CH 3 - Homeostasis

A2 Biology 3) Homeostasis June 2024
Homeostasis
Is the maintenance of a stable & constant internal environment of a living organism, irrespective to
changes in the external environment.
Internal environment
For a cell, its immediate environment is the tissue fluid that surrounds it, which affects the cell
functioning. (Blood cells, however, are surrounded by plasma.)
The internal environment for cells must be kept constant for the cells to function efficiently & to
ensure that enzymes within the cells function at a constant rate.
1. Temperature
• low temperatures slow down metabolic reactions.
• high temperatures denatures the enzymes.
2. Water potential ( 𝝋 )
• if 𝝋 of tissue fluid decreases, water may move out of cells by osmosis, causing metabolic
reactions in the cell to slow or stop.
• if 𝝋 of tissue fluid increases, water may enter the cell causing it to swell and burst
3. Glucose concentration
• Low glucose concentration in tissue fluid slows down the rate of respiration thus
depriving the cell of an energy source.
• High glucose concentrations of tissue fluid may cause water to move out of the cell by
osmosis, slowing down the metabolic reactions in the cell.
Why is it Important to Maintain a Stable Internal Environment ?
The composition of tissue fluid is determined by blood plasma, thus homeostatic mechanisms work
by controlling the composition of blood, which therefore controls the composition of tissue fluid.
Dr Dawood 1
Homeostatic Control
Most control mechanisms in living organisms use a negative feedback control loop to maintain
homeostatic balance which involves:
A stimulus is any change in a physiological factor, such as a change in blood temperature or the
blood glucose concentration or the water potential of the blood.
Receptors that detect stimuli ( internal or external ), which will then send information about the
changes they detect through the coordination systems such as the nervous system & endocrine
system to a central control in the brain or spinal cord. “ Input ‘’
The central control instructs an effector organ ( muscle or gland ) to carry out an action. ”Output “
These actions are sometimes called corrective actions as their effect is to correct the change thus
maintaining the physiological factor around a set point.
Describe the Principle of Homeostasis
Describe the Role of Negative Feedback in Homeostasis
Negative feedback is a control process in which a change in a factor, such as body temperature,
stimulates corrective actions to return it to its normal value or its set point.
Define Negative feedback
The homeostatic mechanisms in mammals require information to be transferred between different

parts of the body. There are two coordination systems in mammals that do this
1) Nervous system: where information in the form of electrical impulses is transmitted along
nerve cells (neurons).
2) Endocrine system: uses chemical messengers called hormones that travel in the blood, in a
form of long- distance cell signalling.
Dr Dawood 2
Excretion
Is the removal of the unwanted toxic products of metabolism, from the body.
Carbon dioxide
is produced continuously by cells that are respiring aerobically which will be then transported to the
lungs, in the bloodstream where gas exchange occurs and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood
into the alveoli and is then excreted in the air we breathe out.
Nitrogenous excretory products
They are made in the liver and are transported in the blood plasma to the kidneys to be excreted in
the urine.
1. Urea (Main nitrogenous waste product)
If more protein is eaten than is needed, the excess cannot be stored in the body. It would be
wasteful, however, simply to get rid of all the excess, because the amino acids provide useful energy.
To make use of this energy, the liver removes the amino groups in a process known
as deamination.
Ammonia is a very soluble and highly toxic compound, so its converted by the liver to a less toxic &
less soluble urea which is formed by combining ammonia & CO2 in a series of reactions called the
urea cycle.
2. Creatinine
Creatine is made in the liver, from certain amino acids. Much of this creatine is used in the muscles,
in the form of creatine phosphate, where it acts as an energy store. (substrate level phosphorylation)
However, some is converted to creatinine and is excreted by the kidney in the urine.
3. Uric acid
Uric acid is made from the breakdown of purines from nucleotides, not from amino acids.
Dr Dawood 3
Kidney
Ø Each kidney receives blood from a renal artery, and returns blood via a renal vein.
A narrow tube, called the ureter, carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
From the bladder a single tube, the urethra, carries urine to the outside of the body.
Ø The whole kidney is covered by a fairly tough capsule, beneath which lies the cortex.
The central area is called the medulla. Where the ureter joins, there is an area called the pelvis.
Dr Dawood 4
The kidney is made up of many tiny tubes, called nephrons, and many blood vessels.
One end of the tube forms a cup-shaped structure called a Bowman’s capsule, which surrounds a
tight network of capillaries called a glomerulus. The glomeruli and capsules of all the nephrons are in
the cortex of the kidney.
From the capsule, the tube runs towards the center of the kidney, first forming a twisted region
called the proximal convoluted tubule, and then a long hairpin loop in the medulla, the loop of
Henle. The tubule then runs back upwards into the cortex, where it forms another twisted region
called the distal convoluted tubule, before finally joining a collecting duct that leads down through
the medulla and into the pelvis of the kidney.
Describe the Structure of a Kidney Nephron
Each glomerulus is supplied with blood by a branch of the renal artery called an afferent arteriole.
The capillaries of the glomerulus rejoin to form an efferent arteriole. The efferent arteriole leads off
to form a network of capillaries running closely alongside the rest of the nephron called vasa recta.
Blood from these capillaries flows into a branch of the renal vein.
The kidney makes urine in 2 stages.

