A Level Biology by Mr.

ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

INTRODUCTION:
Cells function most efficiently if they are kept in near optimum conditions. Cells in multicellular
animals are surrounded by tissue fluid. The composition of tissue fluid is kept constant by
exchanges with the blood. In mammals, core temperature, blood glucose concentration and blood
water potential are maintained within narrow limits to ensure the efficient operation of cells. Prior
knowledge for this topic includes an understanding that waste products are excreted from the body
and an outline of the structure and function of the nervous and endocrine systems. In plants, guard
cells respond to fluctuations in environmental conditions and open and close stomata as
appropriate for photosynthesis and conserving water.

14.1 HOMEOSTASIS IN MAMMALS

Homeostasis in mammals requires complex systems to maintain internal conditions near constant.
The kidneys remove wastes from the blood and are the effectors for controlling the water potential
of the blood.

1. Explain what is meant by homeostasis and the importance of homeostasis in mammals

To function efficiently, organisms have control systems to keep their internal conditions near constant.
This is known as homeostasis.
In the body of an animal conditions such
as water concentration, temperature,
and glucose concentration must be kept
as constant as possible. Control systems
that keep such conditions constant are
examples of homeostasis; this is the
maintenance of constant internal
conditions in an organism.

Some of the physiological factors

controlled in homeostasis in mammals
are:

• core body temperature

• metabolic wastes, particularly
CO2 and urea
• blood pH
• blood glucose concentration
• water potential of the blood
• the concentrations in the blood of the respiratory gases, O 2 and CO2.
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The importance of homeostasis
The internal environment of an organism = conditions inside the body in which the cells function.
A cell's immediate environment is the tissue fluid that surrounds it. Many features of the tissue
fluid influence how well the cell functions.
Temperature:
• low temperatures slow down metabolic reactions.
• at high temperatures proteins, including enzymes, are denatured and cannot function.
Water potential:
• if the water potential decreases, water may move out of cells by osmosis, causing metabolic
reactions in the cell to slow or stop.
• if the water potential increases, water may enter the cell causing it to swell and maybe burst.
Concentration of glucose
• glucose is the fuel for respiration, so lack of it causes respiration to slow or stop, depriving
the cell of an energy source; too much glucose may cause water to move out of the cell by
osmosis, again disturbing the metabolism of the cell.
• In general, homeostatic mechanisms work by controlling the composition of blood, which
therefore controls the composition of tissue fluid.

2. Eexplain the principles of homeostasis in terms of internal and external stimuli,

receptors, coordination systems (nervous system and endocrine system), effectors
(muscles and glands) and negative feedback

Homeostatic control
Homeostatic control mechanisms have at least 3 interdependent components: receptor, control
center, and effector.
The receptor senses environmental stimuli (external/internal), sending the information through
the nervous system to a control center in the brain or spinal cord. This sensory information is
known as the input.
The control center, generally the brain, signals an effector (muscles and glands) to respond to the
stimuli (to carry out an action, which is called the output). These actions are sometimes called
corrective actions as their effect is to correct (or reverse) the change.
Positive feedback enhances or accelerates output created by an activated stimulus (any change in
a factor, such as a change in blood temperature or the water content of the blood).
Negative feedback mechanisms consist of reducing the output or activity of any organ or system
back to its normal range of functioning (e.g., adjusting blood pressure, metabolism, and body
temperature).

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3. State that urea is produced in the liver from the deamination of excess amino acids

Amino Acid Metabolism

Amino acid metabolism takes place in the liver, and consists of following stages:

Deamination: In this reaction an amino group is removed from excess amino acids to form
ammonia and a keto acid.
This reaction is catalysed by a dehydrogenase enzyme. Most other amino acids are first
transaminated to form glutamate amino acid, which is then deaminated. The NADH produced is
used in the respiratory chain; the keto acid either enters the Krebs cycle and used to produce energy
or converted into fat or glycogen for storage.

