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 Tuesday, April 21
• Quiz 14 opens Thursday at 8 pm
• Final Exam Thursday, April 30th 6-11 pm
• Alternate Accommodations:
– TBA
• Tonight:
– Renal Review
– Endocrine BP Control
– Endocrine System
– Male Reproductive
Water Balance and
Renal Function
Overview of the macula
densa cells
1. When GFR decreases due to
low BP, filtrate moves slower
through the nephron

2. This slower movement causes

more NaCl to be reabsorbed by
the body in the nephron loop of
Henle

3. The nephron filtrate become

more dilute (watery) than normal

4. Macula densa cells detect the

dilute filtrate and respond by
releasing RENIN in order to
(which?):
(A) Activate Angiotensinogen to lower
BP
(B) Activate ACE to raise BP
(C) Activate Angiotensinogen to
increase BP
Hormonal Regulation
• In response to low blood
pressure
• Renin released by JG cells
in the glomerulus
• Renin activates the
hormone angiotensinogen
in blood to angiotensin I
• Angiotensin I is activated
to angiotensin II by the
lungs (ACE) – Angiotensin
Converting Enzyme
• Angiotensin II causes
vasoconstriction to
increase BP  to keep
GFR up to speed
 Application: ACE
Inhibitors
• ACE inhibitors drugs that
widen/dilate your vessels, improve
blood flow, and thus lower blood
pressure. (opposite of Angiotensin II)
• Lower the workload on your heart
• Prescribed after heart failure
– Lotensin
– Zestril
– Univasc
Hormonal Regulation
• Angiotensin II
results in increased
blood pressure!
– Efferent arteriole
constriction at A
glomerulus D
H
• (autoregulation)
– Not really shown in
this image, although
it is a type of
vasoconstriction
– This is known as
• Autoregulation
Hormonal Regulation
• Angiotensin II results in
increase blood pressure!
(1) Efferent arteriole
constriction (autoregulation)
(2) Widespread
vasoconstriction in body
A
• Increases blood pressure
D
(3) Stimulates thirst (target H
hypothalamus)
(4) Stimulates secretion of
aldosterone
• Stimulates reabsorption of sodium
ions in the DCT and collecting duct
• Water follows because of osmosis
(5) Stimulates secretion of
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Aquaporins! More water reabsorption at
CDuct
The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is
the collection of glands
that produce hormones
that regulate metabolism,
growth and development,
tissue function, sexual
function, reproduction,
sleep, and mood, among
other things.
 Hormones
• Regulation  coordination of the organs of the
body to help maintain homeostasis
– Stable internal environment
• Endocrine System – slower than the nervous
system
– Chemical messengers (hormones) secreted into
bloodstream that alter function of other cells (target
cells)
Regulation is the process of
maintaining homeostasis. What two
body systems are the main participants
in regulation of the body?

A. Cardiovascular and endocrine

B. Nervous and urinary
C. Nervous and endocrine
D. Endocrine and urinary
Regulation is the process of
maintaining homeostasis. What two
body systems are the main participants
in regulation of the body?

A. Cardiovascular and endocrine

B. Nervous and urinary
C. Nervous and endocrine
D. Endocrine and urinary
 Exocrine versus Endocrine
• Glands
Exocrine glands require a duct to transport secretions
– Typically non-hormone
– Ex. Sweat glands, pancreas (digestive juices/enzymes), prostate
gland
• Endocrine glands transport secretions (hormones)
directly into the bloodstream
– Typically hormone-related
– Ex. Pancreas (insulin/glucagon)
– Paracrine signaling is a cellular secretion that doesn’t
require transport by the blood (affects neighboring cells
only)
 Types of Hormones
(1) Steroid
– Hydrophobic (fat-soluble)
– Afraid of water
– Likes to mix with fats/lipids
– Made from cholesterol
– Receptors inside the cell, slow
– Ex. Testosterone and estrogen
(2) Protein (Nonsteroidal)
– Hydrophilic (polar peptides)
– Mixes with water
– Made from amino acids
– Receptors on cell membrane,
fast
– Ex. Insulin
Which type of hormone can
easily pass through a plasma
membrane?
A. Hydrophobic
B. Hydrophilic
 Types of Hormones
(1) Steroid
– Hydrophobic (fat-soluble)
– Afraid of water
– Likes to mix with fats/lipids
– Made from cholesterol
– Receptors inside the cell, slow
– Ex. Testosterone and estrogen
(2) Protein (Nonsteroidal)
– Hydrophilic (polar peptides)
– Mixes with water
– Made from amino acids
– Receptors on cell membrane,
fast
– Ex. Insulin
Which type of hormone can
easily pass through a plasma
membrane?
A. Hydrophobic
B. Hydrophilic
 Protein Hormone
• AFunction
hormone travels through the
bloodstream (1)
Example of Steroid Hormone:
– From source gland to target tissue
Hydrophobic Hormone Action
• Target tissue is determined by
special receptors (2)
– Proteins in the plasma membrane
(hydrophilic hormones) or
cytoplasm (hydrophobic/steroid
hormones, because they can enter
freely)
– Specific to only ONE hormone
• Receptors act like switches to
turn on or off gene expression
(3,4,5)
– Causes molecular changes
– Primarily activation (or synthesis)
of proteins
• Hormone/receptor complex must
be deactivated when response is
finished
What are the 5 steps of steroid
hormone action? What must
happen at the end?
(1) Hydrophobic hormone travels from the
source gland, through the bloodstream, to
the target tissue
(2)The target tissue is determined by special
receptors that are in the cytoplasm that are
specific to ONE of the hydrophobic steroids
(3) Associated with DNA usually the
receptors act like switches to turn on or off
the gene expression, which causes…
(4) Molecular changes and usually primarily
activation or synthesis of proteins.
(5) Hormone/receptor complex deactivated
when response is finished.
A person is lacking (through genetic
mutations) the receptor for a hydrophobic
hormone. Which of the following
observations are correct?