The first stage, ultrafiltration, involves filtering small molecules (urea) out of the blood and into the
Bowman’s capsule which will then flow along the nephron towards the ureter.
The second stage, selective reabsorption, involves taking back any useful molecules from the fluid in
the nephron as it flows along.
Dr Dawood 5
1) Ultrafiltration
The blood in the glomerular capillaries is separated from the lumen of the renal capsule by
1. Capillary endothelium, which has many gaps in between.
2. Basement membrane, which is made up of network of collagen & glycoproteins.
3. Podocytes (epithelial lining of renal capsule) with many finger like projections & gaps in between.
The large gaps between the capillary endothelium & podocytes allow dissolved substances in the
blood plasma to get through from the blood into the capsule to form the glomerular filtrate.
However, the basement membrane stops large protein molecules from getting through. Any protein
molecule with a relative molecular mass of 68 000 or more cannot pass through the basement
membrane, and so cannot escape from the glomerular capillaries.
This basement membrane therefore acts as a molecular filter.
Pass Can’t pass

Glucose Albumin
Amino acids RBCs
Minerals as sodium, potassium WBCs
Urea Platelets
Creatinine
Since the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole, it creates a high hydrostatic pressure
inside the glomerulus which is higher than the solute potential gradient caused by the unfiltered
albumin in blood plasma, the over all effect is that fluid is forced into the bowman’s capsule.
Explain How Glomerular Filtrate is Formed
The rate of formation of glomerular filtrate of all glomeruli in both kidneys is about 125 cm3 min-1.
Dr Dawood 6
2) Selective Reabsorption
Many of the substances in the glomerular filtrate need to be kept in the body, so they are
reabsorbed into the blood as the fluid passes along the nephron.
A. Proximal Convoluted Tubule ( PCT )