Urea Synthesis: In this reaction surplus amino-acids are converted to urea, ready for excretion by
the kidney. Ammonia is highly toxic, and stops the Krebs cycle; urea is less toxic than ammonia,
so it is safer to have in the bloodstream. The disadvantage is that it “costs” 3 ATP molecules to
make one urea molecule. This is not in fact a single reaction, but is a summary of another cyclic
pathway, called the ornithine cycle (or urea cycle). It was the first cyclic pathway discovered.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
4. Describe the structure of the human kidney, limited to:
• fibrous capsule
• cortex
• medulla
• renal pelvis
• ureter
• branches of the renal artery and renal vein
THE STRUCTURE AND HISTOLOGY OF KIDNEYS

Each kidney is supplied with oxygenated blood

through a renal artery. Blood is removed in the renal
vein. A tube called the ureter takes urine from the
kidney to the bladder.

Each kidney contains thousands of microscopic

tubes called nephrons. The beginning of each
nephron is a cup-shaped structure called a fibrous or
renal capsule (Bowman's capsule). This is in the
cortex of the kidney. The tube leads from the renal
capsule down into the kidney medulla, then loops
back into the cortex before finally running back
down through the medulla into the renal pelvis of the kidney, where it joins the ureter.

5. Identify, in diagrams, photomicrographs and electron micrographs, the parts of a

nephron and its associated blood vessels and structures, limited to:
• glomerulus
• Bowman’s capsule
• proximal convoluted tubule
• loop of Henle
• distal convoluted tubule
• collecting duct

Each nephron has a network of blood vessels

associated with it. Blood arrives in the afferent
arteriole (from the renal artery), and is delivered
to a network of capillaries, called a glomerulus,
in the cup of the renal capsule. Blood leaves the
glomerulus in the efferent arteriole, which is
narrower than the afferent arteriole. This leads
to another network of capillaries that wraps
around the nephron, before delivering the blood
to a branch of the renal vein.

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The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft, of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of
the renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent
arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water
and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma, and into the interior of Bowman's capsule, called
Bowman's space.

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The diagrams below show the histology (structure of tissues) of the kidney.

6. Describe and explain the formation of urine in the nephron, limited to:
• the formation of glomerular filtrate by ultrafiltration in the Bowman’s capsule
• selective reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubule
7. Relate the detailed structure of the Bowman’s capsule and proximal convoluted tubule
to their functions in the formation of urine

Production of urine in a nephron - Ultrafiltration and reabsorption

Ultrafiltration occurs at the barrier between the blood and the filtrate in the renal capsule or
Bowman's capsule in the kidneys.

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Ultrafiltration
The Bowman's capsule contains a dense capillary network called the glomerulus. Blood flows into
these capillaries through the afferent arteriole and leaves through the efferent arteriole.

The blood in a glomerulus is separated from the space inside the renal capsule by:
• the capillary wall (endothelium) which is one cell thick and has pores in it;
• the basement membrane of the wall of the renal capsule;
• the layer of cells making up the wall of the renal capsule, called podocytes; these cells have
slits between them.

The blood in a glomerulus is at a relatively high pressure, because the efferent arteriole is narrower
than the afferent arteriole. This forces molecules from the blood through these three structures,
into the renal capsule.

The pores in the capsulary endothelium and the slits between the podocytes will let all molecules
through, but the basement membrane acts as a filter and will only let small molecules pass through.

- Substances that can pass through include water, glucose, inorganic ions such as Na +, K+ and Cl-
and urea.

- Substances that cannot pass through include red and white blood cells and plasma proteins (such
as albumen and fibrinogen).

- The liquid that seeps through into the renal capsule is called glomerular filtrate.
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Selective reabsorption in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Some of the substances that are filtered into the renal capsule need to be retained by the body.
These include:
• all of the glucose and amino acids
• some of the inorganic ions
• much of the water
These substances are therefore taken back into the blood through the walls of the proximal
convoluted tubule. This is called selective reabsorption.

