A Level Biology by Mr.

ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

When body cells reach a certain size, they divide into two. Nuclear division occurs first,
followed by division of the cytoplasm. The mitotic cell cycle of eukaryotes involves DNA
replication followed by nuclear division. This ensures the genetic uniformity of all
daughter cells.
5.1 Replication and division of nuclei and cells
During the mitotic cell cycle, DNA is replicated and passed to daughter cells.
Stem cells in bone marrow and the skin continually divide by mitosis to provide a
continuous supply of cells that differentiate into blood and skin cells.
1. Describe the structure of a chromosome, limited to DNA, histone proteins,
chromatids, centromere and telomeres
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around
proteins called histones that support its structure.
The Nucleosome:
It is the fundamental subunit of chromatin. Each nucleosome is composed of a little less
than two turns of DNA wrapped around a set of eight proteins called histones, which are
known as a histone octamer. Each histone octamer is composed of two copies each of the
histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3, and H4.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

Chromosomes are not visible in the cell’s nucleus—not even under a microscope, when
the cell is not dividing. However, the DNA that makes up chromosomes becomes more
tightly packed during cell division and is then visible under a microscope.
Nucleosomes allow enormous lengths of DNA to fold into the tiny space available in the
cell nucleus. This is such an important function that the histone proteins themselves have
changed very little during evolution, probably because mistakes in DNA folding could
harm a cell's ability to reproduce.
Nucleosomes also play a role in regulating how genes are being "read" to make proteins.
The first step in activating certain genes has turned out to be a rearrangement of their
nucleosomes. By opening up regions of DNA that previously were hidden, these
chromatin rearrangements can allow different genes to be "read", changing which proteins
are to be synthesised.

The Centromere:
Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome is labeled
the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.” The location of the
centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its characteristic shape, and can
be used to help describe the location of specific genes.

Telomeres:
A telomere is a repeating DNA
sequence at the end
of the chromosomes.
The telomere can
reach a length of 15,000
base pairs.
Telomeres protect the
ends of chromosomes
from degradation
and illegitimate
recombination.

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2. Explain the importance of mitosis in the production of genetically identical

cells, growth, cell replacement, repair of tissues and asexual reproduction

Mitosis
The type of nuclear division that results into two daughter cells each is having a nucleus
containing the same number and kind of chromosomes as the mother cell. Each
chromosomes divides lengthwise into two chromatids, which separate and form the
chromosomes of the resulting daughter nuclei.
Mitosis is the type of division which is involved when it is essential that the daughter cells have
the same chromosomes as the parent and each other.

Significance of Mitosis
Mitosis is the nuclear division that produces two genetically identical daughter nuclei, each
containing the same number of chromosomes as the parent nucleus.

Asexual reproduction: Mitosis is the basis

of asexual reproduction, the production of
new individuals of a species by a single
parent organism. The offsprings are
genetically identical to the parents.
Asexual reproduction can take many
forms. In a unicellular organism such as
Amoeba, the cell division results in
reproduction. For multicellular organisms,
new individuals may be produced which
bud off from the parent in various ways.
Budding is common in plants; it is a form
of vegetative propagation in which a bud
on part of the stem simply grows a new
plant. The new plant eventually gets
detached from the parent and lives
independently. The bud may be a part of
the stem.

Growth: The two daughter cells formed have the same number of chromosomes as the
parent cell and are genetically identical (clones). This allows growth of multicellular
organisms from unicellular zygotes. Growth may occur over the entire body, as in animals,
or be confined to certain regions, as in the meristems (growing points) of plants.

Replacement of cells and repair of tissues: This is possible using mitosis followed by cell
division. Cells are constantly dying and being replaced by identical cells. In the human
body, for instance cell replacement is particularly rapid in the skin and in the lining of the
gut. Some animals are able to regenerate whole parts of the body; for example, starfish can
regenerate new arms.

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3. Outline the mitotic cell cycle, including:

• interphase (growth in G1 and G2 phases and DNA replication in S phase)
• mitosis
• cytokinesis

Cell Cycle
As an organism grows from the original zygote, the cells divide repeatedly by mitosis.
During development, some cells specialise and divide less frequently than others and some
stop dividing altogether. However, even in the adult organism, some cells continue to
divide and replace those cells which die. The sequence of events which takes place in a cell
between its formation and the time when it has divided, producing daughter cells, is known
as the cell cycle.

