Excretion

REMOVAL OF METABOLIC WASTE

Syllabus Objectives
5.1 distinguish between egestion and excretion; Undigested material versus bilirubin in faeces,
and urea in urine.
5.2 discuss the importance of excretion in living organisms; Implications of toxicity. For example,
carbon dioxide, heat, urea, water, oxygen, calcium oxalate and tannins.
5.3 state how metabolic wastes are excreted from plants and animals; Leaf fall, loss of bark and
storage in plants; lungs, skin, urinary systems in humans to be included
5.4 relate the kidney to its osmoregulatory and excretory functions. Highlight structure of the
urinary system and kidney tubule; The function of the parts. Mention kidney failure and dialysis.
Role of ADH in homeostasis. Annotated simple diagrams of the gross kidney structure and that
of the nephron to illustrate the production of urine required.
Excretion
Metabolism is all the chemical and physical changes that occur in bodies. Some of the chemical
processes produce substances that are of no use and may even be toxic if allowed to accumulate.
Excretion is the removal of waste products, made in chemical reactions in the cell, which may be
harmful, e.g. CO2 That is, the removal of metabolic waste.
Egestion (defecation) is the removal of undigested remains of food which have not been part of
the cells, e.g. faeces.
Importance of Excretion: cells need constant conditions for proper operation. It is important to
remove:
◦ Toxic (harmful) substances
◦ Waste products of metabolism
◦ Substances in excess of requirements.
 Excretory Products in Mammals
Products Origin Excretion

Urea Excess amino acids From kidneys

Carbon dioxide From respiration From lungs

Water From respiration From lungs, skin and kidneys

Heat From respiration From lungs, skin and kidneys

Pigments Red blood cells In faeces

Excretory Organs in Mammals
Organ Excretory products

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water vapour and heat

Liver Bile pigments (from worn-out red blood cells)

Skin Sweat containing water vapour, heat, salts and some urea

Kidneys Urine containing urea, excess water and salts, some heat
Excretory Organs in Plants
Leaves and stems for gaseous excretion of excess oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Leaves and bark for tannins, calcium oxalate.
Product Origin Excretion
Oxygen Photosynthesis Stomata
Carbon dioxide Respiration Stomata
Water Respiration Stomata
Heat Respiration Used during transpiration
Calcium oxalate Metabolic activities Stored in leaves and bark; lost in bark
and in leaf fall
Tannins Metabolic activities Stored in leaves and bark; lost in bark
and in leaf fall
Excretion in Plants
Leaves are continuously being lost from trees. The process of leaf fall includes:
◦Waste substances accumulate in leaves
◦Abscission layer (loosely-packed cells) forms at the base of the leaf stalk
◦Waterproof cork layer forms on the stem side
◦Veins become blocked, so leaf dies and the wind blows it off
◦A leaf scar is left on the stem.
Other plant excretion methods include:
Tannins and calcium oxalate are stored in bark which drops off at intervals.
Crystals, e.g. calcium oxalate, form in cells and no longer affect cell activities.
The Urinary System in Mammals
The kidneys form part of the urinary system in mammals. They are a pair of bean-shaped organs,
found one on each side of the vertebral column. In humans, the kidneys are located slightly above
the waistline, and are embedded in a thick cushion of fat for protection.
The left kidney is slightly higher than the right kidney. Besides the kidneys, the urinary system
consists of a pair of ureters, a bladder and the urethra.
The kidneys receive blood from the renal artery and return the filtered blood to the circulation
through the renal vein. The waste and water removed from the blood leave the kidney through the
ureter which leads to the bladder.
As urine accumulates in the bladder, sense receptors in the bladder walls are stimulated. The signals
from these receptors travel to the brain and give the sensation of an urge to urinate. At birth,
urination is involuntary and babies constantly pass urine. As we grow up, we learn to suppress the
urge and it becomes voluntary. Urine is released from the bladder through the urethra when the
sphincter muscle is relaxed.
Structure of
the Kidney
Each kidney has a solid outer
cortex and an inner medulla.
These 2 layers are packed with
more than a million tiny
microscopic units called nephrons.
The nephron spans the kidney
cortex and the kidney medulla,
and is responsible for carrying out
the main functions of the kidney –
waste removal and
osmoregulation.
The Nephron
Nephrons are the  functional
and structural units of the kidneys. Each
kidney contains over 1 million of these
tiny blood processing units, which carry
out the processes that from urine, such
as filtration and selective reabsorption .
 The nephron is where urine is formed
and is surrounded by complex network
of blood capillaries where active
transport and passive transport can take
place. The nephron is responsible for
removing wastes from the blood and
regulate blood composition.
 The Nephron
Components of the Nephron:

Afferent capillary - Takes blood to Glomerulus

Glomerulus - Is a knot of blood capillaries from the apparent capillary that filters substances from the blood, situated in the Bowman's capsule

