HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY II

School Of Biochemistry
UNIT I : Organs Of Excretory System
EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Definition:
Excretion is the process by which the unwanted substances and metabolic
wastes are eliminated from the body.
A large amount of waste materials and carbon di-Oxide are produced in
the tissues during metabolic process

 In addition, residue of undigested food ,heavy metals, drugs, toxic

substances and pathogenic organisms like bacteria are also present in
the body.

 All these substances must be removed to keep the body in healthy

condition. Various systems/organs in the body are involved in
performing the excretory function,
1 Digestive system excretes food residues in the
form of feces. Some bacteria and toxic substances
also are excreted through feces

2 Lungs remove carbon dioxide and water vapor

3 Skin excretes water, salts and some wastes. It

also removes heat from the body

4 Liver excretes many substances like bile

pigments, heavy metals, drugs, toxins, bacteria,
etc. through Bile
 Although various organs are involved in removal of wastes from
the body, their excretory capacity is limited. But renal system or
urinary system has maximum excretory capacity and so it plays a
major role in homeostasis.

Renal system includes:

1. A pair of kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary bladder
4. Urethra.

Kidneys produce the urine. Ureters transport the urine to urinary

bladder. Urinary bladder stores the urine until it is voided
(emptied). Urine is voided from bladder through urethra
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FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY:

ROLE IN HOMEOSTASIS :Primary function of kidneys is homeostasis. It is

accomplished by the formation of urine. During the formation of urine, kidneys
regulate various activities in the body, which are concerned with homeostasis such
as
A) Excretion of Waste Products: Kidneys excrete the unwanted waste products,
which are formed during metabolic activities
1. Urea (end product of amino acid metabolism)
2. Uric acid (end product of nucleic acid metabolism)
3. Creatinine (end product of metabolism in muscles)
4. Bilirubin (end product of hemoglobin degradation)
5. Products of metabolism of other substances
Kidneys also excrete harmful foreign chemical substances such as toxins, drugs,
heavy metals pesticides, etc.

B) Maintenance of Water Balance

C) Maintenance of Electrolyte Balance
D) Maintenance of Acid-Base Balance
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HEMOPOIETIC FUNCTION:Kidneys stimulate the production of erythrocytes by
secreting erythropoietin, Erythropoietin is the important stimulating factor for
erythropoiesis . Kidney also secretes another factor called thrombopoietin, which
stimulates the production of thrombocytes

ENDOCRINE FUNCTION:
 Hormones secreted by kidneys
 Erythropoietin
 Thrombopoietin
 Renin
 1,.25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol)
 Prostaglandins.

REGULATION OF BLOOD CALCIUM LEVEL:

Kidneys play a role in the regulation of blood calcium level by activating 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol into vitamin D

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Nephrons (Greek nephros=kidney) are renal or kidney tubules. Each kidney has over one million
nephrons that are responsible for removing waste products from blood and maintaining water, salt and pH
balance in the body. This vital job results in the formation of urine.
1.Afferent Arteriole
The afferent arteriole receives blood rich in oxygen from the renal artery.This blood is transported to the
glomerulus of the nephron where it is pressure filtered.
2.Glomerulus
The glomerulus (Latin glomus=ball) is a knotted up capillary that contains
small pores. The plasma of the blood and the small molecules contained in plasma are pressure filtered
into the Bowman's capsule. Large blood proteins and formed elements like blood cells and platlets are too
big to be pressure filtered and remain in the arteriole.
3.Efferent Arteriole
The efferent arteriole is smaller in diameter than the afferent arteriole and increases the pressure in the
glomerulus aiding pressure filtration. The blood entering the efferent arteriole is thicker, as plasma has
entered the tubule, but still contains oxygen that is moved on to the peritubular network to provide for the
metabolic needs of the tubule.
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4.Bowman's Capsule
The filtrate produced in the glomerulus is collected in a bulblike start to the nephron called
the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule (named for British surgeon Sir William
Bowman). The plasma and its’ dissolved molecules are transported from the Bowman's
capsule into the lumen or inside of the nephron.
5.Proximal Convoluted Tubule
At this point in the nephron, the filtrate from the blood contains both waste molecules like
urea and useful molecules like amino acids, glucose, and salt. The filtering process in the
glomerulus is not selective (except by size) so the proximal convoluted tubule
works to actively transport nutrients (glucose, amino acids, and salts) back into the blood
capillaries so they are not lost in the urine. The tubule has a brush border with many villi to
increase the surface area for this process of selective reabsorption. The cells of the tubule
also contain many mitochondria that produce the ATP required for the large amount of active
transport taking place throughout the length of the tubule.

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6.Loop of Henle
The Loop of Henle dips down into the hypertonic environment of the kidney medulla and is
responsible for the reabsorption of water from the filtrate. Water is drawn out of the descending
limb of the loop, by osmosis, into the hypertonic medulla of the kidney. This water can then
move into the capillary network and back into circulation to maintain blood volume. The
ascending limb of the loop is impermeable to water and removes salt into the medulla of the
kidney adding to the hypertonicity.
7.Distal Convoluted Tubule
The Distal Convoluted Tubule is the site of tubular secretion. This process involves the active
transport of materials from the blood directly into the tubule. Examples of molecules that are
secreted by the distal convoluted tubule are creatinine, drugs like penicillin, and hydrogen ions.
Tubular secretion of hydrogenions along with the reabsorption of bicarbonate ions (a biological
buffer) acts as a mechanism to control blood pH.

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8.Peritubular Capillary Network
The Peritubular Capillary Network acts as the blood supply to the nephron. The capillaries provide the
nephron with glucose and oxygen to help with ATP production needed for active transport. The
nutrients and water that are reabsorbed by the nephron are taken up by the capillary network
surrounding the tubules and carried back to the renal vein and the body

9.Collecting Duct
The collecting duct receives filtrate from several nephrons. The collecting duct will remove varying
amount of additional water from the filtrate depending on the hydration state of the individual. This
results in a wide range of urine, from very dilute (lots of water remains) to very concentrated (most of
the water was reabsorbed). The amount of water reabsorbed is controlled by a hormone called ADH
and is the topic of a future lesson. Once in the pelvis of the kidney the filtrate (now urine) contains
substances that were pressure filtered and never reabsorbed such as urea, excess salt, water and other
substances that were secreted from the blood such as hydrogen ions, drugs, or creatinine.
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Formation of urine:
For the production of urine, the kidneys do not simply pick waste products out of the
bloodstream and send them along for final disposal. The kidneys' 2 million or more
nephrons (about a million in each kidney) form urine by three precisely regulated processes:
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
.1.FILTRATION:
Urine formation begins with the process of filtration, which goes on continually in the renal
corpuscles . As blood courses through the glomeruli, much of its fluid, containing both
useful chemicals and dissolved waste materials, soaks out of the blood the blood through the
membranes (by osmosis and diffusion) where it is filtered and then flows into the Bowman's
capsule. This process is called glomerular filtration. The water,waste products, salt, glucose,
and other chemicals that have been filtered out of the blood are known collectively as
glomerular filtrate.

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2.REABSORPTION:
Reabsorption, by definition, is the movement of substances out of the renal tubules back
into the blood capillaries located around the tubules (called the peritubular capillaries).
Substances reabsorbed are water,glucose and other nutrients, and sodium (Na+) and other
ions. Reabsorption begins in the proximal convoluted tubules and continues in the loop of
Henle, distal convoluted tubules, and collecting tubules
3.SECRETION:
Secretion is the process by which substances move into the distal and collecting tubules
from blood in the capillaries around these tubules
 

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