Short Questions:

1. Different the classification of receptors?

Generally, receptors are classified into two types:
 EXTEROCEPTORS are the receptors, which give response to stimuli arising
from outside the body.
1.Cutaneous Receptors or Mechanoreceptors Receptors situated in the skin are called the
cutaneous receptors. Cutaneous receptors are also called mechanoreceptors because of their
response to mechanical stimuli such as touch, pressure and pain.
2.Receptors, which give response to chemical stimuli, are called chemoreceptors.
3.Telereceptors are the receptors that give response to stimuli arising away from the body.
These receptors are also called the distance receptors

 INTEROCEPTORS are the receptors, which give response to stimuli arising

from within the body.
1.Receptors situated in the viscera are called visceroceptors. E.g., stretch receptors, chemo
receptors, baroreceptors, etc.
2.Proprioceptors are the receptors, which give response to change in the position of different
parts of the body. e.g. Pacinian corpuscle, muscle spindle, golgi tendon organ, etc.

2. Explain the anatomical physiology of thalamus.

Thalamus is ideally situated at the core of the diencephalon, deep in the cerebral cortices. It is
made up of two symmetrical structures formed from the diencephalon. Each half of the
thalamus is elongated along the anteroposterior axis giving it an ovoid appearance. The thalami
are made up of grey matter that is partitioned by a “Y” shaped white matter structure known as
the internal medullary lamina. Due to the location of the internal medullary lamina, each
thalamus is divided into roughly three main parts: the anterior, medial and lateral thalamus.
Thalamus acts as an important relay center for the signals passing from the lower centers to the
higher centers of the brain. It integrates the sensory information. This
integrated sensory information is then sent to other areas of cortex.

3. Explain the physiology and anatomy of limbic system.

Limbic system is a complex system of cortical and subcortical structures that form
a ring around the hilus of cerebral hemisphere. Structures of limbic system are
classified into four groups i.e.,
  Archicortex forms allocortex along with paleocortex. Archicortex is the
phylogenetically oldest structure. It is concerned with memory.
 Paleocortex is in between archicortex and neocortex. It is concerned with
olfaction.
 Juxtallocortex or mesocortex is situated between paleocortex and
neocortex.
 Structures situated below the level of cortex are called sub cortical
structures. Limbic system includes six sub cortical structures

4. Anatomy and physiology of hypothalamus.

Hypothalamus is a diencephalic structure. It is situated just below the Thalamus in
the ventral part of diencephalon. It is formed by groups of nuclei, scattered in the
walls and floor of third ventricle. It extends from optic chiasma to mamillary body.
Nuclei of hypothalamus are divided into three groups: 1. Anterior or preoptic
group 2. Middle or tuberal group 3. Posterior or mamillary group
 Hypothalamus is the site of secretion for the posterior pituitary hormones. Antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) and oxytocin are secreted by supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei.
 Hypothalamus controls the secretions of anterior pituitary gland by secreting releasing
hormones and inhibitory hormones like Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH),
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), etc.
 Hypothalamus regulates heart rate through vasomotor center in the medulla oblongata.
 Body temperature is regulated by hypothalamus, which sets the normal range of body
temperature. The set point, under normal physiological conditions is 37°C.
5. Explain the physiological role of endoplasmic reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum is concerned with the synthesis of proteins in the
cell. It is involved with the synthesis of mainly those proteins which are secreted
out of the cell like from β cells of Islets of Langerhans in pancreas and antibodies
from B lymphocytes. Rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays an important role in
the degradation of worn-out cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for synthesis of non-protein
substances such as cholesterol, steroid, glycogen and fatty acids, etc. Outer
surface of smooth endoplasmic reticulum contains many enzymes which are
involved in various metabolic processes of the cell. Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum is involved in storage and metabolism of calcium. It is also concerned
with detoxification of toxic substances like some drugs and carcinogens in the
liver.
6. Explain the non-membranous organelle.
Some organelles in cell lack a covering membrane like ribosomes and
cytoskeleton.
 Ribosomes are the organelles concerned with protein synthesis in the cell.
They are granular and small dot-like structures made up of 35% protein and
65%. They exist in two forms i.e., freely floating in cytoplasm or attached to
endoplasmic reticulum. ribonucleic acid (RNA).
 Cytoskeleton is the cellular organelle present throughout the cytoplasm. It
determines the shape of the cell and gives support to the cell. It is a
complex network of structures with varying sizes. It consists of three major
protein components i.e., Microtubules, intermediate filaments and
Microfilaments.
7. Differentiate b/w peroxisome and lysosome.
Peroxisomes Lysosomes
Peroxisomes or microbodies are the Lysosomes are the membrane-bound
membrane limited vesicles pinched off vesicular organelles found throughout
from endoplasmic reticulum. the cytoplasm formed from Golgi
apparatus.
Peroxisomes oxidize biological Lysosomes breakdown biological
compounds like fatty acids by β polymers like proteins and polymers in
oxidation and hydrogen peroxides the cell.
Peroxisomes detoxify harmful Lysosomes are mainly concerned with
substances such as hydrogen peroxide intracellular digestion of proteins,
formed from poisons or alcohols in the lipids, nucleic acids, etc.
cell.
Peroxisomes are involved in Lysosomes in the cells of the secretory
gluconeogenesis from fats. glands remove the excess secretory
products by degrading the secretory
granules.

