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TOPIC 1
CELL STRUCTURE
All organisms are composed of cells. Knowledge of their structure and funct-
ion underpins much of biology. The fundamental differences between eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells are explored and provide useful biological background for the section
on Infectious disease. Viruses are introduced as non-cellular structures, which gives
candidates the opportunity to consider whether cells are a fundamental property of life.
The use of light microscopes is a fundamental skill that is developed in this section and
applied throughout several other sections of the syllabus. Throughout the course,
photomicrographs and electron micrographs from transmission and scanning electron
microscopes should be studied.
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2. Electron Microscope.
This uses a beam of electrons, rather
than electromagnetic radiation, to
"illuminate" the specimen. This
may seem strange, but electrons
behave like waves and can easily
be produced (using a hot wire),
focused (using electromagnets)
and detected (using a phosphor
screen or photographic film).
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There are several problems with the electron microscopy:
the electron beam is scattered by air molecules, so to avoid this there is a vacuum
inside an electron microscope, so it can't be used for living organisms.
specimens must be very thin, so are embedded in plastic for support, so can't be
manipulated under the microscope.
specimens can be damaged by the electron beam, so delicate structures and
molecules can be destroyed.
specimens are usually transparent to electrons, so must be stained with an electron-
dense chemical (usually heavy metals like osmium, lead or gold).
Initially there was a problem of artefacts (i.e. observed structures that were due to
the preparation process and were not real), but improvements in technique have
eliminated most of these.
TEM SEM
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Measurements used in Microscopy
1 centimeter (cm) = 1/100 meter = 0.4 inch = 10-2 m
1 millimeter (mm) = 1/1,000 meter = 1/10 cm = 10-3 m
1 micrometer (m) = 1/1,000,000 meter = 1/10,000 cm = 10-6 m
1 nanometer (nm) = 1/1,000,000,000 meter = 1/10,000,000 cm = 10-9 m
1 angstrom (A) = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 1/100,000,000 cm = 10-10 m
1 meter = 102 cm = 103 mm = 106 m = 109 nm = 1010 A
3 a) Convert the following. All the answers are to be written in standard form.
0.00254 micrometer into millimeter
1.0665x10-5 nanometer into centimeter
6.211 x10-5 millimeter into nanometer
2449.88 micrometer into nanometer
......................................................... (1)
X........................................................(1)
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Comparison between the Light microscope & Electron Microscope
10. Magnetic fields Magnetic fields have no effect on Magnetic fields have an effect
it. on it.
12. Image produced Coloured, with the natural Black and white only
colour of specimen or dye
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b) calculate the linear magnifications of drawings, photomicrographs and
electron micrographs
Magnification
Magnification is the size of an image of an object compared to the actual size. It is
calculated using the formula M = I/A (M is magnification, I is the size of the image and A is
the actual size of the object, using the same units for both sizes). This formula can be
rearranged to give the actual size of an object where the size of the image and magnification
are known: A = I/M.
e.g., if a cell is 10m in diameter, and a microscope produces an image of it which is 1mm
(1000m) in diameter, than the microscope has magnified the image 100 times. (x100)
Magnification Calculations
Microscope drawings and photographs (micrographs) are usually magnified. There are
two ways of doing this:
The smaller the objects that can be distinguished --> the higher the resolution.
with electron microscope, we can see much more fine detail of a cell.
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c) use an eyepiece graticule and stage micrometer scale to measure cells and be
familiar with units (millimetre, micrometre, nanometre) used in cell studies
Eyepiece graticule is a little scale bar placed in the eyepiece of light microscope.
The graticule is marked off in 'graticule units'.
Turn the eyepiece so that the graticule scale lies over the object: the width of one
cell is 23 graticule units.
Calibration: the conversion of graticule units into real units (mm, µm).
use a special slide called a stage micrometer that is marked off in a tiny scale. The
smallest markings are often 0.01 mm (10 µg) apart.
Take the specimen off the stage or the microscope and replace it with the stage
micrometer. Use the same objective lens.
Line up the micrometer scale and the eyepiece graticule scale (by turning
the eyepiece and moving the micrometer on the stage). Make sure that 2 large
markings on each scale are lined up.
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The 50 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 1.0 mark (eyepiece graticule).
Work towards the right until you see another two lines lined up.
