Prepared by: Jan

Jarrel B. Gillego,
RN, MAN
CELLS
Cells: The living units
Learning Objectives

Given relevant questions /diagrams / illustrations the

student will be able to:

 Describe cell structure and function

 Discuss the whole cell activity
 List four ways by which substances cross the cell
membrane
CELLS

 The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small

room") is the basic structural, functional,
and biological unit of all known living
organisms. A cell is the smallest unit
of life. Cells are often called the "building
blocks of life".
Cell as Building blocks
Cells

 The English Scientist Robert Hooke first observed plant

cells with a crude microscope in the late 1600s.

 In the 1830s, 2 German scientists,

 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, proposed
that all living things are composed of cells.
Cells

 German Pathologist Rudolf Virchow extended this idea

by contending that cells arise only from other cells.

 Since the late 1800s, cell research has been

exceptionally fruitful and provided us with four
concepts collectively known as the CELL THEORY.
Cells

 A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living

organisms. When you define cell properties, you define
the properties of life.
 The activity of an organism depends on both the
individual and the combined activities of its cells.
 Accdg. to the principle of complementarity of
structure and function, the biochemical activities of
cells are dictated by their shapes or forms, and by the
relative number of subcellular structures they contain.
 Cells can only arise from other cells.
Types of Cells

 It follows that the loss of cellular homeostasis underlies

virtually every disease.
Cells
Cells
Cells
Cells
 All cells have the same basic parts and some
common functions. For this reason, it is
possible to speak of a generalized, or
composite, cell.
 A human cell has 3 main parts:
Cells

 The Plasma Membrane: The outer boundary of the cell

which acts as a selectively permeable barrier.
 The Cytoplasm: The intercellular fluid packed with
organelles, small structures that perform specific cell
functions.
 The Nucleus: An organelle that controls cellular
activities. Typically the nucleus lies near the cell’s
center.
Extracellular Materials

 Substances contributing to body mass that are found

outside the cells. Classes of extracellular materials
include:
 1. Body Fluids, also called extracellular fluids, include
interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and cerebrospinal fluid.
 These fluids are impt. transport and dissolving media.
 Interstitial fluid is the fluid in tissues that bathes all of our
cells, and has major and endless roles to play.
Extracellular Materials

 It’s like a rich, nutritious “soup,” interstitial fluid

contains thousands of ingredients, including amino
acids, sugars, fatty acids, regulatory substances, and
wastes.

 To remain healthy, each cell must extract from this mix

the exact amounts of the substances it needs depending
on present conditions.
Extracellular Materials

 Cellular secretions include substances that aid in

digestion (intestinal and gastric fluids) and some that
act as lubricants (saliva, mucus, and serous fluids.)
Extracellular Materials

 The extracellular matrix is the most abundant

extraceullular material. Most body cells are in contact
with a jellylike substance composed of proteins and
polysaccharides.
 Secreted by the cells, these molecules self-assemble
into an organized mesh in the extracellular space,
where they serve as a universal “cell glue” that helps to
hold body cells together.
CELL
CYToPLASM
CYToPLASM

 The cellular material between the plasma

membrane and the nucleus, is the site of
most cellular activities.
 The electron microscope reveals that it
consists of 3 major elements:
 1. Cytosol
 2. Organelles
 3. Inclusions
CYToPLASM

 Cytosol- is the viscous, semitransparent fluid in

which the other cytoplasmic elements are
suspended.

 Inclusions- Are chemical substances that may or

may not be present depending on the cell type.
 Examples include stored nutrients, such as the
glycogen granules in liver and muscle cells; lipid
droplets in fat cells
CYToPLASM

 Organelles – are the metabolic machinery

of the cell. EACH TYPE OF ORGANELLE
CARRIES OUT SPECIFIC FUNCTION for the
cell – some synthesize proteins, others
generate ATP, and so on.
CYToPLASM

 The organelles (LITTLE ORGANS) are

specialized cellular compartments or
structures, each performing its own job to
maintain the life of the cell.
CYToPLASM

 MITOCHONDRIA – are typically threadlike

or lozenge-shaped membranous
organelles.
 they are the POWER PLANTS of the cell,
providing most of its ATP supply.
 Busy cells like kidney and liver cells have
hundreds of mitochondria, whereas
relatively inactive cells (such as certain
lymphocytes) have just a few.
CYToPLASM
CYToPLASM
CYToPLASM