Most of the reabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule.
The lining of this part of the nephron is made of a single layer of cuboidal epithelial cells.
Ø Basal membranes of the PCT have many Na+ / K+ pumps that actively transports Na+ out of the
cells into the nearby capillaries, lowering the Na+ concentration inside the PCT and creating a
concentration gradient so Na+ diffuses from the lumen into the PCT by facilitated diffusion
through cotransporters protein carriers that transport glucose, amino acids & vitamins along
with Na+ against their concentration gradient ( secondary active transport ).
Ø Once glucose moves inside the cells, it will move by facilitated diffusion through the basal
membrane into blood.
All glucose is reabsorbed from the PCT into the blood so that no glucose would be present in
urine.
Ø The uptake of these solutes from the lumen, decreases the solute concentration which raises the
water potential inside the lumen, thus water moves into the PCT by osmosis down water
potential gradient.
Describe the Mechanism of Reabsorption in the PCT
Dr Dawood 7
Adaptation of PCT
Feature Function
Microvilli To increase the surface area for reabsorption.
(Folded Luminal Membrane)
Folded Basal Membrane To increase surface area to carry many transporters.
Tight Junctions To hold adjacent cells together so that fluid cannot pass between the
cells (all substances that are reabsorbed must go through the cells)
Many Mitochondria Produce ATP by aerobic respiration for the active pumping of sodium
by the Na+/K+ pump.
B. Loop of Henle
The function of these tubes is to produce a concentrated urine ( 4 X blood plasma concentration ) as
it allows water to be conserved in the body rather than lost in the urine.
They do this by creating a very high concentration of Na+ and Cl- ions in the tissue fluid in the
medulla to enable water reabsorption from the fluid in the collecting duct.
It consists of a descending limb running down into the medulla & an ascending limb running back to
the cortex.
Dr Dawood 8
The descending limb is permeable to water, whereas the ascending limb is impermeable to water.
As the glomerular filtrate passes through the ascending limb, the cells in its wall actively transport
Na+ & Cl- ions out of the fluid in the loop, into the tissue fluid.
This produces a low water potential ( high solute concentration ) in the tissue fluid around the
descending limb which leads to
Ø Movement of water by osmosis from the filtrate as it flows down the descending limb into
the tissue fluid which will then move into the vasa recta back to the blood.
Ø Diffusion of Na+ & Cl- into the descending limb down their concentration gradients.
Thus as the filtrate runs down the descending limb it becomes more concentrated.
And as the filtrate runs up the ascending limb it becomes more diluted.
Note 1 Having the two limbs of the loop running side by side, with the fluid flowing down in one and
up in the other, enables the maximum concentration of solutes to be built up both inside and
outside the tube at the bottom of the loop. This mechanism is called a Counter-Current Multiplier.
Note 2 that the longer the loop the more concentrated filtrate can become.
Note 3 Desert rodents can produce a urine that is about 20 times the concentration of their blood
plasma. This is possible because they have
• Large medulla.
• Longer loop of Henle.
• Cells that line the ascending limb of their loops have many Na+–K+ pumps.
• Many mitochondria, each with many cristae that allow the production of much ATP to provide
the energy for the pumping of sodium ions into the tissue fluid.
Dr Dawood 9
C. Distal Convoluted Tubule ( DCT ) & Collecting Duct
The first part of the DCT functions in the same way as the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
The second part functions in the same way as the collecting duct, so the functions of this part of the
distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct will be described together.
In the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, Na+ are actively pumped from the fluid in the
tubule into the tissue fluid, from where they pass into the blood.
K+ however, are actively transported into the tubule.
Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of water potential of
blood plasma & tissue fluid around a set point.
Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH ) is a polypeptide

hormone made up of 9 amino acids.
It’s synthesized in the cell bodies of the hypothalamus neurons, then it’s transported along the axons
to the nerve ending in the posterior pituitary gland, where its stored.
The water potential 𝛗 of the blood is constantly monitored by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus.
When these cells detect a decrease in 𝛗 of the blood below the set point, nerve impulses are sent
along the neurons to where they terminate in the posterior pituitary gland.
These impulses stimulate the release of ADH in the blood, which will travel till it reaches the
collecting ducts of the kidney where it acts.
ADH reduce water loss in the urine by making the kidney reabsorb as much water as possible.
Describe the Role of the Hypothalamus & Posterior Pituitary gland in Osmoregulation
Note The word ‘diuresis’ means the production of dilute urine. Antidiuretic hormone gets its name
because it stops dilute urine being produced, by stimulating the reabsorption of water.
Dr Dawood 10
1. ADH binds to receptors in the cell surface membrane of the cells lining the collecting duct.
2. This activates a series of enzyme-controlled reactions, ending with the production of an active
phosphorylase enzyme.
3. Causing vesicles, surrounded by membrane containing aquaporins, to move to the cell surface
membrane.
4. The vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane, increasing the water permeability.
5. Water moves through the membrane by osmosis down its water potential gradient, into the
concentrated tissue fluid and blood plasma in the medulla of the kidney.
6. Producing a concentrated urine.
Describe the Cellular Mechanism of ADH
When there is an ↑ in 𝝋 of the blood, the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are no longer
stimulated and the neurons in the posterior pituitary gland stop secreting ADH.
Aquaporins are moved out of the cell surface membrane of the collecting duct cells, back into the
cytoplasm as part of the vesicles making the collecting duct less permeable to water producing a
dilute urine.
The collecting duct cells do not respond immediately to the reduction in ADH secretion.
This is because it takes some time for the ADH already in the blood to be broken down.
Dr Dawood 11
Blood Glucose Level