The 68 mark (stage micrometer) is lined up with the 9.0 mark (eyepiece graticule).
So you can say that:
The plant cell was 23 eyepiece graticule units long --> its real width is: 23 x 2.25 =
51.75 µm
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e) calculate actual sizes of specimens from drawings, photomicrographs and
electron micrographs
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a) compare the structure of typical animal and plant cells by making temporary
preparations of live material and using photomicrographs
When preparing microscope slides for observation, it is important first to have all
necessary materials on hand. This includes slides, cover slips, droppers or pipettes and
any chemicals or stains you plan to use.
The most common slide preparation is called the "wet mount" slide and utilizes a flat
slide and a cover slip.
Add a drop of
iodine to stain cell.
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The common flat glass slide is rectangular and measure approximately 1 x 3 inches (25 x
75 mm). A cover slip or cover glass (18-20mm) is a very thin square piece of glass that is
placed over the water drop. Because of surface tension, the water drop alone tends to sit
in a thick dome. With a cover slip in place, the drop is flattened out allowing to focus with
high power very close to the specimen. The cover glass also confines the specimen to a
single plane and thereby reduces the amount of focusing necessary. Finally, the cover
glass protects the objective lens from immersion into the water drop.
To make a slide, place a drop of the sample in the middle of a clean slide and lower a
cover slip gently over the drop at an angle, with one edge touching the slide first (See
Figure). Allow the liquid to spread out between the two pieces of glass without applying
pressure. It takes some practice to determine just how much liquid to use. If too much is
placed on the slide, the cover slip will "float", creating a water layer that is too thick. If too
little liquid is used, the organisms may be crushed by the cover glass and evaporation will
dry up the specimens quickly. A well prepared slide will last for 15 -30 minutes before it
dries up.
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The Cell
All living things are made of cells, and cells are the smallest units that can be alive. There
are thousands of different kinds of cell, but the biggest division is between the cells of the
prokaryote kingdom (the bacteria) and those of the other four kingdoms (animals, plants,
fungi and protoctista), which are all eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and
simpler than eukaryotic cells, and do not have a nucleus.
Prokaryote = without a nucleus
Eukaryote = with a nucleus
These two kinds of cell are being examined in detail, based on structures seen in electron
micrographs.
Euakryotic Cells
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Cytoplasm (or Cytosol).
This is the solution within the cell membrane. It contains enzymes for glycolysis (part of
respiration) and other metabolic reactions together with sugars, salts, amino acids,
nucleotides and everything else needed for the cell to function.
Membrane Systems and Organelles:
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Golgi Apparatus
Another series of flattened membrane
vesicles, formed from the endoplasmic
reticulum. Its job is to transport proteins
from the RER to the cell membrane for
export.
Parts of the RER containing proteins fuse
with one side of the Golgi body membranes,
while at the other side small vesicles bud off
and move towards the cell membrane,
where they fuse, releasing their contents by exocytosis.
Role of Golgi apparatus
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Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria)
This is a sausage shaped
organelle (8μm long), and is
where aerobic respiration
takes place in all eukaryotic
cells. Mitochondria are
surrounded by a double
membrane: the outer
membrane is simple and quite
permeable, while the inner
membrane is highly folded
into cristae (C), which give it a
large surface area for enzyme
reactions. The space enclosed
by the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix, and contains small circular
strands of DNA. They contain 70S Ribosomes in their matrix for the synthesis of enzymes
needed for aerobic respiration. The inner membrane is studded with stalked particles,
which are the site of ATP synthesis during respiration.
Ribosomes
These are the smallest and most
numerous of the cell organelles, and
are the sites of protein synthesis.
They are composed of protein and
RNA, and are manufactured in the
nucleolus of the nucleus.
Ribosomes are either found free in
the cytoplasm, where they make
proteins for the cell's own use, or
they are found attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, where they make proteins for
export from the cell. All eukaryotic ribosomes are of the larger, "80S" type. However,
eukaryotic cells possess 70S ribosomes as well but inside the mitochondria and
chloroplasts (plant cells only).
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Lysosomes
These are small membrane-bound vesicles formed from the RER containing a cocktail of
digestive enzymes. They are used to break down unwanted chemicals, toxins, organelles
or even whole cells, so that the materials may be recycled. They can also fuse with a feeding
vacuole to digest its contents.
