the water potential increases, water may enter the cell causing it to
swell and maybe burst
o concentration of glucose
glucose is the fuel for respiration
 lack of it causes respiration to slow or stop, depriving the cell of an
energy source
 too much glucose may cause water to move out of the cell by osmosis,
and disturbing the metabolism of the cell.
 homeostatic mechanisms work by controlling the composition of blood, which
therefore controls the composition of tissue fluid.
 Homeostatic control
o Negative feedback control loops to maintain homeostatic balance.
 Involves receptor and effector(muscle and glands)
 The receptor detects stimuli that are involved with the condition (or
physiological factor) being regulated
 Example when your body temperature is high

1. The receptors send information about the changes they detect through the
nervous system to a central control in the brain or spinal cord.
2. The sensory information is known as the input. The central control instructs
an effector to carry out an action, which is called the output. (corrective
actions) as their effect is to correct (or reverse) the change.
3. Continuous monitoring of the factor by receptors produces a steady stream of
information to the control centre that makes continuous adjustments to the
output.
4. As a result, the factor fluctuates around a particular ‘ideal’ value, or set point
There are two coordination systems in mammals that do homeostasis

 In the nervous system, information in the form of electrical impulses is transmitted

along nerve cells (neurones).
 The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones that travel in the
blood, in a form of long distance cell signalling.
Control of body temperature

 Thermoregulation is the control of body temperature. This involves both

coordination systems – nervous and endocrine.
 All mammals release heat and have retained it to their bodies
 Mammals also have physiological methods to balance heat gain, retention of body
heat and heat loss so that they can maintain a constant body temperature.
 Mammals generate heat during respiration.
 Much of the heat is produced by liver cells that have a huge requirement for energy
and were distributed all around the body.
 How the body control their temperature :
 1. The thermoreceptors send a nerve impulse along a sensory neuron to a part
of the brain called the hypothalamus, to indicate that a change in
temperature has occurred.
2. The hypothalamus sends a nerve impulse along a motor neuron to an
effector.
3. An effector is a muscle or a gland which can carry out the following responses
to modify body temperature