The normal blood glucose level (BGL) is between 80 – 120 mg/100 cm3 of blood.
If BGL drops below 80 mg/dl, then the cells may not have enough glucose to respire thus they are
deprived of energy to carry out functions, which is especially important for cells that can only respire
glucose such as brain cells.
If BGL is above 120 mg/dl, affects the osmotic pressure of the blood causing cells to shrink.
The Pancreas
The pancreas is an unusual gland because it has both endocrine & exocrine functions.
Exocrine function
Pancreatic acini cells secrete pancreatic juice containing enzymes such as pancreatic lipase &
amylase, through a pancreatic duct into the small intestine.
Endocrine function
Islets of langerhans cells include
𝛼 cells secrete glucagon hormone directly into the blood.
Control blood glucose level
𝛽 cells secrete insulin hormone directly into the blood.
Ø The 𝛼 and 𝛽 cells act as the receptors and the central control for this homeostatic mechanism
Ø Insulin & Glucagon hormones coordinate the actions of the effectors.
Ø The liver, muscle & fat tissue are the effector of this system.
Dr Dawood 12
A) In case of increased BGL ( Hypergylcemia )

Its detected by the 𝛼 and 𝛽 cells as blood passes through the pancreas.
𝛼 cells respond by stopping the secretion of glucagon.
𝛽 cells respond by secretion of insulin directly into blood → the effector organs.
Insulin decreases BGL by

1. Increase the rate of glucose uptake by the muscle & adipose tissue. ⋇
2. Increase the rate of glucose use in respiration, by inducing glucokinase enzyme.
3. Increase the rate of glucose conversion into glycogen in liver & muscle cells by inducing
phosphofructokinase & glycogen synthase enzymes.
Describe the Role of Insulin in Regulation of BGL
B) In case of decrease BGL ( Hypoglycemia )
Its detected by the 𝛼 and 𝛽 cells as blood passes through the pancreas.
𝛼 cells respond by secreting glucagon directly into blood → the effector organs.
𝛽 cells respond by stopping the secretion of insulin.
Glucagon increases BGL by

Stimulating glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen) in the liver to glucose to be released in blood. ⋇
Stimulating gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from lipids & amino acids) in the liver.
Describe the Role of Glucagon in Regulation of BGL
Note that Muscle cells do not have receptors for glucagon and so do not respond to it.
Dr Dawood 13
Glucose can only enter cells through transporter proteins known as GLUT.
Brain cells have GLUT1.
Insulin independent
Liver cells have GLUT2
Muscle & Adipose have GLUT4. Insulin dependent
GLUT 1 & 2 are always present in the cell surface membrane of the brain & liver cells and they don’t
need insulin in order to function.
While GLUT 4 are kept in the cytoplasm in the same way as the aquaporins in collecting duct cells.
Insulin is a signalling molecule which is made of protein, so it cannot pass through cell membranes.
Instead, insulin binds to a receptor in the cell surface membrane of effector cells.
Stimulating the vesicles with GLUT4 proteins to move towards the cell surface membrane and fuse
with it, thus increasing the rate of glucose uptake.
Describe the Stages of Insulin Cell Signalling
Dr Dawood 14
Glucagon & Adrenaline bind to specific receptors in the cell surface membrane of liver cells.
This binding activates a G protein, that in turn activates adenyl cyclase enzyme which catalyze the
conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), that acts as the secondary messenger.
cAMP activates a kinase enzyme which phosphorylates other enzymes to activate them.
Enzyme cascade leads to the activation of glycogen phosphorylase enzyme that catalyze the
breakdown of glycogen to glucose, which will diffuse out of the liver through GLUT 2 transporters
into the blood.
Describe the Stages of Glucagon/Adrenaline Cell Signalling
Note Adrenaline also stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stores in muscle during exercise, but the
glucose produced remains in the muscle cells where it is needed for respiration.
Dr Dawood 15
Diabetes Mellitus
It’s a metabolic disorder in which the BGL increases and reaches a level that exceed the renal
threshold >180 mg/dl (max amount of glucose, the kidneys can reabsorb) so glucose is lost in urine.
Type 𝚰 ( Juvenile onset ) Type 𝚰𝚰 ( Adult onset )