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Centrioles and Microtubules
This is a special pair of short cytoskeleton fibres
involved in cell division. They initiate the
formation of spindle microtubules that
organises and separates the chromosomes
during the cell division.
Recently, experiments have shown that the
centrioles are the site of formation of the whole
cytoskeleton network made up of microtubules,
not just the spindle fibres. This has led to them
being renamed microtubule organising
centers. Centrioles
Cell Surface Membrane
The cell surface membrane is the boundary between the cell and its environment. It has
little mechanical strength but plays a vital role in controlling which materials pass in and
out of the cell.
Although basically a double layer of phospholipids molecules, arranged tail to tail, cell
surface membrane is a complex structure, studded with proteins. These can be embedded
in the membrane or they can penetrate the bilayer forming pores through which molecules
can pass.
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Chloroplasts
Bigger and fatter than mitochondria, chloroplasts are where photosynthesis takes place, so
are only found in photosynthetic organisms (plants and algae).
Like mitochondria they are enclosed by a double membrane, but chloroplasts also have a
third membrane called the thylakoid membrane. The thylakoid membrane is folded into
thylakoid disks, which are then stacked into piles called grana. The space between the inner
membrane and the thylakoid is called the stroma. The thylakoid membrane contains
chlorophyll and chloroplasts also contain starch grains, ribosomes and circular DNA.
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Large Permanent Vacuole and Tonoplast (of
Plant Cells):
Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the
cytoplasm of a cell that function in several
different ways. In mature plant cells, vacuoles
tend to be very large and are extremely important
in providing structural support, as well as serving
functions such as storage, waste disposal,
protection, and growth. Many plant cells have a
large, single central vacuole that typically takes
up most of the room in the cell (80 percent or
more). Vacuoles in animal cells, however, tend to
be much smaller, and are more commonly used to
temporarily store materials or to transport substances.
The central vacuole in plant cells is enclosed by a membrane termed the tonoplast, an
important and highly integrated component of the plant internal membrane network
(endomembrane) system. This large vacuole slowly develops as the cell matures by fusion
of smaller vacuoles derived from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Because
the central vacuole is highly selective in transporting materials through its membrane, the
chemical palette of the vacuole solution (termed the cell sap) differs markedly from that
of the surrounding cytoplasm.
Cell Wall:
Components
The main ingredient in cell walls are polysaccharides (or complex carbohydrates or
complex sugars) which are built from monosaccharides (or simple sugars). Eleven
different monosaccharides are common in these polysaccharides including glucose and
galactose. Carbohydrates are good building blocks because they can produce a nearly
infinite variety of structures. There are a variety of other components in the wall
including protein, and lignin.
i) Cellulose:
β1,4-glucan made of as many as 25,000 individual glucose molecules. Every other
molecule (called residues) is "upside down". Cellobiose (glucose-glucose disaccharide) is
the basic building block. Cellulose readily forms hydrogen bonds with itself (intra-
molecular H-bonds) and with other cellulose chains (inter-molecular H-bonds). A
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cellulose chain will form hydrogen bonds with about 36 other chains to yield a
microfibril. This is somewhat analogous to the formation of a thick rope from thin fibers.
Microfibrils are 5-12 nm wide and give the wall strength - they have a tensile strength
equivalent to steel. Some regions of the microfibrils are highly crystalline while others
are more "amorphous".
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Functions of the cell wall:
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Plasmodesmata:
Plasmodesmata (singular, plasmodesma) are small channels that directly connect the
cytoplasm of neighboring plant cells to each other, establishing living bridges between
cells. Similar to the gap junctions found in animal cells, the plasmodesmata, which
penetrate both the primary and secondary cell walls, allow certain molecules to pass
directly from one cell to another and are important in cellular communication.
Nucleus:
This is the largest
organelle. It is surrounded
by a nuclear envelope,
which is a double
membrane with nuclear
pores–large holes
containing proteins that
control the exit of
substances such as RNA
and ribosomes from the
nucleus. The interior is
called the nucleoplasm,
which is full of chromatin –
the DNA/protein complex.
During cell division the chromatin becomes condensed into discrete observable
chromosomes.
The nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin, involved in making ribosomes.
