CHAPTER 5 METABOLISM AND ENZYMES

Metabolism 新陈代谢
1. Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions that occur in a living organism.
2.The processes in metabolism involve the conversion of food into energy in the form of ATP, and the
formation 形成 of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and nucleic acid.

Types of metabolism in a cell

1.There are two types of metabolism, which are catabolism and anabolism.
Catabolism Aspect Anabolism
Catabolism 分解代谢，分解作用 is the Definition Anabolism 合成代谢，组成代谢 is the
process of breaking down complex process of synthesizing complex
substances into simple substances. molecules from simple molecules.

This reaction releases energy.
1. The breakdown of glucose during
cellular respiration
2.Break down of glycogen to glucose 3.
Break down of triglyceride to fatty
acids and glycerol
4. Break down of protein or
polypeptide to amino acids
Energy involvement This reaction uses or absorbs energy.
Examples 1.The formation of glucose during
photosynthesis.
2.Condensation of glucose to form
glycogen
3.Condensation of fatty acids and
glycerol to form triglyceride
4.Condensation of amino acids to form
protein or polypeptide

Enzymes 酶
1. Enzymes are proteins which act as biological / organic catalysts (biocatalysts 生物催化剂) which are
built from proteins and are produced by the cells of living organisms.
2. They speed up biochemical/metabolic reactions in the cell at the body temperature.
3. One way of increasing the speed of reaction is by raising the temperature, but a temperature that is too
high will kill an organism by denaturing its proteins.
4. The reactant in the enzymatic reaction is called a substrate 基质 while the substance formed at the end
of the reaction is called product. 产品
enzyme
Substrate → products
Sucrase 蔗糖酶
Sucrose + water glucose + fructose

5. Thousands of simultaneous biochemical reactions occur in living cells. Without enzymes, these
biochemical reactions would be too slow to sustain 维持 life.

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Naming 命名 of Enzymes （Enzyme Nomenclature）
1. Efforts to standardize the naming of enzymes was done by the International Union of Biochemistry
(IUB) in 1961.
2. The names of enzymes are formed by adding suffix 字 尾 “ ase” to the main part of the name of the
substrate on which they act.
3. For example:
Substrate Enzyme Substrate Enzyme
Maltose Maltase 麦芽糖酶 Protein Protease 蛋白酶
Sucrose Sucrase Lipid Lipase 脂肪酶
Lactose Lactase 乳糖酶 Amylum (starch) Amylase 淀粉酶
Cellulose Cellulase 纤维素酶

4. There are some enzymes which cannot be named this way because the names of these enzymes have
been used for a long time (before 1961). For example: pepsin (catalyses hydrolysis of protein into
polypeptides), erepsin 肠 肽 酶 (catalyses hydrolysis of dipeptide into amino acids), trypsin(catalyses
hydrolysis of polypeptide into smaller peptides), rennin 凝 乳 酶 (catalyses curdling (coagulating of
milk.) and ptyalin. 唾液酶

The General Characteristic of Enzymes

Characteristic Explanation
1. speed up the 1. One molecule of enzyme can turn thousands or millions of substrate molecules
reaction rate into products per minute.
2.For example, catalase can transform approximately 6 millions hydrogen peroxide
过氧化氢 into oxygen and waters molecules per minute.

2. Are required in In the reaction, an enzyme is not destroyed (altered 改变 or used up 耗尽).
small (minute) Therefore, it can be reused again and again, so only a small amount is needed.
amounts

3. Are specific 独 1. Each enzyme only act on one substrate. For example: maltase only act on
特 maltose and sucrase only act on sucrose.
2.The action of enzyme is based on the lock and key hypothesis 锁和钥匙的假设

4. Catalyse 1. Enzymes can work in both directions. The reaction can proceed from left to
reversible 可逆转 right or from right to left.
的 reaction. amilase 淀粉酶
Starch + water maltose

However, the enzymes usually catalyse the forward reaction, because the product
is removed as soon as it is formed.

5. Are denatured 1. All enzymes are proteins.

失去原性 by high 2. At high temperature (40oC – 60oC), enzymes are denatured. The bonds are
temperature. broken and the polypeptide chains open up. Enzyme loses its normal shape and
(sensitive to the activity is stopped.
temperature) 3. At low temperature, enzymes are less active because the enzyme and the
substrate molecules are less liable 容易 to react together.
4. The optimum 最佳 temperature for most enzymes is 35 oC – 40 oC.
6.Are sensitive 敏 1. Each enzyme works within a range of pH and has its own optimum pH.

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感 to pH. 2. Small changes in the pH of the medium will change the shape of the enzyme
and denature the enzyme.
3. Most enzyme are active at pH 7. for example, enzymes for respiration.
4. Some enzymes require acidic or alkaline condition. For example, pepsin 胃蛋
白酶 is active at pH2 while trypsin 胰蛋白酶 is active at pH 8.5.

Some enzymes A cofactor is a non-protein chemical needed to assist the enzyme in its catalytic
require cofactors reaction so that the enzyme can function more effectively.
They bind to the enzymes help to weaken the bonds in the substrate molecules.
Examples of inorganic cofactors are metal ions (e.g. iron and zinc), and organic
cofactors (also called coenzymes) are often vitamins such as vitamin B.