The time taken to complete the cycle varies enormously according to the type of cell and
the conditions. For example, in mammals, depending upon external factors, cells lining the
intestine may divide every 8 –10 hours, liver cells may divide once a year, skin epidermal
cells divide every 24 hours, but nerve cells do not divide. In onions, root tip cells may divide
every 20 hours.

Stages of the cell cycle

1 Interphase (the non-dividing stage.)
During interphase the cell has the
same appearance as any non-
dividing cell. The chromosomes
are not visible as distinct bodies
either under the light microscope
or the electron microscope. At
this stage they are strung out in
the form of long chromatin
threads swollen at intervals into
visible chromatin granules.
During interphase three things
happen which are essential if the
cell is to divide.

1. The genetic material (DNA) replicates, i.e., doubles itself, so that sufficient DNA is
made available for each of the two daughter cells. A cell never divides until this new
genetic material has been formed.
2. The cell builds up a sufficiently large store of energy, a kind of 'energy reservoir', to
carry the process through. This accumulation of energy takes place during
interphase rather than during division itself.
3. New cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, chloroplasts etc. are
formed. If this did not happen successive cell divisions would result in a steady
depletion of the cells' contents.

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Interphase is subdivided into:

(a) G1 (first growth phase)
Much protein synthesis occurs and the cell ‘grows’. More organelles are produced and
the volume of cytoplasm increases.
The cell carries out its usual functions. If the cell is not going to divide again, it remains
in this phase.

(b) S Phase (replication phase)

The cell enters this phase only if the cell division is to follow. The DNA replication
occurs. Protein molecules called histones are synthesized and cover each DNA
strand. Each chromosome becomes two chromatids, at this stage the cell is 4n (4
copies of each DNA molecule, 2 in each homologous chromosome).

(c) G2 (second growth phase)

This is a shorter growth phase

during which the proteins
necessary for cell division are
synthesised. (It will be seen,
for example, that proteins are
needed for the microtubules
which form the spindle fibres.)

2 Mitosis (the division of the

nucleus).

Mitosis is the process by

which a nucleus divides
producing two daughter
nuclei, each with the same
number of chromosomes as
the original nucleus. The
cells produced are genetically identical to the parent cell and each other. Mitosis
can be divisible into four stages, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

3 Cytokinesis (the division of the cytoplasm). The division of the cytoplasm and
formation of two daughter cells is called cytokinesis. The mechanisms of this
process are different in animal cells and plant cells but in each case two separate
daughter cells are produced from one parent cell.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

Mitosis
This is a continuous process which follows immediately after the completion of the G 2
stage of interphase. For convenience it is considered in four stages, prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

1. Prophase
i. By early prophase, however, the chromatin has condensed sufficiently that the
individual chromosomes become visible under the light microscope. Each
chromosome consists of two duplicate chromatids pressed closely together
longitudinally and connected at the centromere.
ii. In the cells of most organisms (fungi, flowering plants, and nematodes are the
principal exceptions), two centriole pairs can be seen at one side of the nucleus,
outside the nuclear envelope.
iii. During prophase, the centriole pairs move apart. Between the centriole pairs, forming
as they separate are the microtubules that become the polar fibres of the spindle. In
those cells that have centrioles, the microtubules that form the aster radiate outward
from the centrioles. By this time the nucleoli usually have disappeared from view.
iv. As the chromosomes continue to condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down,
dispersing membranous fragments similar to fragments of endoplasmic reticulum.

v. By the end of prophase, the chromosomes are fully condensed.

vi. The centriole pairs (centrosomes) have reached the opposite poles of the cell.
vii. The polar fibres of the spindle are fully formed, and the kinetochore fibres, attached
to the kinetochores of the chromosomes, have also formed.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

2. Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromatid pairs move back and forth within the spindle, apparently
maneuvered by the spindle fibres, as if they were being tugged first toward one pole and
then the other. Finally the chromatid pairs become arranged precisely at the midplane
(equator) of the cell. This marks the end of metaphase.

3. Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the most rapid stage of mitosis, the centromeres separate
simultaneously in all the chromatid pairs. The chromatids of each pair then move apart,
each chromatid becoming a separate chromosome, each apparently drawn toward the
opposite pole by kinetochore fibres. The centromeres move first, while the arms of
chromosomes seem to drag behind. In most cells, the spindle as a whole also elongates,
with the poles appearing to be pushed farther apart. As anaphase continues, the two

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

identical sets of newly separated chromosomes move rapidly toward the opposite poles of
the spindle.