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Euchromatin and Heterochromatin
The DNA in the nucleus exists in two forms that reflect the level of activity of the cell.
Heterochromatin appears as small, darkly staining, irregular particles scattered
throughout the nucleus or accumulated adjacent to the nuclear envelope. Euchromatin is
dispersed and not readily stainable. Euchromatin is prevalent in cells that are active in the
transcription of many of their genes while heterochromatin is most abundant in cells that
are less active or not active.
Functions of Nucleus
To control all cellular activities.
To produce RNA.
To control the synthesis of proteins, including enzymes, in the cell, and so control the
cell’s activities.
To undergo nuclear division in the start of cell division, ensuring that the daughter
cells have exact copies of the cell’s genetic material in their chromosomes.
To assemble ribosomes (function of the nucleolus).
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Centrioles Pair, in cytoplasm, 0.5 m X Form the spindle fibres during
usually near nucleus 0.2 m cell division of animal and
fungal cells
Chloroplasts In cytoplasm of some 2 – 10 m Site of photosynthesis
plant cells in diameter
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a) describe and interpret electron micrographs and drawings of typical animal and
plant cells as seen with the electron microscope
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c) state that ATP is produced in mitochondria during respiration and chloroplasts
during photosynthesis and outline the role of ATP in cells
The energy in ATP can be released as heat or can be used in the cell as a power source to
drive various types of chemical and mechanical activities. For example, when the terminal
phosphate group of the ATP molecule is removed by hydrolysis (a decomposition process
that occurs when a substance reacts with water), energy in the form of heat is released
and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) are formed.
The regeneration of ATP from ADP requires energy, which is obtained in the process of
oxidation. The energy released in the oxidation of carbohydrates and fats initiates a
complex series of chemical reactions that ultimately regenerate ATP molecules from ADP
molecules. The complete oxidation of a typical molecule of fat results in the formation of
about 150 molecules of ATP.
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3. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic ones, and much simpler in their
structure.
4. They lack endoplasmic reticulum and membrane-bound organelles like
mitochondria and chloroplasts and any complex structures such as Golgi bodies,
cytoskeleton or lyososmes.
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Mesosome. A tightly-folded region of the cell membrane containing all the membrane-
bound proteins required for respiration and photosynthesis. Can also be associated with
the nucleoid.
This is now thought to be an artefact of the electron microscope and not real structure.
Cell Wall. Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a
protein/carbohydrate complex, also called peptidoglycan).
Capsule. A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall. Used for sticking cells
together, as a food reserve, as protection against desiccation and chemicals, and as
protection against phagocytosis. In some species the capsules of many cells fuse together
forming a mass of sticky cells called a biofilm. Dental plaque is an example of a biofilm.
Flagellum. A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for propulsion. The motor is embedded
in the cell membrane and is driven by a H+ gradient across the membrane. Anticlockwise
rotation drives the cell forwards, while clockwise rotation causes a chaotic spin.
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e) compare and contrast the structure of typical prokaryotic cells with typical
eukaryotic cells (reference to mesosomes should not be included)
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f) outline the key features of viruses as non-cellular structures (limited to
protein coat and DNA/RNA)
Viruses are small obligate intracellular parasites, which by definition contain either a
RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat.
They are very small and are measured in nanometers, which is one-billionth of a meter.
Viruses can range in the size between 20 to 750nm, which is 45,000 times smaller than
the width of a human hair. The majority of viruses cannot be seen with a light microscope
because the resolution of a light microscope is limited to about 200nm, so a scanning
electron microscope is required to view most viruses.
STRUCTURE:
The protein layer that surrounds and protects the nucleic acids is called the capsid.
When a single virus is in its complete form and has reached full infectivity outside
of the cell, it is known as a virion. The main function of the virion is to deliver its
DNA or RNA genome into the host cell so that the genome can be expressed
(transcribed and translated) by the host cell.
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The viral genome, often with associated basic proteins, is packaged inside a
symmetric protein capsid. The nucleic acid-associated protein, called
nucleoprotein, together with the genome, forms the nucleocapsid.
In enveloped viruses, the nucleocapsid is surrounded by a lipid bilayer derived
from the modified host cell membrane and studded with an outer layer of virus
envelope glycoproteins.