Enzyme inhibitors Enzyme inhibitors are substances which slow down or totally stop enzyme
activity.
They change the active sites which are found on the surface of enzymes.
For example, heavy metals such as mercury and lead. Mercury is an enzyme
inhibitor of amylase, lipase andlactase.

Intracellular and Extracellular Enzymes

1. All enzymes are synthesized inside cells.
2. Enzymes can be divided into two groups:
Intracellular enzyme 胞内酶
 Catalyses reactions inside the cell and carry
out functions within the cell itself.
 Can be found in cytoplasm, plasma membrane,
organelles (mitochondria, chloroplast), nucleus
 Examples: enzymes involved in respiration
within mitochondria such as oxidoreductase.
RNA polymerase, DNA polymerase, ATPase.
Extracellular enzyme 胞外酶
 Are produced in the cell but secreted outside
the cell and catalyses reactions outside the cell
 Secreted 分泌 from the cell
 For examples: most digestive enzymes such as
salivary amylase 唾 液 淀 粉 酶 , trypsin and
lipase secreted by pancrease 胰岛.

Site of Enzyme Synthesis

1. Since enzymes are made of proteins, they are synthesized by ribosomes.
2. Intracellular enzymes are synthesized on “free” ribosomes.
3. Extracellular enzymes are synthesized on ribosomes attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
4. The information for synthesis of enzymes is carried by the DNA. The different sequences of bases in the
DNA are codes to make different proteins. During the process, the messenger RNA (mRNA) is formed
to translate the codes 密码 into a sequence 序列 of amino acids. These amino acids are bonded together
to form specific enzymes according to the DNA’s code.
5. Formation and secretion of extracellular enzymes:
a) Protein is produced in the ribosome.
b) The protein enters the lumen 洞 of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and is transported to the
vesicles 囊泡 at the end of the endoplasmic reticulum
c) The transport vesicles carry the protein to the Golgi apparatus
d) Golgi apparatus modifies 改变 the protein into specific protein such as enzyme.
e) The enzyme is packed 包装 into the secreting vesicles of the Golgi apparatus and transported to the
plasma membrane
f) The secreting vesicle fuses 结合 with the plasma membrane in order to secrete the enzyme out of the
cell.

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Mechanism of Enzyme Action 酶的作用机制
1. Each enzyme has a region with very precise shape called the active site that complements with its
substrate. The reaction takes place 发生 at active side.
2. Hence, the shape of the substrate must fit the enzyme precisely 恰恰 if a reaction is to take place.
3. This explain why enzymes are highly specific 具有高度特异性.

4. The explanation of enzyme action is known as “lock and key hypothesis”. The substrate is like a key
while the enzyme is like a lock.
5. The substrate molecule binds to the active site to form an enzyme-substrate complex 复 合 物 ( a
temporary structure), like a key fits into a lock.
6. The enzyme then changes the substance(s) either by splitting 分裂 it apart (for example: hydrolysis 水
解) or linking them together (for example: condensation 缩合).
7. Reaction takes place at the active site and form the product.
8. The products have a different shape from the substrate and are therefore repelled from the active site.
9. The active site is now free to receive another substrate.
10. The enzyme can be reused over and over again.

Activation Energy 活化能

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1. An activation energy is the minimum energy
required to cause a chemical reaction to occur.
2. Substrate molecule requires kinetic energy to
collide with other molecule to start a reaction.
3. If the substrate molecules do not collide, chemical
reaction will not occur.
4. The lower the activation energy, the higher the
rate of reaction.
5. Enzyme which acts as catalyst lowers the
activation energy to increase the rate of chemical
reaction.
6. For example, while glucose or lipid can be burnt
(thus providing the needed activation energy) to
decompose it into carbon dioxide and water, the
body uses enzymes to catalyse the decomposition of
glucose or lipid into carbon dioxide and water at a
temperature of only 37°C.

Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity (STEP)

Temperature 1. At low temperature, the rate of reaction is low because the movement of substrate
molecules is slow.
2. As the temperature increases, the rate of reaction increases. This is because the
enzyme and the substrate move faster increasing their chances of colliding with
one another and with the active sites.
3. For every 10oC rise in temperature (below 40oC), the rate of reaction is double.
4. The optimum temperature is the temperature at which the reaction rate is
maximum. Most human enzymes have an optimum temperature of around 37oC,
while for most plants is around 25 oC.
5. After the optimum temperature, the reaction rate falls quickly because the bond
maintaining the structure of enzyme start to break. The shape of enzyme and the
active site change. The substrate molecule cannot attach itself to the active site.
6. The enzymes lose their activities and are said to be denatured 失去原性.

7. Denaturation is irreversible 不可逆转的. Most organisms cannot survive 存活 at

temperature above 40 oC.
8. At 60 oC, all the enzymes are denatured and the reaction stops.
9. Bacteria living in hot springs 热水温泉 have optimum temperatures of 80 – 100oC.