The cells in the walls of the tubule have many mitochondria, to provide ATP for active transport.
Their surfaces facing the lumen of the tubule have a large surface area provided by microvilli.
• Active transport is used to move Na+ out of
the outer surface of a cell in the wall of the
proximal convoluted tubule, into the blood.
• This lowers the concentration of Na+ inside
the cell, so that Na+ ions diffuse into the cell
from the fluid inside the tubule. The Na+
ions diffuse through protein transporters in
the cell surface membrane of the cell
• As the Na+ ions diffuse through these
transporter proteins, they carry glucose
molecules with them. This is called co-
transport. The glucose molecules move
through the cell and diffuse into the blood.
• The movement of Na+ and glucose into the
blood decreases the water potential in the
blood. Water therefore moves by osmosis
from the fluid inside the tubule, down a
water potential gradient through the cells
making up the wall of the tubule and into the
blood.
As a result, the fluid inside the nephron now has:
• no glucose
• a lower concentration of Na+ than the filtrate
originally had
• less water than the filtrate originally had
About 50% of the urea is also reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule.

Role of Vasa Recta (the straight arterioles of kidney):

Delivers oxygen and removes carbon dioxide from the metabolically active cells of the Loop of
Henle.
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The loop of Henle:
Some, but not all, nephrons have long loops of Henle that dip down into the medulla and then
back up into the cortex. The function of the loop of Henle is to build up a high concentration of
Na+ and CI- in the tissues of the medulla. This allows highly concentrated urine to be produced.
Note that the loop of Henle itself does not produce highly concentrated urine.
As fluid flows down the descending limb of the loop of Henle, water moves out of it by osmosis.
By the time the fluid reaches the bottom of the loop, it has a much lower water potential than at
the top of the loop. As it flows up the ascending limb, Na+ and Cl- move out of the fluid into the
surrounding tissues, first by diffusion and then by active transport.
This creates a low water potential in the tissues of the medulla. The longer the loop, the lower the
water potential that can be produced.

Role of loop of Henle:

• Creating a Salt Gradient in the Medulla.
• The function of the loop of Henle is to create a salt bath concentration in the fluid
surrounding the tubule.
• The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water, but relatively impermeable
to Na and +Cl-.

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• The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to salts, but impermeable to water.
• This means that as the loop descends into the medulla, the interstitial fluid becomes more
salty (and less salty as it ascends into the cortex).
• As the vasa recta blood network that surrounds the loop flows in the opposite direction
(counter-current exchange), this further multiplies the effect.

The distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct:

The fluid inside the tubule as it leaves the loop of Henle and moves into the collecting duct has
lost a little more water and more Na+ than it had when it entered the loop. Because more water
has been lost, the concentration of urea has increased.
Now, in the distal convoluted tubule, Na+ is actively transported out of the fluid.
The fluid then flows through the collecting duct. This passes through the medulla, where a low
water potential has been produced by the loop of Henle. As the fluid continues to flow through
the collecting duct, water moves down the water potential gradient from the collecting duct and
into the tissues of the medulla. This further increases the concentration of urea in the tubule. The
fluid that finally leaves the collecting duct and flows into the ureter is urine.

8. Describe the roles of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary gland, antidiuretic hormone
(ADH), aquaporins and collecting ducts in osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of the water content of body fluids. It is part of homeostasis, the
maintenance of a constant internal environment.
It is important that cells are surrounded by tissue fluid of a similar water potential to their own
contents, to avoid too much water loss or gain which could disrupt metabolism. Water is lost from
the fluid inside a nephron as it flows through the collecting duct. The permeability of the walls of
the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct can be varied.

