14.

3 Hormones
1. A hormone is a chemical substance, produced by a gland and carried by the blood, which alters the
activity of one or more specific target organs.

2. Hormones are active in small quantities and are destroyed by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.

3. They affect cellular metabolism and coordinate the growth, development and activity of an organism.

4. Glands are classified into two groups: exocrine glands and endocrine glands.

5. Exocrine glands are glands that secrete their products via ducts. Examples include sweat glands and
salivary glands.

6. Endocrine glands are ductless (do not have ducts). The glands secrete their products directly into the
bloodstream. Examples include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland and the gonads.

7. Some glands are both exocrine and endocrine. An example would be the pancreas, which secretes
pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct, and insulin and glucagon from the islets of Langerhans into the
bloodstream.

Examples of endocrine glands;

*Remember the pituitary gland secretes ADH (antidiuretic hormone) to regulate blood osmolarity
(amount of water in the blood) and targets the kidneys.

Locations of endocrine glands

Adrenaline

1 . Adrenaline is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands located above the kidneys. It is responsible
for the ‘fight-or-flight response’ triggered by stress (emotional or physical threats to the organism). - this
is because it is released in response to fear or anxiety

- fear can arise on a person being attacked

- anxiety can arise before a race

- responses to adrenaline prepares the body to defend itself or get away from danger

2. In response to stress, the adrenal glands secretes adrenaline into the blood.

3. The adrenaline travels to target organs, causing:

(a) Increased conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and skeletal muscles

(b) Increased glucose release into blood by liver cells

(c) Increased metabolic rate, causing more energy to be released in cellular respiration

(d) Increased heart rate and volume of blood pumped per unit time, increasing oxygen and
glucose supply to muscle cells. the release of adrenaline also increases the removal of metabolic wastes
such as carbon dioxide and lactic acid

(e) Dilated bronchioles and increased breathing rate and depth, allowing more oxygen to be
taken in for cellular respiration

(f) Decreased blood supply to the digestive system, the kidneys and the skin as vasoconstriction
occurs in several body parts, diverting blood supply to the heart, brain and skeletal muscles

(g) Vasodilation occurring in other body parts, increasing blood supply to these organs

(h) Dilated pupils, enhancing vision

(i) Contracted hair erector muscles, producing ‘goose bumps’

Homeostasis:

• ‘homeo’ refers to home/inside and ‘stasis’ refers to unchanging/static • homeostasis is the

maintenance of a constant internal environment • it is important to maintain the internal environment
within narrow limits because enzymes work best at certain optimum conditions • when enzymes work
best, metabolic reactions are efficient.

• Conditions that are kept constant by homeostasis:

1. blood glucose concentration (osmoregulation) - blood shouldn’t be too dilute or too concentrated. If
it is too dilute, water can enter blood cells by osmosis and they burst. If its too concentrated, they lose
water and become ……………………….

2. temperature (themoregulation) - if the temperature is too low, metabolic reactions become too slow
and the person cannot survive. If the temperature is too high, enzymes are denatured

• homeostasis is maintained by a negative feedback mechanism

The Concept of Negative Feedback

- Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set point and returns conditions to
this set point. It works in the following way:

- if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce it again

- if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise it again

Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels down and then bringing
them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow range of what is considered ‘normal’

Terms involved in negative feedback control mechanism:

(a) Stimulus – A change in internal environment

(b) Receptor – Sense organs that detect the stimulus

(c) Effector – Effect corrective responses

(d) Response – Condition returns to normal, gives negative feedback to receptor

The pancreas (example of homeostasis)

1 . The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas are areas in the pancreas that contain groups of endocrine
cells.

2. These cells produce the hormones insulin and glucagon.

3. Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that participate in homeostatic control of blood
glucose level by negative feedback mechanism.