 Response to reduce body temperature

 Vasodilation - arterioles near the surface of our skin become wider (dilate),
allowing more blood to flow through them. This increases the amount of heat
that can be lost from the surface of our skin through radiation. This is the
reason that you might look pink and flushed when you’re too hot.
 Sweating - sweat glands increase the secretion of sweat. When sweat
evaporates from our skin’s surface, it takes heat energy with it which cools us
down.
 Hairs lie flat - erector pili muscles underneath our skin relax, which causes
the hair on our body to lie flat. This means that less air is trapped by the small
hairs on our skin, making us feel cooler (since air is a good insulator).
 Responses to increases body temperature
 Vasoconstriction - arterioles near the surface of our skin become narrower
(constrict), so less blood is able to flow through them. This minimises the
amount of heat that can radiate from the surface of our skin.
 Reduced sweating - sweat glands reduce the secretion of sweat. Sweat
normally cools us down by removing heat energy from our bodies when it
evaporates, so the less sweat secreted, the less heat is lost.
 Hairs stand up - erector pili muscles underneath our skin contract, which
causes the hair on our body to stand on end. The hair traps a layer of air
which is a good insulator, preventing heat loss from our body.
 Shivering - muscles contract in spasms, increasing the amount of respiration
inside the muscle. Heat is generated as a by-product of respiration.
 Hormones - the hormones adrenaline and thyroxine are released. These
hormones increase the amount of respiration happening in our bodies,
resulting in the generation of more heat.
  The removal of these unwanted products of metabolism is known as
excretion
 The two greater amount of excretory product in our body are carbon dioxide
and urea.
 Carbon dioxide
is produced continuously by cells that are respiring aerobically. The
waste carbon dioxide is transported from the respiring cells to the
lungs, in the bloodstream Gas exchange occurs within the lungs, and
carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli; it is then
excreted in the air we breathe out.
 Urea is produced in the liver. It is produced from excess
amino acids and is transported from the liver to the kidneys, in
solution in blood plasma. The kidneys remove urea from the blood
and excrete it, dissolved in water, as urine.
 Deamination is the removal of amino groups by the liver
 How deamination happen
o the amino group (−NH2) of an amino acid is removed, together with an extra
hydrogen atom.
o These combine to produce ammonia (NH3).
o The keto acid that remains may enter the Krebs cycle and be respired, or it
o may be converted to glucose, or converted to glycogen or fat for storage
  Urea is the main nitrogenous excretory product of humans. also produce
small quantities of other nitrogenous excretory products, mainly creatinine
and uric acid.
 A substance called creatine is made in the liver, from certain amino acids
 Much of this creatine is used in the muscles, in the form of creatine
phosphate, where it acts as an energy store and some is converted to
creatinine and excreted.
 Uric acid is made from the breakdown of purines from nucleotides, not from
amino acids.
 Urea diffuses from liver cells into the blood plasma and must be excreted
everyday or its concentration in the blood would build up and become
dangerous
STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
  The kidney itself is surrounded by a fairly tough outer layer known as the
fibrous capsule
 Beneath the fibrous capsule, the kidney has three main areas:
o The cortex (contains the glomerulus, as well as the Bowman’s capsule,
proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule of the
nephrons)
o The medulla (contains the loop of Henle and collecting duct of the
nephrons)
o The renal pelvis (where the ureter joins the kidney)
 Humans have two kidneys
 The kidneys are responsible for carrying out two very important functions
o As an osmoregulatory organ - they regulate the water content of the blood
(vital for maintaining blood pressure)
o As an excretory organ - they excrete the toxic waste products of metabolism
(such as urea) and substances in excess of requirements (such as salts)
 How kidney works
o Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery and subsequently passes
through the capillaries in the cortex of the kidneys.
o The waste products are filtered out of the blood as it passes through the
capillaries and into the long tubules called nephrons which surround the
capillaries in a process known as ultrafiltration.
o Selective reabsorption is the name of a process where useful substances such
as amino acids, glucose, vitamins are reabsorbed back through the tubules in
the medulla.
o The substances to be excreted pass along the tubules and ureter and finally
reach the bladder where they’re disposed of as urine.
 o The filtered blood then passes out of the kidneys through the renal vein.
 Each kidney contains thousands of tiny tubes, known as nephrons
 The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney – the nephrons are responsible for
the formation of urine

 there is also a network of blood vessels associated with each nephron:

o Within the Bowman’s capsule of each nephron is a structure known as the
glomerulus
o Each glomerulus is supplied with blood by an afferent arteriole (which carries
blood from the renal artery)
o The capillaries of the glomerulus rejoin to form an efferent arteriole
o Blood then flows from the efferent arteriole into a network of capillaries that
run closely alongside the rest of the nephron
o Blood from these capillaries eventually flows into the renal vein
 The process of the formation of urine consists of 2 stages :
o Ultrafiltration is when Blood is filtered in the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
under pressure.
o Selective absorption
 Ultrafilration
o The glomerulus is a knot of capillaries. The blood in the glomerulus is under high
pressure because the diameter of the efferent arteriole leaving the glomerulus is
narrower than that of the afferent arteriole entering the glomerulus.
o Small molecules are forced out of the blood, water, glucose, salts and urea, forming a
filtrate in Bowman’s capsule.
o The filter has three layers:
 fenestrations between the epithelial cells of the capillary,nbetween the
epithelial cells of the capillary,
 pores in the basement membrane of the epithelial cells of the
capillary form a molecular sieve and filtration slits in the podocytes
(cells that cover the capillaries).
 Selective absorption
o selective reabsorption happens in the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT).
o 100% of glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed in this part of the nephron.
o A large proportion of water and salts are also reabsorbed here.
o The cells lining the PCT are adapted for this function by having microvilli (large
surface area) and many mitochondria (to provide the ATP for active transport)
o Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport by co-transporter
proteins (Na+ needs to be reabsorbed at the same time
 These cells are adapted for their function of reabsorption by having:
o microvilli to increase the surface area of the inner surface facing the lumen
o tight junctions that hold adjacent cells together so that fluid cannot pass
between the cells (all substances that are reabsorbed must go through the
cells)
o many mitochondria to provide energy for sodium– potassium (Na+–K+) pump
proteins in the outer membranes of the cells
o co-transporter proteins in the membrane facing the lumen.
 Results of selective reabsorption
o All of the glucose in the glomerular filtrate is transported out of the proximal
convoluted tubule and into the blood.
o Glucose, amino acids, sodium and chloride, vitamins not available in urine
o The removal of the solutes makes the water potential greatly increases
o Water moves down this gradient through the cells and into the blood. The
water and reabsorbed solutes are carried away, back into the circulation.