• If they are permeable, then much water can move out of the tubule and the urine becomes
concentrated. The water is taken back into the blood and retained in the body.
• If they are made impermeable, little water can move out of the tubule and the urine remains
dilute. A lot of water is removed from the body.
ADH:
ADH is antidiuretic hormone. It is secreted from the posterior pituitary gland into the blood.
When the water potential of the blood is too low (that is, it has too little water in it), this is sensed
by osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus. The osmoreceptor cells are neurones (nerve cells).
They produce ADH, which moves along their axons and into the posterior pituitary gland from
where it is secreted into the blood.

The ADH travels in solution in the blood plasma. When it reaches the walls of the collecting duct,
it makes them permeable to water. Water is therefore reabsorbed from the fluid in the collecting
duct and small volumes of concentrated urine are produced.
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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
When the water potential of the blood is too high (that is, it has too
much water in it), this is sensed by the osmoreceptor cells and less
ADH is secreted. The collecting duct walls therefore become
less permeable to water and less is reabsorbed into the
blood. Large volumes of dilute urine are produced.

Negative feedback
The mechanism for controlling the water content
of the body, using ADH, is an example of negative
feedback.
When the water potential of the blood rises too
high or falls too low, this is sensed by receptor
cells. They cause an action to be taken by
effectors which cause the water potential to
be moved back towards the correct value.
In this case, the receptors are the osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus, and the effectors are
their endings in the posterior pituitary gland that secrete ADH.

Decreased Water Content in Blood:

• The cells of the collecting ducts are the

target cells of ADH.
• ADH acts on the cell surface membranes
of the collecting duct cells, making them
more permeable to water than usual.
• This change in permeability is brought
about by increasing the number of water
permeable channels, known as
aquaporins, in the cell surface membrane
of collecting duct cells.
• ADH molecules bind to receptor proteins
on the cell surface membranes, which in
turn activate enzymes inside the cells.
• The cells contain ready-made vesicles that have many aquaporins in their membrane.
• Once the enzymes in each cell are activated by the arrival of ADH, these vesicles move
towards the cell surface membranes and fuse with them, hence increasing the membranes’
permeability to water.
• Now, as the fluid flows down the collecting duct, water molecules move through the
aquaporins, out of the tubule and into the tissue fluid.
• This is because the water potential of the tissue fluid in the medulla is very low and the
water potential of the fluid in the collecting duct is very high.
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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
• The fluid in the duct loses water and becomes more concentrated. Hence, the volume of
urine, which flows from the kidneys into the bladder, will be lesser and the urine will be
less concentrated.

9. Describe the principles of cell signalling using the example of the control of blood
glucose concentration by glucagon.

Cell Signalling:
• binding of glucagon hormone to cell surface hormone receptor causing
conformational change
• activation of G-protein leading to stimulation of adenylyl cyclase
• formation of the second messenger, cyclic AMP (cAMP)
• activation of protein kinase A by cAMP leading to initiation of an enzyme
cascade
• amplification of the signal through the enzyme cascade as a result of activation
of more and more enzymes by phosphorylation
• cellular response in which the final enzyme in the pathway is activated,
catalysing the breakdown of glycogen

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10. Explain how negative feedback control mechanisms regulate blood glucose
concentration, with reference to the effects of insulin on muscle cells and liver cells and
the effect of glucagon on liver cells

Insulin and glucagon work together as part of a negative feedback system. As a result of glucagon
secretion, the liver releases extra glucose to increase the concentration in the blood.
Insulin:
• Insulin is a signaling molecule.
• It’s a protein and cannot pass directly through the cell surface membranes.
• It binds to a receptor in the cell membrane and affects the cell indirectly through the
mediations of intracellular messengers.
• Insulin stimulates the cells, containing its specific receptors, to increase the rate at which
they absorb glucose from the blood and convert it into glycogen and use it for respiration.