 Mitochondria has 2 membranes. Outer is smooth and

featureless and inner folds inward, forming shelflike
cristae that protrude into the matrix the gel-like
substance within the mitochondrion.
CYToPLASM Your body uses protein to build and repair
tissues. You also use protein to make
enzymes, hormones, and
other body chemicals. Protein is an
important building block of bones, muscles,
cartilage, skin, and blood.
 RIBOSOMES are small, dark-staining granules composed
of proteins and a variety of RNAs called ribosomal RNAs.
 Are sites of protein synthesis.
 2 divisions of ribosomes
 1. FREE RIBOSOMES – float freely in the cytosol
 2. MEMBRANE-BOUND RIBOSOMES – are attached to
membranes, forming a complex called the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
CYToPLASM
CYToPLASM

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM - An extensive system of

interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing
fluid-filled cavities, or cisterns.

 Coiling and twisting through the cytosol, the ER is

continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and
accounts for about half of the cell’s membrane.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 There are 2 distinct varieties

 1. Rough ER
 2. Smooth ER
CYToPLASM
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Rough ER – proteins assembled on these ribosomes

thread their way into the fluid-filled interior of the ER
Cisterns
 Has several functions:
 1. Its ribosomes manufacture all proteins secreted from
cells.
 It is also the cell’s membrane factory where integral
proteins and phospholipids that form part of all cellular
membranes are manufactured.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 Smooth ER – continuous with the rough ER and consists

of tubules arranged in a looping network.
 Its enzymes play no role in protein synthesis. Instead,
the enzymes catalyze reactions involved with the
following tasks:
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

 1. Metabolize lipids, synthesize cholesterol and

phospholipids, and synthesize the lipid components of
lipoproteins (in liver cells)
 2. Synthesize steroid-based hormones such as sex
hormones (testosterone-synthesizing cells of the testes
are full of smooth ER)
 Absorb, synthesize, and transport fats (in intestinal
cells)
 Detoxify drugs, certain pesticides, and cancer-causing
chemicals (in liver and kidneys)
 Break down stored glycogen to form free glucose ( in
liver cells especially)
Golgi Apparatus

 The golgi apparatus is the principal “traffic director”

for cellular proteins.
 Its major function is to modify, concentrate, and
package the proteins and lipids made at the rough ER
and destined for export from the cell.
Golgi Apparatus

 3 steps in this process:

 1. Transport vesicles that bud off from the rough ER
move to and fuse with the membranes at the convex cis
face, the “receiving” side, of the Golgi apparatus.
 2. Inside the apparatus, the proteins are modified:
Some sugar groups are trimmed while others are added,
and in some cases, phosphate groups are added.
Golgi Apparatus

 3. various proteins are “tagged” for delivery to a

specific address, sorted, and packaged in at least 3
types of vesicles that bud from the concave trans face
(the “shipping” side) of the Golgi sack.
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisomes

 Are small spherical membranous sacs containing a

variety of powerful enzymes, the most important of
which are oxidases and catalases.

 Oxidases use molecular oxygen (O2) to detoxify harmful

substances, including alcohol and formhaldehyde.
Peroxisomes

Their most impt use is to neutralize free radicals. A highly

reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can
scramble the structure of biological molecules.
Oxidases convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide, which
is also reactive and dangerous but which the catalases
quickly convert to water.
CELL
Peroxisomes

 Peroxisomes are especially numerous in liver and kidney

cells, which are very active in detoxification.
 They also play a role in energy metabolism by breaking
down and synthesizing fatty acids.
Lysosomes

 Born as endosomes which contain inactive enzymes.

 Are spherical membranous organelles containing
activated digestive enzymes.
 As you might guess, lysosomes are large and abundant in
phagocytes, the cells that dispose of invading bacteria
and cell debris.
 Lysosomal Enzymes can digest almost all kinds of
biological molecules. They work best in acidic
conditions and so are called acid hydrolases.

 Lysosomes function
 1. Digesting particles taken in by endocytosis
 2. Degrading particles taken in by endocytosis,
particularly ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
 3. Performing metabolic functions, such as glycogen
breakdown and release
 4. Breaking down bone to release calcium ions into the
blood
Cytoskeleton

 Literally the “CELL SKELETON” is an elaborate network

of rods running through the cytosol and hundreds of
accessory proteins that link these rods to other cell
structures.