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1. Cell Structure
Worksheet
A 4 nm B 40 nm C 400 nm D 4000 nm
A the ability to distinguish between two objects that are very close together
B the clarity of the image formed by the microscope
C the number of times the image has been magnified by the objective lens
D the power of the microscope to focus on very small objects
A aerobic respiration
B intracellular digestion
C synthesis of steroids
D transport of proteins
4 When mitochondria are extracted from cells for biochemical study, they are usually kept in a 0.25
mol dm–3 sucrose solution.
Why is the sucrose solution used?
A to act as a solvent
B to enable the rate of respiration of the mitochondria to be determined
C to prevent the mitochondria from changing in structure
D to provide a source of energy
5 For which process is the large surface area of the cristae in the mitochondria important?
A energy radiation
B enzyme reaction
C gaseous exchange
D protein synthesis
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7 Which structures are found in plant cells but not in animal cells?
A centrioles
B mitochondria
C nucleoli
D plasmodesmata
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9 A piece of mammalian tissue was homogenised and centrifuged. The biochemical activity of four
subcellular fractions was investigated.
Which diagram indicates the fraction with maximum synthesis of messenger RNA?
10 The action of which cell depends on large numbers of lysosomes? [O/N 05]
11 An amino acid enters a cell and is used to synthesise an enzyme secreted by the cell.
What is the sequence of cell components involved in this pathway?
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16 The diagram shows a cell surface membrane. The lipid bilayer has an approximate width of 8 nm.
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18 The diagram shows a stage micrometer on which the small divisions are 0.1 mm. It is viewed
through an eyepiece containing a graticule.
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19 The diagram shows an electron micrograph of a plant cell.
20 Which organelles are found in the cells of both eukaryotes and prokaryotes?
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22 The diameter of living cells varies considerably.
Typical diameters are:
a prokaryote, such as Streptococcus - 750 nm
a eukaryotic cell, such as a white blood cell - 15 μm
Given these measurements, the diameter of the white blood cell is how many times greater than the
prokaryote?
Ax2 B x 20 C x 50 D x 200
25 The diagram shows a graduated slide, with divisions of 0.1 mm viewed using an eyepiece
graticule.
Pollen grains were grown in a sugar solution and viewed using the eyepiece graticule. Diagram 1
shows the pollen grains at first and diagram 2 shows them after four hours.
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Structured Questions:
1 Fig. 1.1 is a drawing made from an electron micrograph of a goblet cell from the epithelium of the
gas exchange system. [O/N 05 Modified for this topic]
Fig. 1.1
(a) Name A to C.
A ......................................................................................................................................
B ......................................................................................................................................
C ..................................................................................................................................[3]
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2 Fig. 2.1 is an electron micrograph of HIV particles leaving a T lymphocyte.
Fig. 2.1
HIV instructs the cell to reproduce more viruses. During this process the cell makes viral DNA and
viral proteins that assemble to make new viral particles. These particles bud away from the cell
membrane to infect other T lymphocytes. This process of viral budding kills T lymphocytes. A
decrease in the number of T lymphocytes in the blood results in the destruction of a person’s
immune system and leads to the onset of AIDS.
(a) (i) Calculate the actual size of a viral particle shown in Fig. 2.1. Show your working
and express your answer to the nearest nanometer.
(ii) State the property of the electron microscope that makes it possible to view clearly
very small objects, such as viral particles.
............................................................................................................................... [1]
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3 Fig. 3.1 is an electron micrograph of a chloroplast from a mesophyll cell in a leaf.
Fig. 3.1
(b) State two features visible in Fig. 3.1 that identify the organelle shown as a chloroplast.
1. .....................................................................................................................................
2. .............................................................................................................................. [2]
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4 Explain the advantages of studying cell structure with an electron microscope rather than with
a light microscope.
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................[2]
5 Fig. 5.1 is a drawing made from an electron micrograph of a cell from the ciliated epithelium of the
bronchus.
Fig. 5.1
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(a) Complete the table below by writing the appropriate letter from Fig. 5.1 to indicate the
structure that carries out each of the functions listed.
magnification = x 37 500
Fig. 6.1
(a) With reference to Fig. 1.1, state three structural features of prokaryotic cells that are not shown
by eukaryotic cells.
1 ......................................................................................................................................
2 ......................................................................................................................................
3 ..................................................................................................................................[3]
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