Insulin Effect 1:
• Glucose can only enter cells via the GLUT transporter proteins.
• There are several different types of GLUT proteins:
1. GLUT-1 (for brain)
2. GLUT-2 (for liver)
3. GLUT-4 (for muscles)
• Normally, GLUT proteins are kept in the cytoplasm in the same way as the aquaporins in
the collecting duct cells.
• When insulin molecules bind to the receptors on the muscle cells, the vesicles with GLUT-
4 proteins are moved to the cell surface membrane and fused with it. Hence, they facilitate
the movement of glucose into the cell.
• GLUT 1 and GLUT 2 proteins are always in the cell membrane and their distribution is
not altered by insulin.
Insulin Effect 2:
• Insulin stimulates the activation of the enzyme gulcokinase, which phosphorylates
glucose.
• This traps glucose inside the cells because phosphorylated glucose cannot pass through the
transporters in the cell membrane.
• Insulin also stimulates the activation of two other enzymes, phosphofructokinase and
glycogen synthase, which together add glucose molecules to glycogen. This increases the
size of glycogen granules in the cell.

Decrease in Blood Glucose Level:

• Detected by α and β cells in the pancreas.
• The α-cells respond by secreting glucagon, while the β cells respond by stopping the
secretion of insulin.
• Glucagon binds to different receptor molecules in the cell membranes of the liver cells.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
• This binding activates a G-protein that in turn activates an enzyme that catalyzes the
conversion of ATP to cyclic AMP, which is a secondary messenger.
• Cyclic AMP binds to kinase enzymes within the cytoplasm, which activates other enzymes.
• Kinase enzymes activate enzymes by adding phosphate group to them through a process
known as phosphorylation.
• This enzyme cascade amplifies the original signal from glucagon.
• Glycogen phosphorylase is the end product of the enzyme cascade and catalyzes the
breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
• It does this by removing glucose units from the numerous ‘ends’ of glycogen. This increases
the concentration of glucose inside the cell so that it diffuses out, via the GLUT-2
transporter proteins, into the blood.
• Muscle cells don’t have receptors for glucagon and hence, don’t respond to it.

11. Explain the principles of operation of test strips and biosensors for measuring the
concentration of glucose in blood and urine, with reference to glucose oxidase and
peroxidase enzymes

Urine analysis, dipsticks and biosensors

The presence of glucose and ketones in urine indicates that a person may have diabetes. If the
concentration for these rises above the renal threshold, then not all glucose has been absorbed
from the filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule. So, glucose will be present in the urine.
A large quantity or long-term presence of protein in the urine indicates;
• disease affecting glomeruli
• kidney infection
• high blood pressure (can lead to heart disease)

1. Dip sticks:
Can be used to test urine for a range of different factors including, pH, glucose, ketones and
proteins.
• Dipsticks for detecting glucose contain the enzymes,
glucose oxidase and peroxidase immobilized on a
small pad on one end of the stick.
• The pad is immersed in urine and if the urine contain
glucose, glucose oxidase catalyzes a chemical reaction
in which glucose is oxidized into a substance called
gluconolactone.
• Hydrogen peroxide is also produced.
• Peroxidase catalyzes a reaction between hydrogen
peroxide and a colorless chemical in the pad to form a brown compound.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22
• The resulting color of the pad is matched against a color chart. The chart shows the colors
that indicate different concentrations of glucose.
• Larger the amount of glucose present, darker the color.
• Dipsticks indicate that whether the concentration of glucose was higher than the renal
threshold in the period of time while the urine was being collected in the bladder. The
dipsticks don’t indicate the current blood glucose concentration.

2. Biosensor (blood analysis):

A biosensor allows people with diabetes to check their blood to see how well they are
controlling their glucose concentration.
• Used to measure the glucose level in the blood.
• Biosensor is a device which makes use of a biological molecule to detect and measure a
chemical compound. i.e. a pad impregnated with glucose oxidase.
• A small sample of blood is placed on the pad which is inserted into the machine.
• Glucose oxidase catalyzes the reaction to produce gluconolactone and at the same time,
a tiny electric current is generated.
• The current is detected by an electrode, amplified, and read by the meter which produces
a reading for blood glucose concentration within seconds.
• The more glucose that is present, the greater the current and the greater the reading from
the biosensor.