A.There are fewer receptors in the plasma

membrane of the cell
B.There is a decrease in gene expression and
protein synthesis
C.There are more receptors in the cytoplasm
D.The hormone enters the cell and dies
A person is lacking (through genetic mutations)
the receptor for a hydrophobic hormone. Which
of the following observations are correct?

A.There are fewer receptors in the plasma membrane

of the cell (not relevant to steroid/hydrophobic
receptors)
B.There is a decrease in gene expression and protein
synthesis
C.There are more receptors in the cytoplasm (false
because there would be less receptors)
D.The hormone enters the cell and dies
 Endocrine Glands
• Digestive
– Pancreas, liver
• Reproductive
– Gonads (testes, ovaries)
• Nervous
– Hypothalamus, pituitary
gland, pineal gland
• Also consists of organs
unique to the endocrine
system
– Thyroid (parathyroid) and
adrenal gland
• Some require CNS input,
others work independent of
CNS
 What are the endocrine
glands of the digestive
system?
(A)Pancreas and Pituitary gland
(B)Pituitary Gland and Liver
(C)Hypothalamus and pancreas
(D)Pancreas and Liver
(E)Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

Also: What are the endocrine

glands in the reproductive system?
In the nervous system? In the
endocrine system?
 What are the endocrine
glands of the digestive
system?
(A)Pancreas and Pituitary gland
(B)Pituitary Gland and Liver
(C)Hypothalamus and pancreas
(D)Pancreas and Liver
(E)Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

Also: What are the endocrine

glands in the reproductive system?
In the nervous system? In the
endocrine system?
 Pituitary Gland

• Actually two distinct glands, closely connected with

hypothalamus
– Anterior (adenohypophysis)  synthesize and secrete hormones
– Posterior (neurohypophysis) store and secrete hormones
• Hormones released from pituitary are regulated by the
hypothalamus (acts as command center)
Application – Hypothalamus
Disorders
• Caused by malnutrition, including
anorexia, bulimia, genetics, radiation,
surgery, head trauma, or tumors
• Effects: wide-spread body changes,
including temperature regulation,
fluid balance, reproductive hormone
oxytocin (child-birth, lactation,
behavior)
 Pituitary Hormone
Regulation
• Hormones released from pituitary are
regulated by the hypothalamus
• Hormones released from pituitary
typically trigger another endocrine
organ to release hormones
– Three hormones are typically involved
• Hypothalmus  brain tissue
– Control center for the body
– Secrete hormones that affect the
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
gland or are stored in posterior
pituitary gland
• (#1) RH = Releasing Hormone are a
common example as they cause the
“release” of more hormones (see image)

Hypothalamus –pituitary – Organ X axis, where X is the final target

Pituitary Hormone
Regulation
• NEGATIVE FEEDBACK is a
common mechanism in the
endocrine system
– Makes sure that hormones are
balanced
– Hormones released from
endocrine tissue stops
hypothalamic production of
hormones
– Creates a balance

– Example:
• (1) Gonadotropic RH
• (2) Hormone 1: Leutenizing
Hormone (testes)
• (3) Hormone 2: Testosterone
(Interstitial cells
-Spermatogenesis)
 Reproductive Systems
• Our sole purpose in life is to reproduce
– Passage of genetic material
• A species “fitness” is defined as its success
at producing offspring
• Sexual reproduction requires the union of
egg and sperm (called gametes)
- Sperm  male gamete, “DNA with a propeller”
- Egg  female gamete, large and nutrient rich
- Offspring is a genetic combination from both parents
• Gametes are produced by gonads
What is the female gonad?
A. Ovary
B. Vagina
C. Uterus
D. Egg

What is the male gamete?