 It acts as a cell’s “bones,” “muscles,” and “ligaments”

by supporting cellular structures and providing the
machinery to generate movements.
CELL
Cytoskeleton

 3 types
 1. Microfilaments
 2. Intermediate Filaments
 3. Microtubules.
 Microfilaments – the thinnest elements of the
cytoskeleton, microfilaments, are semiflexible strands
of protein actin.
NUCLEUS

 The control center.

 The nucleus can be compared to a computer, design
department, construction boss, and board of directors,
all rolled into one.

 It contains the instructions needed to build nearly all

the body’s proteins. It dictates the amounts of proteins
to be synthesized at any one time in response to signals
acting on the cell.
The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

 The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope, a

double membrane barrier separated by a fluid-filled
space.
 At various points, the nuclear envelope is punctuated by
nuclear pores. An intricate complex of proteins, called
nuclear pore complex, forming an aqueous transport
channel and regulating entry and exit of molecules.
The NUCLEAR ENVELOPE

 Is also Selective permeable, but here substances pass

much more freely than elsewhere.
 The N.E. encloses a jellylike fluid called nucleoplasm in
which other nuclear elements are suspended.
 Like the cytosol, the nucleoplasm contains dissolved
salts, nutrients, and other essential solutes.
Nucleoli

 Within the nucleus.

 They are associated with nucleolar organizer regions,
which contain DNA that issues genetic instructions for
synthesizing ribosomal RNA.
Chromatin

 Chromatin is composed of approximately

 30% DNA, our genetic material
 60% globular histone proteins, which package and
regulate DNA
 10% RNA Chains, newly formed or forming.
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 The flexible PLASMA MEMBRANE Separates two of the

body’s major fluid compartments
 1. Intracellular fluids (ICF)
 2. Extracellular fluids (ECF)

 The term cell membrane is commonly used as a

synonym for plasma membrane
PLASMA MEMBRANE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Functions:
 1. MECHANICAL BARRIER: Separates two of the body’s
fluid compartments.
 2. SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY: Determines manner in
w/c substances enter or exit the cell.
 3. ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT: Generates and helps
to maintain the electrochemical gradient required for
muscle and neuron function.
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Functions:
 4. COMMUNICATION: Allows cell-to-cell recognition
(E.g., of egg by sperm) and interaction.
 5. CELL SIGNALING: Plasma membrane proteins interact
with specific chemical messengers and relay messages
to the cell interior.
PLASMA MEMBRANE

 Membrane Lipids
 The lipid bilayer forms the basic “fabric” of the
membrane. It is constructed largely of phospholipids,
with smaller amounts of glycolipids and cholesterol.
Membrane Lipids

 PHOSPHOLIPIDS: Each lollipop-shaped phospholipid molecule has a polar

“head” that is charged and is hydrophillic (WATER LOVING).
 The polar heads are attracted to water-the main constituent of both the
ICF and ECF.
 The non polar tails, being hydrophobic (WATER FEARING), avoid water and
line up in the center of the membrane.
Membrane Lipids

 Sandwich-like structure: They consist of two parallel sheets of

phospholipid molecules lying tail to tail, with their polar heads bathed in
water on either side of the membrane or organelle.
Membrane Lipids
Membrane Lipids
 GLYCOLIPIDS
 Are lipids with attached sugar groups. Found only on the outer plasma
membrane surface, glycolipids accounts for about 5% of the total
membrane lipids.
 CHOLESTEROL
 Some 20% of membrane lipid is cholesterol.
 Stabilizes the membrane, while decreasing the mobility of the
phospholipids and the fluidity of the membrane.
Membrane Proteins
 A cell’s plasma membrane bristles with proteins that allow it to
communicate with its environment. Proteins make up about half of the
plasma membrane by mass and are responsible for most of the specialized
membrane functions.
 2 types:
 INTEGRAL PROTEIN
 PERIPHERAL PROTEIN
Membrane Proteins
 INTEGRAL PROTEINS have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions.
 This structural feature allows them to interact with both the nonpolar
lipid tails buried in the membrane and the water inside and outside the
cell.
Membrane Proteins
 PERIPHERAL PROTEINS are not embeded in the lipid bilayer. Instead, they
attach loosely to integral proteins and are easily removed without
disrupting the membrane.
 Include a network of filaments that helps support the membrane from its
cytoplasmic side. Some peripheral proteins are enzymes. Others are motor
proteins involved in mechanical functions, such as changing cell shape
during cell division and muscle cell contraction.
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
Membrane Proteins
GLYCOCALYX

 Consists of glycoproteins and glycolipids that form a

fuzzy, sticky, carbohydrate rich area at the cell surface.
Quite honestly, you can think of your cells as sugar-
coated.
 Is enriched both by glycolipids and by glycoproteins
secreted by the cell.
 The glycocalyx provides highly specific biological
markers by which approaching cells recognize each
other.
 Ex. SPERM RECOGNIZES AN OVUM BY THE OVUM’s unique
glycocalyx.
 Substances move through the plasma membrane in
essentially two ways
 1. PASSIVELY
 2. ACTIVELY
 In passive processes, substances cross the membrane
without any energy input from the cell.