8. Explain cell death process in human body.

Cell death occurs by two distinct processes:
1. Apoptosis
Apoptosis is the programed cell death under genetic control. The purpose of
apoptosis is to remove unwanted cells without causing any stress or damage to
the neighboring cells. Apoptosis is activated by either withdrawal of positive
signals e.g., nerve-growth factors for neurons or arrival of negative signals e.g.,
cellular stress, viral infection, etc.
2. Necrosis
Necrosis is the uncontrolled and unprogramed death of cells due to unexpected
and accidental damage. Necrosis results in lethal disruption of cell structure and
activity. The cell undergoes a series of changes like swelling, leakage of
substances into extracellular environment, etc. Tissues surrounding the necrotic
cells react to the breakdown products of the dead cells in the form of swelling and
inflammation. Necrosis is induced by both physical and chemical events such as
heat, radiation, trauma, hypoxia and exposure to toxins.
9. Differentiate among osmosis, active, passive, and facilitated diffusion.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the special type of diffusion. It is defined as the movement of
water or any other solvent from an area of lower concentration to an area
of higher concentration of a solute, through a semipermeable membrane.
Active Transport
Active transport is the movement of substances against the chemical or
electrical or electrochemical gradient. Active transport requires energy,
which is obtained mainly by breakdown of high energy compounds like
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
Passive Transport
It is the transport of substances along the concentration gradient or
electrical gradient or both (electrochemical gradient). It is also known as
diffusion or downhill movement. The substances move from region of
higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. It does not
need energy.
Facilitated Diffusion
 Facilitated or carrier-mediated diffusion is the type of diffusion by which
the water-soluble substances having larger molecules are transported
through the cell membrane with the help of a carrier protein. Glucose and
amino acids are transported by facilitated diffusion.
10.Explain skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle fiber.
Skeletal Muscle Fiber:
Each skeletal muscle fiber is long and cylindrical in shape with a diameter of 10-
100 μ and multiple oval nuclei. Each muscle fiber is enclosed by a plasma membrane called
sarcolemma. Under high magnification, each muscle fiber is seen to contain a large number
of myofibrils 1-2µ in diameter that run in parallel fashion through entire length of
muscle. Sarcomeres of skeletal muscles have a series of dark and light bands due
to which they have a striated appearance. They have an extensive network of
tubules called T-tubules that store Ca ions.
Cardiac Muscle Fiber:
Cardiomyocytes are rectangular, branching cells that typically contain only one centrally located
nucleus and are composed of chains of myofibrils. The myofibrils consist of repeating sections
of sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are composed of long proteins that organize into thick and thin
filaments, called myofilaments. Thin myofilaments contain the protein actin, and thick
myofilaments contain the protein myosin. Cardiomyocytes contain many mitochondria to
produce large amounts of ATP and myoglobin to store oxygen to meet the demands of muscle
contraction.

Smooth Muscle Fiber:

Smooth muscle cells are fusiform or elongated in shape and contain thick and thin filaments that do
not arrange into sarcomeres, resulting in a non-striated pattern. Smooth muscle cytoplasm contains
large amounts of actin and myosin. Actin and myosin act as the main proteins involved in muscle
contraction. Actin filaments attach to dense bodies spread throughout the cell. It also contains
calcium-storing sarcoplasmic reticulum, which aids in sustaining contraction.

11.Differentiate b/w depolarization, repolarization and hyperpolarization.