A. Penis
B. Testes
C. Sperm
D. Scrotum
What is the female gonad?
A. Ovary
B. Vagina
C. Uterus
D. Egg

What is the male gamete?

A. Penis
B. Testes
C. Sperm
D. Scrotum
 Review of Humans and
Chromosomes
Humans have 23 pairs
(46 total) of chromosomes
in most cells
– Linear structures that
organize DNA
– One from mother and
one from father
– When most cells in
our body divide, 46
chromosomes are
maintained  mitosis
Basic cell division - Mitosis

• The DNA of cells contains

all of the instructions
necessary to make a “you”.
– 46 strands of DNA
– 23 pairs
– strands of DNA can coil
up to form
chromosomes
• 23 chromosomes
from Mom
• 23 chromosomes
from Dad
• During regular cell
division (mitosis) all of
the DNA copied
– Diploid/daughter cells
have complete copy of
DNA (46 chrom.)
 Humans and Chromosomes
• Gametes (sperm and egg) only have 23
chromosomes (unpaired)
– Represents DNA from one parent
– During gametogenesis (production of gametes) the
pairs of chromosomes are separated  by meiosis
– Pairs join during fertilization – the union of
the sperm and egg (23 from mom + 23 from
dad= 46)
 Spermatogenesis – Meiosis – gamete cell
division
• Spermatogenesis (and
Oogenesis) is a special type
of cell division is called
meiosis
• Cells go through two sets of
divisions (second cell
division)
• Daughter cells end up
with only half the regular
number of chromosomes
(23)
– Chromosomes in daughter
cells are a mix of maternal
and paternal chromosomes
Prophase of Meiosis
– Homologous chromosomes
pair up
– Later, when chromatids are
pulled apart to sides in
mitosis, chomoSOMES are
pulled apart in meiosis.
– Prophase 2 Chromatids
pulled
 Application
First: Down syndrome is known as trisomy
21, a condition where individuals have 47
chromosomes instead of 46, caused by an
error in cell division called nondisjunction,
an extra copy of chromosome #21 before or
at conception.

Second: Application - Medical Ethics:

• When does life really begin?
• At conception? When a fertilized egg
(embryo) cells begin to divide via
mitosis? First heart beat? Later? Birth?
 Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• Mitosis • Meiosis
• When regular cells • When Gamete cells
divide divide
• 1 cell division • 2 cell divisions
• Start: 46 • Start w/ 46
chromosomes chromosomes
• End: 2 Diploid cells • End: 4 haploid with
w/ 46 23
Adult blue whales have 22 pairs of
chromosomes. How many
chromosomes are found in one blue
whale gamete (egg or sperm)?

A. 22
B. 44
C. 11
D. 66
Adult blue whales have 22 pairs of
chromosomes. How many
chromosomes are found in one blue
whale gamete (egg or sperm)?

A. 22
B. 44
C. 11
D. 66
Other General Terminology
• Primary sex organs (gonads)
– Organ that produces gametes

• Secondary sex organs

– Other organs essential to reproduction

• Secondary sex characteristics

– Not essential for reproduction
– Physical characteristics that differentiate the
sexes and help with mate attraction
 The Male Reproductive System
Consists of the testes, a series of tubes to
transport sperm, and glands that
contribute to seminal fluid
• Testes = gonad
• Contain
seminiferous
tubules
• Tubes include
epididymis,
ductus
deferens and
urethra
• Glands include
seminal vesicle,
prostate, and
bulbourethral
• Penis is for
sperm delivery
Application – Prostate
Cancer
 Testes Structure
• Hang outside the body because
sperm function impaired at 37C
(98.6) – sperm needs to be 4C lower.
• Divided into lobes
• Lobe contain seminiferious tubules
– Site of sperm production
• Three main cells types
Interstitial (Leydig) cells 
between the tubules
– produce testosterone
Germ cells  divide to become
sperm (like stem cell), proceed
toward the lumen of the
tubule.
– Sustentacular
(Sertoli/Nurse) cells 
protect the germ cells
– Rest of cells are developing
Application – Testicular
Cancer
• Physical
examination/diagnosis
• Some painless
• Some painful
• Swelling lump
• Testicle shrinking
• Heaviness
• Lower back pain
• Lymph node swelling
Working ahead: For Next
Class
(1)Complete Female Reproductive
Worksheet.doc
(2)Watch:
https://www.khanacademy.org/sci
ence/health-and-medicine/human
-anatomy-and-physiology/reprodu
ctive-system-introduction/v/repro
ductive-cycle-graph-follicular-ph
ase
Female Reproductive
Worksheet