 Uric acid and creatinine, are not reabsorbed. Indeed, creatinine is actively secreted
by the cells of the proximal convoluted tubule into its lumen.
 Loop of henle is the next region of each nephron.
 The main function of the Loop of Henle is
o to produce a low water potential in the medulla of the kidney. It does this by acting
as a counter-current multiplier to produce concentration gradients.
o The descending limb is permeable to water and so as filtrate flows down this part of
the loop its water potential decreases.
 o The filtrate’s water potential is at its lowest at the bottom of the loop. The ascending
limb is impermeable to water but allows the movement of Na+ and Clout of the
filtrate so the water potential of the filtrate rises again.
o This process allows the kidney to produce urine that is more concentrated than the
blood.

 Reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct

o In the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, sodium ions are actively pumped from
the fluid in the tubule into the tissue fluid, from where they pass into the blood.
o Potassium ions, however, are actively transported into the tubule.
o The rate at which these two ions are moved into and out of the fluid in the nephron can be
varied, and helps to regulate the concentration of these ions in the blood.
Control of water content
 Osmoregulation is the control of the water potential of body fluids. This regulation is an important
part of homeostasis and involves the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland and the kidneys.
 Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus control the water potential of the blood.
o osmoreceptors detect the occurrence of low water potential of the blood,
o the hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to posterior pituitary gland to release
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) into the blood which makes walls of DCT and collecting
duct more permeable to water therefore increasing the reabsorption of water from
the tubules into the blood.
o This results in a lower volume of more concentrated urine being produced to ensure
that less water is lost from the body. The opposite occurs in the case where the body
is well hydrated.
 ADH is the peptide hormone made of nine amino acids.
 Molecules of ADH enter the blood in capillaries and are carried all over the body
 ADH works by binding to receptors in the plasma membrane of collecting duct cells.
o ADH activates enzymes in the cell to produce more cAMP (secondary messenger)
which in turn causes vesicles in the collecting duct cell to fuse with the plasma
membrane in contact with the filtrate.
o The membranes of the vesicles have aquaporins (water channel proteins) so when
these are inserted into the plasma membrane it makes the cells more permeable to
water.
How ADH affects the kidney
the control of blood glucose
 Carbohydrate is transported through the human bloodstream in the form of glucose in solution in
the blood plasma.
 Glucose is converted into polysaccharide glycogen (large, insoluble molecule madeup of many
glucose units linked together by 1–4 glycosidic bonds with 1–6 branching points found in liver
and muscles
 The homeostatic control of blood glucose concentration is carried out by two
hormones secreted by endocrine tissue in the pancreas (insulin and glucagon). consists of groups
of cells:
 islets of Langerhans, which are scattered throughout the pancreas.
o α cells secrete glucagon
o β cells secrete insulin.
 In a case where the blood glucose concentration is too high, for instance after a meal high in
carbohydrates, the following actions take place:
o The rise in glucose concentration is detected by the beta cells
o Insulin is secreted by beta cells, thus inhibiting the action of alpha cells
o Insulin travels to target cells in the liver (hepatocytes), fat and muscle cells
o Binding of insulin to the receptors on the plasma membrane of these cells causes
adenyl cyclase to convert ATP into cAMP
o cAMP activates certain enzyme controlled reactions in the cells to stimulate the
opening of glucose channels in the plasma membrane, thus causing more glucose to
enter the cell, which is then converted to glycogen (glycogenesis) or fats and
 subsequently used for respiration