Usually begins very early in life. Begins late in life.
The pancreas doesn’t secrete sufficient insulin The pancreas secretes insulin but the liver &
in blood due to muscle cells do not respond properly.
Ø Defect in the gene coding for insulin. ( insulin resistance )
Ø Autoimmune attack on the 𝛽 cells.
Treated by regular injections of insulin. Treated by diet control & exercise
Known as Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus Known as Insulin independent diabetes mellitus
Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus
A. After A Carbohydrate Meal

Glucose is absorbed into the blood, and the concentration increases and stays high.
Ø When BGL exceeds the renal threshold for glucose, it will pass out in the urine, decreasing the
urine water potential thus withdrawing water and minerals along with glucose in the urine
→ Dehydration, salt loss, thirst
Ø In a diabetic person, the slow uptake of glucose into cells, results in the metabolism of fats and
proteins as alternative energy sources.
→ keto-acids (or ketones) & decreases blood PH
The combination of dehydration, salt loss and low blood pH can cause coma in extreme situations
called a hyperglycemic coma.
B. Between Meals
The BGL of a diabetic patient may decrease

steeply.
This is because there is no glycogen to break
down, as it was not stored when glucose was
present.
Once again, coma may result, this time because

of a lack of glucose for respiration called a
hypoglycemic coma.
Dr Dawood 16
Urine Analysis
Simple tests on urine can give early indications of health problems, which can then be investigated
more thoroughly.
Present in
Explanations Disease
Urine
BGL > 180 mg/dl
Glucose ∴ not all of the glucose is reabsorbed from the
Diabetes
filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule
Body cells are using fats as a respiratory

Ketones substrate due to the inability of glucose to enter Diabetes
the cells.
Short term → Fever, pregnancy,
exercise
Kidney damage thus large quantities of proteins
Proteins Long term→ kidney disease,
are filtered and are present in the urine.
glomeruli disease, high blood
pressure
Note Most protein molecules are too large to be filtered. However, some protein molecules are
filtered but these are reabsorbed by endocytosis in the proximal convoluted tubule, broken down
and the amino acids absorbed into the blood.
Glucose Dipstick
Is used to estimate the glucose concentration in urine which will indicate the BGL in order to
calculate the amount of insulin needed for the patient.
The dipstick is a thin plastic strip with a cellulose pad containing 2 immobilized enzymes
( glucose oxidase & peroxidase ) and a colouring agent called chromogen.
1. Glucose oxidase catalyze the oxidation of glucose in urine into gluconolactone ( gluconic acid ) &
hydrogen peroxide ( H2O2 )
2. Peroxidase catalyze the breakdown of H2O2 into O2 & H2O
3. Chromogen is oxidized by oxygen to give a range of brown colour.
The more the urine glucose concentration → the more O2 released → the darker the colour.
The colour produced can be matched against a graded colour chart to give a semiquantitative
estimate of urine glucose concentration.
Dr Dawood 17
Glucose Biosensor
Is an electronic device which measures the blood glucose concentration.
A small sample of blood is placed on a pad which is inserted into the biosensor,
1. The biosensor has an immobilized glucose oxidase, that oxidizes the blood glucose into gluconic
acid.
2. Gluconic acid releases H+ which generates a tiny current.
3. The current is detected by an electrode & amplified to be read by a meter within seconds.
The more glucose in blood → the more gluconic acid → the more H+ → the more current detected.
Plant Homeostasis
It is as important for plants to maintain a constant internal environment as it is for animals.
For example, mesophyll cells in leaves require a constant supply of CO2 during daylight for
photosynthesis so the guard cells control the internal atmosphere of the leaf by controlling the
stomatal opening.
Guard Cells
Guard cells differ from the surrounding epidermal cells, because they have
1. Chloroplasts.
2. Unevenly thickened cell walls with the wall adjacent to the pore is very thick ( inner walls ),
whereas the wall furthest from the pore is thin ( outer walls ).
3. Cellulose microfibrils are arranged as hoops around the cells so that when turgid the cell mostly
increases in length and not diameter.
4. The ends of the two guard cells are joined so when they are turgid they become curved.
Note a stoma is the hole between the guard cells.
Dr Dawood 18
Stomata show daily rhythms of opening and closing.