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ADVANTAGES OF USING BIOSENSORS:

• electronic biosensor does not need to have a colour matching with a colour code chart.
• It gives a specific reading, not a range of values.
• biosensor gives a digital reading (so no need to interpret a colour chart).
• biosensor can be re-used again (just need to change the sensing chip).

14.2 Homeostasis in plants:

Stomatal aperture is regulated in response to the requirements for uptake of carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis and conserving water.

1. Explain that stomata respond to changes in environmental conditions by opening and

closing and that regulation of stomatal aperture balances the need for carbon dioxide
uptake by diffusion with the need to minimise water loss by transpiration

Stomata respond to environmental changes by increasing or decreasing their aperture size.

Stomatal responses to changing environment are essential for the acclimation of a plant to
environmental conditions and, thus, important determinants of plant survival. After an
environmental change, stomatal metabolism changes rapidly to adapt the leaf to the new
conditions.

Stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing and also respond to changes in environmental
conditions to;
- allow diffusion of CO2
- regulate water loss by transpiration

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2. Explain that stomata have daily rhythms of opening and closing
• Stomata has daily rhythms of opening and closing even if kept in constant light/dark.
• Opening during day maintains inward diffusion of CO 2 and outward diffusion of O2 and water
vapour.
• Closing during the night as it does not respire and conserves water.
• Stomata open when:
o Increase in light intensity
o Low CO2 concentrations
• Stomata close in:
o Darkness
o High CO2 concentrations
o Low humidity
o High temperature
o Water stress
3. Describe the structure and function of guard cells and explain the mechanism by which
they open and close stomata
Structure of stomata

Each stomatal pore is surrounded by two guard cells. Guard cells:

• open when turgid (gain water)
• close when flaccid (lose water)

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OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA:
1. Proton pumps in cell surface membranes of guard cells actively pump H+ out of the
cells, which causes a lower H+ concentration inside the cell, hence inside of cell is
more negatively charged than the outside
2. K+ channels open to move K+ into the cell by facilitated
diffusion down an electrochemical gradient
3. Water potential of cell decreases, due to increase in
solute potential, hence water moves into the cell by
osmosis down a water potential gradient through the
aquaporins in the membrane
4. Volume of the guard cells increases becoming turgid
opening the stoma
5. Unequal thickness of the cell wall of the guard cells
(thicker wall adjacent to the pore
6. Stomata close when proton pumps in cell surface membranes of guard cells stop and
K+ ions diffuses out of the guard cells through K + channels to enter the neighbouring
cells, creating a water potential gradient in the opposite direction, hence water leaves
the guard cells so it becomes flaccid and stoma closes, reducing the CO2 uptake for
photosynthesis and reduces rate of transpiration
4. Describe the role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata during times of water stress,
including the role of calcium ions as a second messenger
Abscisic acid and stomatal closure
Abscisic acid (ABA) is a stress hormone that is secreted in
response to difficult environmental conditions such as very
high temperatures or much reduced water supplies. ABA
triggers the closure of stomata to reduce transpiration and
prevent water loss. It is synthesised by any cells in the plant
that contain chloroplasts.
The role of abscisic acid in the closure of stomata is as follows:
o Plant secretes abscisic acid during times of water stress.
o Abscisic acid is a stress hormone which binds to
receptors on the cell surface membranes of guard cells,
and inhibits proton pump (H+ not pumped out of cell).
o Ca2+ acts as a 2nd messenger to activate the channel proteins to open that allow negatively
charged ions to leave the guard cell. High H+ concentration inside cell, resulting to change
in charge, stimulating Ca2+ influx into the cytoplasm and encourages K + efflux (K+ channels
open to allow K+ to leave the cell) and closes channel proteins that allow K+ to enter the cell.
o Water potential of the cell increases, hence water moves out of cell by osmosis.
o Volume of guard cells decreases, becomes flaccid and this response is very fast.

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