 In a case where the blood glucose concentration is too low:

o Alpha cells detect change and secrete glucagon
o Glucagon secretion inhibits beta cell action
o Glucagon stimulates hepatocytes to convert glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis)
o Glucose diffuses out of hepatocytes into the blood
o Cells use fatty acids and amino acids for respiration instead
 blood glucose concentration in the correct range of about 90mg per 100cm3 of blood to ensure
that all the essential processes such as respiration of brain cells is maintained.
 Glucose can only enter cells through transporter proteins known as GLUT.
 Hormone adrenaline increase the concentration of blood glucose. By
o It does this by binding to different receptors on the surface of liver cells that activate the
same enzyme
o cascade and lead to the same end result – the breakdown of glycogen by glycogen
phosphorylase.
o Adrenaline also stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stores in muscle during exercise.
o The glucose produced remains in the muscle cells where it is needed for respiration.
 Diabetes mellitus is a disease where the body cannot control the blood glucose levels.
 There are two types of the disease,
o Type I is an autoimmune disease where the beta cells are destroyed by the body, thus
meaning that the body does produce sufficient amounts of insulin. The condition can be
managed by monitoring the blood glucose concentration and regular injections of insulin.
o Type II diabetes is a result of cells becoming less responsive to insulin as the affected
person becomes older. It can be treated by insulin supplements, diet and careful
monitoring. Risk factors of type II diabetes include obesity, diet high in sugar as well as
ethnicity and sedentary lifestyle.
 Symptoms of diabetes include tiredness, thirst and ketoacidosis. (a metabolic state associated with
pathologically high serum and urine concentrations of ketone bodies)
Dipstick and biosensors
 Dip sticks (also known as test strips) can be used to test urine for a range of different factors
including pH, glucose, ketones and protein.
 Dip sticks for detecting glucose contain the enzymes glucose oxidase and peroxidase.
 These two enzymes are immobilised on a small pad at one end of the stick.
 The pad is immersed in urine and if it contains glucose, glucose oxidase catalyses a chemical
reaction in which glucose is oxidised into a substance called gluconolactone

 A biosensor allows people with diabetes to check their blood to see how well they are controlling
their glucose concentration
 the biosensor uses a pad impregnated with glucose oxidase.
o A small sample of blood is placed on the pad which is inserted into the machine.
o Glucose oxidase catalyses the reaction to produce gluconolactone and at the same time
a tiny electric current is generated.
o The current is detected by an electrode, amplified and read by the meter which
produces a reading for blood glucose concentration within seconds.
 The more glucose that is present, the greater the current and the greater the reading from the
biosensor.
Homeostasis in plants

 Mesophyll cells in leaves require a constant supply of carbon dioxide if they are to make best use
of light energy for photosynthesis.
 how low concentrations of carbon dioxide limit the rate of photosynthesis
 Stomata control the entry of carbon dioxide into leaves
 Stomata respond to changes in environmental conditions. Th ey open in response to:
o increasing light intensity
o low carbon dioxide concentrations in the air spaces within the leaf.
 When stomata are open, leaves gain carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, but tend to lose much
water in transpiration

 Stomata close in response to:

o Darkness
o high carbon dioxide concentrations in the air spaces is the leaf
o low humidity
o high temperature
o water stress,
  when the supply of water from the roots islimited and/or there are high rates of transpiration.
 The disadvantage of closing is that during daylight, the supply of carbon dioxide decreases so the
rate of photosynthesis decreases.
 The advantage is that water is retained inside the leaf which is important in times of water
stress.
OPENING AND CLOSING STOMATA
 Stomata are surrounded by two specialized cells called guard cells
 Guard cell walls are radially thickened such that the thickenings are concentrated around the
stoma
 Environmental stimuli that cause stomata opening
o Enhanced intensity of light
o Low concentration of carbon dioxide in the air spaces inside the leaf
 Environmental stimuli that cause stomata closing
o bsence of light, i.e. darkness
o High concentration of carbon dioxide in the air spaces inside the leaf
o Hugh temperature
o Low humidity
o Water stress, i.e. when there is limited water supply from the roots or when there are
high rates of transpiration
 The advantage of stomatal opening during the day is:
o The gain of carbon dioxide by leaves to carry out the process of photosynthesis
 The disadvantage of stomatal opening during the day is: Loss of large amount of water by leaves
through transpiration
 The advantage of stomatal closing during the day is: The retention of water within the leaf is
critical in times of water stress
 The disadvantage of stomatal closing during the day is: The low supply of carbon dioxide which in
turn reduces the rate of photosynthesis.
Structure of Guard Cells
Two guard cells surround each stoma. The guard cells have the following characteristics:
 Thick cell walls face the air outside the leaf and the stoma
 Thin cell walls face adjacent epidermal cells
 Around the cell, cellulose microfibrils are arranged in bands
 There are no plasmodesmata in cell walls
 Cell surface membrane is usually folded and has several channels and carrier proteins
 The cytoplasm contains a high density of chloroplasts and mitochondria
 Chloroplasts contain thylakoids, however, they have few grana as compared to mesophyll cell
chloroplasts
 Mitochondria contain several cristae
 Instead of a single large vacuole, many small vacuoles are present
Structure of Guard Cells - Image Source: Save my exams

The Mechanism for Opening Stomata

 When guard cells gain water by osmosis and become turgid, they open
 The reduced water potential in the guard cells is needed for water to enter the cells through
osmosis
 While responding to light, ATP-powered proton pumps in the guard cell surface membranes
move hydrogen ions out of the guard cell actively
 Due to this, the inside of the guard cells is negatively charged, unlike the outside
 This causes the opening of channel protein in the cell surface membranes of the guard cell,
which enables potassium ions to move down the electrical gradient and enter the guard cells.
These potassium ions also diffuse into the guard cells down the concentration gradient.
Remember that the combination of the concentration gradient and electrical gradient is referred
to as the electrochemical gradient
 The solute concentration within the guard cells is enhanced due to the influx of potassium ions,
which in turn lowers the water potential within the cells
 Now, osmosis allows the water to enter the guard cells through aquaporins in the cell surface
membranes of the guard cells
 The size of the vacuoles in increased because the majority of the water enters the vacuoles
 It also boosts up the turgor pressure of the guard cells which causes the opening of stomata
 The bands of cellulose microfibrils only increase the length of the guard cells, not their diameter
 The outer walls of the guard cells are thin, so they bend more easily as compared to thick inner
walls
 It helps the guard cell to become curved, and the stomata open

The mechanism for Closing Stomata

 When specific environmental stimuli are identified that result in the closing of stomata, the
proton pump in the cell surface membranes of the guard cells stops moving hydrogen ions out of
the guard cell actively
 The potassium ions exit the guard cells
 Now, there is a reverse water potential gradient and water leaves the guard cells through
osmosis
 As a result, the guard cells become flaccid and stomata close
Abscisic Acid and Stomatal Closure
 In times of water stress, plants produce a hormone known as abscisic acid (ABA) which helps
them to stimulate the closing of their stomata. Many environmental conditions can be attributed
to water stress, like extremely high temperatures and low water supplies
 ABA receptors are present on the cell surface membranes of the guard cells
1. The hormone abscisic acid binds with these receptors to inhibit the proton pumps and thus
preventing the active movement of hydrogen ions out of the guard cells
2. Calcium ions also move into the cytoplasm of the guard cells due to ABA via cell surface
membranes
3. The calcium ions play the role of second messengers
4. The calcium ions cause the opening of channel proteins that enable negatively charged ions to
exit the guard cells
5. This triggers the further opening of channel proteins that enable potassium ions to exit the guard
cells
6. The calcium ions also trigger the closing of channel proteins that enable potassium ions to enter
the guard cells
 The loss of ions results in the increase in water potential of the guard cells
 Water exits the guard cells through osmosis which causes the guard cells to become flaccid and
lead to the closing of stomata.