Even when kept in constant light or constant dark, these rhythms persist.
Stomatal Opening Stomatal Closure

Inward diffusion of CO2. To reduce rate of transpiration and water loss.
Outward diffusion of O2.
Outward diffusion of water vapour in
transpiration.
Open in response to Close in response to

1. Increased light intensity. 1. Darkness.
2. Decreased CO2 concentration in air spaces. 2. High CO2 concentrations in air spaces.
3. High temperatures.
4. Low humidity.
5. Water stress.
Dr Dawood 19
Opening of Stomata
Guard cells open when they gain water to become turgid and close when they lose water and
become flaccid.
1) ATP-powered proton pumps in the membrane actively transport H+ out of the guard cells.
2) The decrease in H+ concentration & negative charge resulting inside the cells, opens potassium
channels in the cell surface membrane to so that K+ moves into the cell down the
electrochemical gradient .
3) Decreasing the water potential decreases inside the cells & water moves in by osmosis through
aquaporins in the membrane.
4) This increases the turgor of the guard cells, and the stoma opens.
Closure of Stomata
Abscisic acid ( ABA ) is synthesized in almost all plant cells that have chloroplasts or Amyloplasts.
ABA is a plant stress hormone secreted when the plant is subjected to very high temperatures or
reduced water supply ( droughts ).
ABA binds to its specific membrane receptor on guard cells

1. Inhibition of proton pumps.
2. Stimulates the movement of Ca2+ into the cytoplasm through cell surface membrane &
tonoplast.
Calcium acts as the secondary messenger resulting in
• Opening of channel proteins that allow negatively charged ions ( Cl- ) to leave the guard cell.
• Stimulation of K+ pumps that pump potassium outside the cells.
• Closure of K+ channels that allow potassium to enter the cells.
∴ The loss of ions raises the water potential inside the guard cells, thus water moves to the outside
by osmosis down water potential gradient & the cells become flaccid, closing the stomata.
Note If ABA is applied to a leaf, the stomata close within just a few minutes.
Dr Dawood 20
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content
Syllabus
14 Homeostasis
Cells function most efficiently if they are kept in near optimum conditions. Cells in multicellular animals are
surrounded by tissue fluid. The composition of tissue fluid is kept constant by exchanges with the blood as
discussed in the topic on Transport in mammals (Topic 8). In mammals, core temperature, blood glucose
concentration and blood water potential are maintained within narrow limits to ensure the efficient operation of
cells. Prior knowledge for this topic includes an understanding that waste products are excreted from the body
and an outline of the structure and function of the nervous and endocrine systems. In plants, guard cells respond
to fluctuations in environmental conditions and open and close stomata as appropriate for photosynthesis and
conserving water.
14.1 Homeostasis in mammals Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 explain what is meant by homeostasis and the importance of
homeostasis in mammals
2 explain the principles of homeostasis in terms of internal and
external stimuli, receptors, coordination systems (nervous
system and endocrine system), effectors (muscles and glands)
and negative feedback
3 state that urea is produced in the liver from the deamination of
excess amino acids
4 describe the structure of the human kidney, limited to:
• fibrous capsule
• cortex
• medulla
• renal pelvis
• ureter
• branches of the renal artery and renal vein
5 Identify, in diagrams, photomicrographs and electron
micrographs, the parts of a nephron and its associated blood
vessels and structures, limited to:
• glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• proximal convoluted tubule
• loop of Henle
• distal convoluted tubule
• collecting duct
6 describe and explain the formation of urine in the nephron,
limited to:
• the formation of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in the
Bowman’s capsule
• selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
7 relate the detailed structure of the Bowman’s capsule and
proximal convoluted tubule to their functions in the formation
of urine
8 describe the roles of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary
gland, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aquaporins and collecting
ducts in osmoregulation
continued
Back to contents page www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel 33