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pH 1. Most enzymes are effective in only a narrow pH range.
2. The optimum pH is the particular pH at which the rate of reaction is the highest.
3. In a cell, most enzymes function optimally at a pH that ranges from 6 to 8 (pH7).
For example, the salivary amylase function optimally at pH 7.
4. However, there are a few exceptions, such as the pepsin can only function
optimally in acidic condition (pH2) within the stomach, while trypsin function
optimally at pH 8.5 (alkaline condition).

5. A change in the pH can alter the charges on the active sites of an enzyme and the
surface of the substrate. This reduces the ability of both molecules to bind 绑
together.

6. Unlike the effects of heat on enzymes, the effects of pH on the active sites are
normally reversible. When the pH returns to optimum levels for the enzyme, the
charge on the active site is restored. The enzyme functions normally again.
7. Extreme pH changes break the chemical bonds. The enzyme structure breaks
down and the active site of the enzyme molecule is destroyed. The enzyme is
denatured.
Concentration 1. If the pH value, temperature and enzyme concentration are kept constant, the rate
of substrate of enzyme reaction increases directly proportional 成 正 比 to the amount of
substrate present until a limiting value.
2. This is because more substrate are available to bind the active sites and more

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 chances of collisions 碰撞 to make the reaction occur.
3. After the limiting value, the rate of reaction does not increase even though the
concentration of substrate increases.
4. After maximum rate, all active sites are filled and engaged in catalysis. The
enzyme is said to be saturated 饱和. There are no empty active sites available.

5. The concentration of enzyme becomes a limiting factor. The only way to increase
the reaction rate is to increase the concentration of enzyme.
Concentration 1. If the pH value and temperature are kept constant and if an excess of substrate is
of enzyme present, the rate of reaction increases directly proportional to the concentration
of enzyme until it reaches a limiting value.
2. This is because more active sites are made available for reaction.
3. When the enzyme concentration is doubled, the reaction rate will be doubled.

4. After the maximum rate, any increase in the enzyme concentration does not
increase the reaction rate. Maximum rate is reached due to the limited amount of
substrate. The substrate concentration has become the limiting factor.
5. If the concentration of substrate is increased, the reaction rate will increase and a
higher limiting value will be reached.

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Application of Enzymes in Daily Life
1 Enzymes can be isolated from natural resources such as plants, animals and microorganisms (bacteria and
fungi) or produced synthetically in factories.
2 Large quantities of enzymes are obtained from microorganisms, mainly from bacteria and fungi, which are
grown in industrial fermenters.
3 Immobilised 固定化 enzymes are enzymes that are physically attached to inert and insoluble material,
where the resistance of the enzymes to changes in factors such as pH value and temperature increases,
enabling the enzymes to function at a maximum race.
4 The enzymes are physically confined 限 制 or localised 局 限 in a certain defined region of space
throughout the catalysed reaction, and they can be used repeatedly and continuously while maintaining
their activities.
5 The technology where immobilized enzymes are used is known as enzyme immobilisation technology.
6 Enzyme immobilisation technology is used for the manufacture of many industrial products in the
pharmaceutical 制药业, chemical and food industry.
7 The advantages of using immobilized enzymes are:
(a) the enzymes could be reused continuously
(b) the enzymes are usually more stable than mobile enzymes
(c) the enzymes are easily separated from the product
(d) the chances of contamination of products are lesser
8 The uases of immobilised enzymes in various industries are as shown in table
Application Enzymes used Uses
1. Dairy Rennin 凝乳酶 Coagulate milk proteins in cheese manufacturing.
industry Lactase 乳糖酶 Hydrolysis of lactose to give lactose-free milk products
乳品加工业 Lipase 脂酶 Preparation of cheese by dissolving and removing the fat
content in the milk.
2. Food Protease 蛋白酶, Tenderizes 嫩 meat, separates the skin of fish.
processing papain 木瓜蛋白酶
industry (from papaya)
Amylase 淀粉酶 Convert starch to sugar in the making of syrup, convert
starch flour into sugar in the baking of bread. Production of
chocolates and fruit juices to remove the starch in these
substances.
Glucose isomerase Glucose is converted into fructose that is much sweeter
than glucose.
Zymase 酿酶 Converts sugars into ethanol in beer/wine making
industry.
Cellulase Breaks down the cellulose and removes the seed coat from
cereal grains such as wheat, extracts agar from seaweed
by dissolving the cell wall
Pectinase Breaks down pectin in fruits into simple sugars. Pectin
果胶酶 makes the juice cloudy.
3. Leather tanning Trypsin Removes hair from animal hides and make leather 皮革制
制革 industry 品 softer.
4. Biological Protease, lipase, Protease act on stains containing proteins such as blood
detergents amylase and saliva.
洗涤剂 Amylase removes stains containing starch such as sauces,
ice creams and gravy 肉汁。.
Lipase removes oil and grease 润滑脂。.
5. Medical products Trypsin Dissolves blood clots 血块
6. Textile 纺织 Amylase Removal of starch that is applied to threads of fabrics to
industry prevent damage
7. Paper Ligninase 木质素酶 Remove lignin 木质 from pulp 纸浆.
industry