CHAPTER – 5: Enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts and are involved in all metabolic reactions.
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction.

Enzyme names usually end with -ase and they are named according to the substrate on which they work or
the reaction which they speed up.

For example, an enzyme that works on proteins may be called a protease. One that removes hydrogen
from sa substance is dehydrogenase.

Characteristics:
1. Are proteins that act as catalysts.
2. They are specific means that an enzyme which normally works on one substrate will not act on a different
one.
3. Made in all living cells.
4. Like all catalysts, can be used repeatedly because they are not used up during the reaction
5. Only small amounts are needed to speed the reaction up

Enzymes are specific:

Specificity means that an enzyme which normally works on one substrate will not act on a different one.
Reason for specificity:
Enzyme has a specific shape called active site which exactly fits the substrate on which it works i.e
enzyme-substrate have complementary shape to fit into each other. So, an enzyme which breaks down
starch to maltose will not break down proteins to amino acids. Also, if a reaction takes place in stages, a
different enzyme is needed for each stage. In example below, different enzyme is needed for each stage.

Why are they important?

 They control reactions in a cell.
 They make sure that these reactions occur quickly enough for a cell to function.
 ▲ Figure 5.1 Building up a cellulose molecule

Structure of enzyme:
1. Enzyme is protein by nature.
2. Actives site: part of an enzyme molecule that is responsible for combining with a substrate.

Enzyme action
An enzyme-controlled reaction involves:
1-Substrate: A substance on which an enzyme works. It may be two or more different molecules.
2- Enzyme
3- Product: Molecules which are produced as a result of reaction. It may also be two or more different
molecules.

How do enzymes catalyze reaction?

A substrate binds with active site of an enzyme and makes enzyme-substrate complex. Enzyme active site
and substrate have complementary shape and can fit into each other like a jig saw puzzle. This complex is
formed only for a short time because once a product is released from enzyme active site, enzyme is free to
be reused by another substrate molecule. This process is repeated several times.
 Enzymes catalyzes two types of reactions:
1. Anabolic or building up reaction: synthesis of larger molecules from simple units
e.g
• Maltase (enzyme) works to join up two glucose molecules • Join tens or hundreds of amino acids to
(substrate-simple molecules) to make maltose (product- build proteins
complicated)

2. Catabolic or breaking down reaction: breaking down of larger molecules into simple units. E.g.
• Enzymes help releasing energy in aerobic •Sucrase (enzyme) works on sucrose
respiration. (substrate) to produce
monosaccharide i.e glucose and
fructose (products)

 catalase, a very common enzyme found in most cells, can break down 40 000 molecules of
hydrogen peroxide every second!

Life without enzymes:

  Molecules of the two substances can combine without enzyme, but the process would be very slow
(hrs or days, too slow to keep an organism alive).
 If starch is mixed with water, it will break down very slowly to sugar and process takes years.
Compared to this, if water is mixed instead of saliva (having enzyme amylase), starch will be broken
down to sugar in minutes or seconds (Try chewing a piece of bread but keep it in your mouth
without swallowing it. Eventually you should detect the food tasting sweeter, as maltose sugar is
formed)

Factors affecting enzyme action:

1. Enzymes and temperature

 A rise in temperature increases rate of most chemical reactions and fall in temperature slows them down.
 Usually, a rise of 10°C will double the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction in a cell, up to an optimum
temperature of about 37°C (body temperature).
 Heatingkinetic energy of molecules increasesmolecules move fastergreater chance of collision
greater chance of active site and substrate complex formation increases rate of reaction till 37oC.
 After 37oCproteins start losing its shape (denaturation) gradually kinetic energy increases but number
of effective collisions (which makes enzyme substrate complex) decreases  gradually slows down
reaction.
 At >50°C enzyme active site shape changes (denatured) permanently and can no longer combine with
substrates chemical reactions in cells happen too slowly to keep the organism alive die (can stay alive
for some time above 50°C which depends on temperature, period of exposure and proportion of cells that
are damaged)

Denaturation is a permanent change in the shape of enzyme molecule. Once it has happened the enzyme
will not work anymore, even if the temperature is reduced below 37°C.
 ▲ Figure 5.6 Graph showing the effect of temperature on the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction

Example of enzyme protein denaturation:

o Egg white is a protein called albumen. When it is heated, its molecules change shape and denature. The
egg white goes from a clear, runny liquid to a white solid. It cannot be changed back again.
How to test if a substance is an enzyme:
o Heat substance to its boiling point. If it can still carry out its reactions, it cannot be an enzyme.
Future directives:
Scientists have started to discover some bacteria that live in an environment where the temperature is very
high (hot springs and around hydrothermal vents in deep oceans). They have enzymes that are made of
very stable proteins; their active sites are not deformed by temperatures above 50°C. They could be used
in industrial applications where high temperatures are needed. For example, biological washing powders
containing these enzymes could be used at a high temperature to remove difficult stains.

2. Enzymes and pH
Acid or alkaline conditions alter chemical properties of proteins including enzymes. Most enzymes work
best at a particular level of acidity or alkalinity (pH).
o Inside the cells, most enzymes will work best in neutral conditions (pH 7).
The pH or temperature at which an enzyme works best is called its optimum pH or temperature.
Examples:
o For Pepsin (protein-digesting enzyme in stomach) pH 2
o pancreatic lipase in duodenum slightly alkaline pH 8.
o Unlike temperature, changes in pH affect the activity of enzymes but it is usually reversible, i.e. an enzyme
that is disabled by a low pH will restart its normal activity when its optimum pH is met again. But extremes
of pH sometimes can denature some enzymes.
 ▲ Figure 5.4 The effect of pH on digestive enzymes
Types of enzymes:
1. Intracellular enzymes (‘intra’ means ‘inside’):
All enzymes are made inside cells. Most of them remain inside the cell to speed up reactions in the
cytoplasm and nucleus. These are called intracellular enzymes.
2. Extracellular enzymes (‘extra’ means ‘outside’):
Some enzymes made in the cells are let out of the cell to do their work outside. These are extracellular
enzymes. e.g Fungi and bacteria release extracellular enzymes to digest their food.
o A mould growing on a piece of bread releases starch-digesting enzymes into the bread and absorbs the
soluble sugars that the enzyme produces from the bread.
o In the digestive systems of animals extracellular enzymes are released into the stomach and intestines to
digest the food.