Depolarization
Depolarization refers to
the loss of polarization
which is caused by the
change in the
permeability of sodium
Repolarization
Repolarization refers to
the gain of polarization
which is caused by the
change in the
permeability of
Hyperpolarization
Hyperpolarization refers
to an increase in the
amount of the electrical
charge making the
resting membrane
 ions to the interior of a potassium ions to the potential more negative.
nerve cell or muscle fiber exterior of a nerve cell or
muscle fiber
The depolarizing current Repolarization occurs Hyperpolarization occurs
is generated by the due to opening of due to a slight delay in
opening of sodium ion potassium channels, closing of potassium
channels. causing efflux of channels. Potassium
potassium ions. migrates outside the cell
while chloride ions
migrate inside the cell.
Depolarization brings the Repolarization brings the Membrane potential
electric potential towards membrane potential during hyperpolarization
excited state at +35 mV towards normal value of is about -90mV
-70mV

12.Define the following term 1. Isometric and Isotonic contraction. 2) Latent

and relaxation period in contraction.
1. Isometric Contraction:
Isometric contraction is the type of muscle contraction in which length of the
muscle fibers remains the same and tension is increased. Example: Pulling any
heavy weight when muscles become stiff and strained with increased tension, but
length does not change.
Isotonic Contraction:
Isotonic contraction is the type of muscle contraction in which the tension
remains same, and the length of the muscle fiber is altered. Example: Simple
flexion of arm, where shortening of muscle fibers occurs but tension remains
same.
2.Latent Period:
Latent period is the time interval between the point of stimulus and point of
contraction. The muscle does not show any mechanical activity during this period.
Latent period lasts for about 0.01 sec in a normal muscle curve.
Relaxation Period:
Relaxation period the time interval between the point of maximum contraction
and the point of maximum relaxation. The muscle relaxes during this period. It
lasts for about 0.05 sec.
13. Define Rigor, muscle fatigue and muscle tone.

Rigor
Rigor refers to the shortening and stiffening of the muscle fibers. At high
temperature above 60°C, muscles develop heat rigor. It is the rigor that occurs
due to increased temperature. It is an irreversible phenomenon. The cause of
heat rigor is the coagulation of muscle proteins, actin and myosin.
Other types of rigor are
 Cold Rigor: due to exposure to severe cold
 Calcium Rigor: due to increased calcium content
 Rigor mortis: develops after death
Muscle Fatigue
Muscle fatigue is defined as the decrease in muscular activity due to repeated
stimuli. When stimuli are applied repeatedly, after some time, the muscle does
not show any response to the stimulus. This condition is called fatigue. It is caused
by,
 Lack of oxygen
 Exhaustion of acetylcholine in motor endplate
 Lack of nutrients like glycogen
 Accumulation of metabolites like lactic acid and phosphoric acid
Muscle Tone
Muscle tone is defined as continuous and partial contraction of muscles with a certain degree
of vigor and tension. It is also called tonus. It is also defined as resistance offered by muscle to
stretch. Muscle tone plays an important role in maintaining posture. Change in muscle tone
enables movement of different body parts.
Maintenance of tone in skeletal muscles is neurogenic, while in myocardial and smooth muscles
it is myogenic.
 14.Mechanism of contraction in skeletal and smooth muscle.

15.Briefly classify the chemical nature of hormones

Based on chemical nature, hormones are classified into three types:
1.STEROID HORMONES
Steroid hormones are the hormones synthesized from cholesterol or its
derivatives. Steroid hormones are secreted by adrenal cortex, gonads and
placenta.
2. PROTEIN HORMONES
Protein hormones are large or small peptides. Protein hormones are secreted by
pituitary gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas and placenta.
3.TYROSINE DERIVATIVES
Two types of hormones namely thyroid hormones and adrenal medullary
hormones are derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
16.What is cerebrum and explain its lobe.
The cerebrum, or telencephalon, is the large upper part of the brain. It is divided into
two hemispheres. In each hemisphere, there are three surfaces lateral, medial and
inferior surfaces. Neocortex of each cerebral hemisphere consists of four lobes
1. Frontal lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Occipital lobe 4. Temporal lobe
Lobes of each hemisphere are demarcated by four main fissures and sulci
1.Central sulcus or Rolandic fissure between frontal and parietal lob
2.Parieto-occipital sulcus between parietal and occipital lobe
3.Syllvian fissure or lateral sulcus between parietal and temporal lobes
4.Callosomarginal fissure between temporal lobe and limbic area
17.Difference b/w brain stem and reticular formation.
Brain Stem
Brainstem is the part of brain formed by medulla oblongata, pons and midbrain.
Brainstem contains ascending and descending tracts between brain and spinal
cord. It also contains many centers for regulation of vital functions in the body.
Reticular Formation
Reticular formation is a diffused mass of neurons and nerve fibers, which form an
ill-defined meshwork of reticulum in central portion of the brainstem. Reticular
formation is situated in brainstem. It extends downwards into spinal cord and
upwards up to thalamus and subthalamus and consists of five groups of nuclei
i.e., Raphe group, Paramedian group, lateral group, medial group and
intermediate group.
18.Anterior and posterior secretion of pituitary gland.
Book Pg # 377+381