4. Telophase
i. By the beginning of telophase, the chromosomes have reached the opposite poles
and the spindle begins to disperse.
ii. During late telophase, nuclear envelope re-forms around two sets of
chromosomes. In each nucleus, the nucleoli reappear.
iii. The cell starts to constrict across the middle.
iv. Chromosomes eventually regain their thread-like form and the cell returns to the
resting condition.

Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis, the division of the

cytoplasm, usually but not always
accompanies mitosis, the division of
the nucleus. The visible process of
cytokinesis generally begins during
telophase of mitosis, and it usually
divides the cell into two nearly equal
parts.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

Cytokinesis In Plant Cells:

During cytokinesis in plant cells, the cytoplasm is divided by a cell plate. The thin line can
be seen between the two dark nuclei in this electron micrograph of onion cells dividing is
the cell plate forming.

Comparison of mitosis in animal and plant cells

The most important event occurring during mitosis is the equal distribution of duplicate
chromosomes between the two daughter cells. This process is almost identical in animal
and plant cells but there are a number of differences and these are summarized in table
below.
Differences between mitosis in plant and animal cells

Plant Animal
No centriole present Centriole present
Cell division involves formation of a Cell division involves furrowing and
cell plate. cleavage of cytoplasm.
No aster forms Asters form
Occurs mainly at meristems Occurs in tissues throughout the body.

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4. outline the role of telomeres in preventing the loss of genes from the ends of
chromosomes during DNA replication

TELOMERES:
The ends of chromosomes are sealed by structures called telomeres. These are made of
DNA with short base sequences that are repeated many times.
The main function of telomere is to ensure that when
DNA is replicated, the ends of the molecules are
included in the replication and not left out. The
copying enzyme cannot run to the end of the DNA
and complete the replication-it stops a little short of
the end. If a part of DNA is not copied, that piece of
information is lost. Eventually, the loss of vital genes
would result in cell death. The DNA can be made bit
longer by adding some more bases. They have no
useful ion formation, but allow the copying enzyme
to complete copying the meaningful DNA. As long
as extra bases are added during each cycle, no vital
information will be lost and the cell will be able to
continue dividing successfully.
The enzyme telomerase adds the extra DNA to the ends which is called telomeres. The
telomeres therefore prevent the loss of genes during the cell division and allows continued
replication of a cell.
5. Outline the role of stem cells in cell replacement and tissue repair by mitosis
Stem Cells:
A stem cell is a cell that can divide an
unlimited number of times by mitosis.
Each new cell produced retains the
ability to differentiate into a specialized
cell such as a blood cell or muscle cell.
Stem cells that can produce any type of
cell are described as totipotent.
As tissues, organs and systems
develop, cells become more and more
specialized. Adult stem cells will lose
some of the potency associated with
embryonic stem cells and are no longer
pluripotent. They are only able to
produce a few type of cells and may be described as multipotent.
The stem cells in the bone marrow can replicate any number of times, but can produce only
blood cells, such as red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes. Mature blood
cells have a relatively short life span, so the existence of these stem cells are essential. For
example 250 billion red blood cells and 20 billion white blood cells are lost and must be
replaced each day.

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Adults have stems cells in the tissues in their bodies that need to be frequently replaced such
as the skin. Stem cells have the ability to produce a wide range of cells which means that
they are pluripotent. They retain their ability to divide and produce many different cells by
cell division and the process of differentiation. For example, one type of stem cells in the
bone marrow produce a variety of red and white blood cells.
Bone marrow transplants are one of the many therapeutic uses of stem cells. Stem cells
found in the bone marrow give rise to the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets in
the body. These stem cells can be used in bone marrow transplants to treat people who have
certain types of cancer.

When a patient has cancer and is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills
the cancer cells but also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient
cannot produce blood cells. So before the patient is treated with chemotherapy, he or she
can undergo a bone marrow harvest in which stem cells are removed from the bone marrow
by using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip bone). These transplanted stem cells
will then find their way back to the bone marrow and start to produce healthy blood cells
in the patient. Therefore the therapeutic use of stem cells in bone marrow transplants is very
important as it allows some patients with cancer to undergo high chemotherapy treatment.
Without this therapeutic use of stem cells, patients would only be able to take low doses of
chemotherapy which could lower their chances of curing the disease.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

6. Explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in the formation of a tumour

Tumours and Cancer:

Normally cells divide in a highly controlled way. There are
mechanisms that regulate how often and how many times
different types of cells in the body divide.
Cancer is a condition which may arise if a cell’s control
mechanism breaks down. The cell may divide repeatedly to
produce a mass of undifferentiated cells known as a primary
tumor. Such tumors may grow at different rates and in
different tissues. They may remain as intact growths which
can easily be removed by surgery. Such tumors are considered
as benign. Cancer cells do not respond to
the signals that would normally
Sometimes cells are shed from the primary tumour and are stop them from dividing.
Masses of cancer cells form
carried around the body, often in the lymph or blood systems. tumors that can damage
These carry on dividing, wherever they are deposited, normal tissues. These cancer
cells are from a cancer tumor
producing secondary tumours (metastases) anywhere in the in the large intestine
body. Such a cancer is malignant. It is very difficult to remove
or treat the cancer once it has spread in this way.

Some cancer–causing agents are:

• Chemical carcinogens such as asbestos, hydrocarbons in cigarette smoke and benzene
• Some types of radiation such as gamma rays, X –rays, and ultraviolet light
• Viruses such as EB virus and HIV.

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A Level Biology by Mr. ADEEL AHMAD BIOLOGY 9700-2021-22

5.2 Chromosome Behaviour in Mitosis

The events that occur during mitosis can be followed by using a light microscope.
1. Describe the behaviour of chromosomes in plant and animal cells during the
mitotic cell cycle and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, the cell
surface membrane and the spindle (names of the main stages of mitosis are
expected: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase)
Chromosomes exist at all different phases of the cell cycle. They condense and become
visible to light microscopy in prophase of mitosis or meiosis, and they decondense during
interphase, in the form of chromatin (DNA wrapped around nucleosomes, like “beads on
a string”).

Mitosis can be staged into individual phases. In interphase, most of the chromatin is
decondensed in the nucleus so that individual chromosomes cannot be seen, and the
microtubules are organized in a radial array from the centrosome. During prophase, the
chromosomes become highly condensed, and the centrosomes begin to separate. Nuclear
envelope breakdown manifests the transition between prophase and prometaphase so that
the individual chromosomes are no longer constrained in the nucleus. During
prometaphase, kinetochore (k)-fibres (bundles of stabilized microtubules) connect the
spindle microtubules and the kinetochores on the chromosomes, such that the

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chromosome can align at the spindle

equator, which defines metaphase.
The microtubules are uniformly
oriented with their minus ends at the
centrosome and their plus ends
extending towards the spindle
equator, where they often overlap.
The astral microtubules emanate
from the centrosomes and extend
their plus ends towards the cell
cortex. The movement of the
chromosomes towards the poles
occurs during anaphase A, and the
two spindle poles separate during
anaphase B. The nuclear envelope
begins to reform and the DNA
begins to decondense during
telophase. An organized central
spindle bundle of microtubules is
also present. Cytokinesis divides the
cytoplasm of the cell so that the two
daughter nuclei are segregated into
individual cells, which enter
interphase and begin the process
again.

A typical human cell, for example an epithelial or brain cell, contains about 1 m of DNA.
However, the nucleus is only 5 m in diameter. The way this problem has been overcome
in the process of evolution is to package the DNA into chromosomes. In the nucleus of one
epithelial cell of the human body there are 46 chromosomes, and although they differ in
size, estimates suggest that each human chromosome consists of a single DNA molecule
about 5 cm long containing about 1.3 x 108 nucleotides. A group of proteins, called histones,
play a major role in packaging the DNA,

Before a cell begins to divide each DNA strand replicates and associates with new histone
proteins. The two replicated strands of the chromosome remain attached to each other at a
structure called a centromere.
Each strand coils and super coils, until the chromosome is visible under a light microscope
as an easily stainable ‘double’ structure. Each chromosome having replicated, shows two
sister chromatids. Each chromatid is identical to its sister and to the original chromosome.
(Eventually, sister chromatids separate, and are pulled into different daughter cells during
the process of nuclear division known as mitosis.)

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2. Interpret photomicrographs, diagrams and microscope slides of cells in

different stages of the mitotic cell cycle and identify the main stages of
mitosis

View of cells in the growing root-tip of the onion

Onion (Allium cepa) cells in different phases of the cell cycle

The diagram shows the cells in the growing root-tip of the onion from a longitudinal
section, enlarged x800.
a. non-dividing cells, with chromatin-network and deeply stained nucleoli
b. nuclei preparing for division
c. dividing cells showing metaphase
d. dividing cells showing Anaphase
e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division

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ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

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