Renal Capsule ( Bowman's capsule )- where transport of filtrates from the blood come into the nephron

Efferent capillary - the capillary knots eventually untie to pass out of the Bowman's Capsule and coil around the entire nephron

Proximal convoluted tubule - selectively reabsorbs solutes such as glucose, amino acids and ions from the filtrate back into the bloodstream

Loop of Henle - Reabsorption of water and other solutes such as glucose, amino acids and ions from the filtrate back into the bloodstream

Distal convoluted tubule - regulates pH/water by absorbing bicarbonate and secrete hydrogen ions

collecting duct - collects urine from the nephron and sends it to the bladder awaiting removal

All these components are vitally important and each play a specific role in the formation of urine, whether it be filtration, selective reabsorption or tubular
secretion, these components are responsible for the excretion of bodily wastes and help keep the body at homeostasis.
 Urine Formation
Urine is produced by 2 main processes within the nephron:
◦ Ultrafiltration: (occurs at the glomerulus) filters out all small molecules from the blood
◦ selective Reabsorption: (occurs at the kidney tubule) reabsorbs the useful molecules from the kidney
tubules back into the blood.

Ultrafiltration
The renal artery branches into several arterioles, each carrying blood to a nephron. The afferent
arteriole branches into small capillaries forming the glomerulus. The walls of the glomerular
capillaries have pores to allow small molecules (water, urea, glucose and amino acids) to be
forced out of the capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule.
Urine Formation
Notice that the lumen of the afferent arteriole
is wider than that of the efferent arteriole.
This difference in diameter of the arterioles
increases the pressure of the blood flowing
through the glomerulus. This high hydrostatic
pressure provides the force for small
molecules to be filtered out of the blood, and
is known as ultrafiltration. The fluid formed in
this process is called the glomerular filtrate
and does not contain large molecules such as
the plasma proteins and blood cells which
cannot pass through the small pores of the
glomerulus.
 Urine Formation
Selective Reabsorption
The kidney reabsorbs the useful substances from the glomerular filtrate into the blood so that
they will not be lost in the urine. The substances reabsorbed are:
◦ All glucose and amino acids, and some salts (such as sodium ions) diffuse out of the proximal
convoluted tubule from the filtrate into the blood a process which also involves active transport since
all the glucose needs to be reabsorbed;
◦ The filtrate then travels to the loop of Henle` where water is reabsorbed into the blood;
◦ After this, the filtrate then passes into the distal convoluted tubule where some of the remaining salt is
reabsorbed with some water.
◦ At the end of the tubule is the collecting duct, and when the filtrate reaches here, it is now referred to
as urine and is made up of excess salts, nitrogenous waste products, excess water and processed drugs
and poisons from the liver. The collecting duct transports the urine to the pelvis of the kidney.
 Osmoregulation
The type of urine produced (very yellow and concentrate, or almost clear and dilute) is a result
of homeostasis. Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a constant internal environment in
the body. The kidney plays an important role in homeostasis as it helps to regulate the blood
water concentration. This function is dependent on the anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secreted
by the pituitary gland in the brain.
Its secretion is controlled by the hypothalamus in response to changes in the blood fluid levels.
ADH increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct to water.
By regulating the balance of solutes and water in body, the kidney also helps to control our
blood pressure. If the blood pressure is not kept under control, a large increase in blood
pressure can cause blood vessels in the brain to burst, resulting in a stroke.
Osmoregulation
 Kidney (Renal) Failure
There are several possible causes of kidney failure, including high blood pressure and diabetes.
A person with kidney failure will suffer the effects of toxins accumulating in the body. If they are
not removed, the condition will likely become fatal. Our body can survive on one functioning
kidney, but if both kidneys fail, a kidney transplant or dialysis treatment is required.
The dialysis machine acts as a substitute for the dialysis patient’s kidneys. Blood is drawn from a
patient’s vein and pumped through a long, narrow and coiled dialysis tubing. The waste
products are removed from the blood by diffusion, before the filtered blood is returned to a vein
in the patient’s arm.
Dialysis
The mechanism of dialysis is outlined as follows:
◦ The dialysis tubing is partially permeable, such that
only small molecules can pass through;
◦ The dialysis fluid contains the same concentration
of essential substances as the blood. This prevents
useful molecules of glucose and amino acids from
diffusing out of the blood.
◦ The dialysis fluid does not contain any waste
products. This creates a diffusion gradient so that
the waste materials such as urea, nitrogenous
waste, excess water and mineral salts can be
removed from the blood;
◦ The direction of blood flow is opposite to flow of
dialysis fluid so as to maintain the concentration
gradient for removal of waste products.
Past Paper Questions
1. June 2009 #4
2. June 2011 #5
3. June 2014 #3