4. When blood glucose level exceeds the normal level, more insulin is released and acts to lower the
glucose level by:

(a) Converting glucose to glycogen

(b) Stimulating the liver and muscle cells to store more glycogen

(c) Stimulating body cells to increase glucose uptake by increasing permeability of cell
membranes to glucose

(d) Decreasing the conversion of fatty acids and amino acids to glucose in the liver

5. When blood glucose level falls below the normal level, more glucagon is released and acts to increase
the glucose level by stimulating liver cells to:

(a) Convert glycogen to glucose

 (b) Convert amino acids and fatty acids to glucose

(c) Convert lactic acid into glucose

Type 1 Diabetes (Diabetes mellitus)

• This is a medical condition where the body does not make enough insulin or does not make insulin at
all • diabetes mellitus is also known as sugar diabetes or type 1 diabetes • it starts when the person is
young so it is also called juvenile-onset diabetes • the body fails to make insulin or produces insuficient
insulin

- this is because the body makes antibodies against beta cells and destroys them • type 1 diabetes is an
example on an autoimmune disease

Diagnosis:

- a blood glucose test is done using a biosensor

- a test strip is used to detect the presence of glucose on the urine

Symptoms include:

(a) A persistent high blood glucose concentration

(b) Excessive urination, presence of glucose in the urine, fruity breath, flushed face

(c) Excessive thirst, nausea, vomiting, hunger, and weight loss

(d) Blurred vision/Glaucoma, dizziness, coma

(e) Poor circulation and slow wound healing

Diabetes can cause:

(a) Poor immune response – increased susceptibility to infections

(b) Damaged blood vessels leading to vision loss and a decreased sensation in the limbs

(c) Kidney failure and heart failure

Diabetic individuals can control their disease by receiving insulin, regular injections, using insulin pump,
controlling their carbohydrate intake (controlled diet/avoiding sugars).

The Skin

• The skin is the largest organ • it is a layer that covers the body and prevent the entry of pathogens • it
is the first line of defense against pathogens since it’s a physical barrier • the skin plays a role in
regulating body temperature • its structure shows adaptations for its role in temperature regulation
Adaptations of the skin:

• there is a layer of fat at the bottom of the skin called adipose tissue/fat
- it insulates against heat loss
• the skin has specialized nerve ending which act as receptors for temperature, touch and pain
• the skin has arterioles and blood capillaries
- the arterioles can dilate (become wider) or constrict (become narrower) in order to regulate
the amount of blood that flows to the surface of the skin
- vasodilation increases the amount of blood that flows to the surface of the skin
- vasoconstriction decreases the amount of blood that flows to the surface of the skin
• the skin has sweat glands
- they are associated with blood capillaries so that they can respond according to the body
temperature
- the sweat gland has a sweat duct which carries sweat to the surface of the skin
• the skin has hairs, erector muscles to move the hairs, and

The hypothalamus in the brain regulates body temperature by receiving information about temperature
changes from thermoreceptors located in the skin and within the hypothalamus itself, and activating
mechanisms that promote heat gain or loss.

Coping with heat gain

1 . When the external temperature rises above normal levels, thermoreceptors within the skin send
signals to the hypothalamus in the brain. Any corresponding rise in blood temperature is also detected
by thermoreceptors located within the hypothalamus itself. The hypothalamus is stimulated to send out
nerve impulses to:

(a) Arterioles in the skin, stimulating vasodilation (widenining of blood vessels). Increased blood
flow to capillaries near the skin surface causes more heat loss through conduction, convection and
radiation.

(b) Sweat glands, stimulating sweat production. Heat is lost through evaporation of sweat from
the skin, cooling the body.

(c) Hair erector muscles, which relax so that hair follicles lie flat. This ensures that no air is
trapped by the hairs as air is a good insulator.

(d) Lungs, stimulating rapid breathing or panting. Heat is lost through exhaled air.

2. Body temperature returns to normal.

Coping with heat loss

1 . When the external temperature falls below normal levels, the hypothalamus is stimulated to send
out nerve impulses to:

(a) Arterioles in the skin, stimulating vasoconstriction (narrowing/constriction of blood vessels).

Decreased blood flow in skin capillaries causes less heat loss to the external environment

(b) Sweat glands, stopping sweat production

(c) Hair erector muscles, which constrict so that hair follicles are raised. This traps a layer of air
between the hairs which acts as an insulating layer (you get goose-bumps).

(d) Muscles, causing involuntary and increased contraction of muscles, known as shivering. This
increases cellular respiration in muscle cells, producing heat.

2. Body temperature returns to normal.

3. the layer of adipose tissue beneath the skin acts as insulation.