Dr Dawood 21
Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology 9700 syllabus for 2022, 2023 and 2024. Subject content
14.1 Homeostasis in mammals Learning outcomes

continued Candidates should be able to:
9 describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the
control of blood glucose concentration by glucagon, limited to:
• binding of hormone to cell surface receptor causing
conformational change
• activation of G-protein leading to stimulation of adenylyl
cyclase
• formation of the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP)
• activation of protein kinase A by cAMP leading to initiation
of an enzyme cascade
• amplification of the signal through the enzyme cascade
as a result of activation of more and more enzymes by
phosphorylation
• cellular response in which the final enzyme in the pathway
is activated, catalysing the breakdown of glycogen
10 explain how negative feedback control mechanisms regulate
blood glucose concentration, with reference to the effects of
insulin on muscle cells and liver cells and the effect of glucagon
on liver cells
11 explain the principles of operation of test strips and biosensors
for measuring the concentration of glucose in blood and urine,
with reference to glucose oxidase and peroxidase enzymes
14.2 Homeostasis in plants Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1 explain that stomata respond to changes in environmental
conditions by opening and closing and that regulation of
stomatal aperture balances the need for carbon dioxide
uptake by diffusion with the need to minimise water loss by
transpiration
2 explain that stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing
3 describe the structure and function of guard cells and explain
the mechanism by which they open and close stomata
4 describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata
during times of water stress, including the role of calcium ions
as a second messenger
34 www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel Back to contents page
Dr Dawood 22

CH 3 - Homeostasis

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A2 Biology 3) Homeostasis June 2024

The homeostatic mechanisms in mammals require information to be transferred between different

Nitrogenous excretory products

The kidney makes urine in 2 stages.

Pass Can’t pass

A. Proximal Convoluted Tubule ( PCT )

Describe the Mechanism of Reabsorption in the PCT

C. Distal Convoluted Tubule ( DCT ) & Collecting Duct

Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH ) is a polypeptide

Blood Glucose Level

A) In case of increased BGL ( Hypergylcemia )

Insulin decreases BGL by

Glucagon increases BGL by

Describe the Stages of Insulin Cell Signalling

Type 𝚰 ( Juvenile onset ) Type 𝚰𝚰 ( Adult onset )

Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

A. After A Carbohydrate Meal

The BGL of a diabetic patient may decrease

Once again, coma may result, this time because

Body cells are using fats as a respiratory

Note a stoma is the hole between the guard cells.

Stomata show daily rhythms of opening and closing.

Stomatal Opening Stomatal Closure

Open in response to Close in response to

ABA binds to its specific membrane receptor on guard cells

Back to contents page www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel 33

A2 Biology 3) Homeostasis June 2024

14.1 Homeostasis in mammals Learning outcomes

34 www.cambridgeinternational.org/alevel Back to contents page

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