 In active processes, the cell provides the metabolic

energy (usually ATP) needed to move substances across
the membrane.
Diffusion
Diffusion

 Is the tendency of molecules or ions to move from an

area where they are in higher concentration to an area
where they are in lower concentration, that is, down or
along their concentration gradient.
Diffusion

 The driving force for diffusion is the kinetic energy of

the molecules themselves.
 The speed of diffusion is influenced by molecular size
(the smaller the faster) and by temperature (The
warmer, the faster).
Diffusion

 Diffusion is immensely important in physiological

systems and it occurs rapidly

 Although there is continuous traffic across the plasma

membrane, it is a selectively, or differentially,
permeable barrier: It allows some substances to pass
while excluding others.
Diffusion

 At the same time, it keeps valuable cell proteins and

other necessary substances in the cell, but allows
wastes to exit.
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion

 Certain molecules, notably glucose and other sugars,

some amino acids, and ions are transported passively
even though they are unable to pass through the lipid
bilayer. Instead they move through the membrane by a
passive transport process called facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
Osmosis

 The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a

selectively permeable membrane is osmosis. Even
though water is highly polar, it passes via osmosis
through the lipid bilayer.
Osmosis

 WATER also moves freely and reversibly through water-

specific channels constructed by transmembrane
proteins called AQUAPORINS (AQPs), which allows
single-file diffusion of water molecules.
 The water-filled aquaporin channels are particularly
abundant in red blood cells and in cells involved in
water balance such as kidney tubule cells.
Osmosis

The total concentration of all solute particles in a solution

is referred to as the solution’s osmolarity.

Tonicity refers to the ability of a solution to change the

shape or tone of cells by altering the cell’s internal
water volume.
Tonicity

 Isotonic solutions: Have the same concentrations of

nonpenetrating solutes as those found in the cells.
 Cells exposed to isotonic solutions retain their normal
shape, and exhibit no net loss or gain of water.
 (body’s ICF and most intravenous solutions are isotonic)
Tonicity

 Hypertonic Solutions: Have a higher concentration of

non-penetrating solutes than seen in the cell (for
example, a strong saline solution.)
 Cells immersed in hypertonic solutions lose water and
shrink.
Tonicity

 Hypotonic Solutions: Are more dilute (contain a lower

concentration of nonpenetrating solutes) than cells.
 Cells placed in a hypotonic solution plump up rapidly as
water rushes into them.
 Distilled water represents the most extreme example of
hypotonicity. Because it contains no solutes, water
continues to enter cells until they finally burst.
HOMEOSTATIC IMbalAnce

 Iv infusions into a patient’s bloodstream are usually

isotonic, but in certain hyper- or hypotonic solutions are
infused instead. Hypertonic solutions are sometimes
infused for patients who are edematous (swollen
because their tissues retain water.) This is done to draw
excess water out of the tissues and move it into the
bloodstream so the kidneys can eliminate it.
HOMEOSTATIC IMbalAnce

 While hypotonic solutions could be used to rehydrate

the tissues of extremely dehydrated patients, this is
almost never done because of the risk of serious
complications. In mild cases of dehydration, drinking
hypotonic fluids (such as apple juice and sports drinks)
usually does the trick.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Active process occurs whenever a cell uses energy to

move solutes across the membrane.
 The substances moved actively across the plasma
membrane are usually unable to pass in the necessary
direction by passive transport processes.
 The substances may be too large to pass through the
channels, incapable of dissolving in the lipid bilayer, or
moving against its concentration gradient.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT

 Active membrane transport has two major means of

active membrane transport:
 1. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 With the use of (ATP) energy
 2. VESICULAR TRANSPORT
 Endocytosis (ATP)
 Exocytosis (ATP)
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
VESICULAR TRANSPORT
Fluids containing large particles and
macromolecules are transported across cellular
membranes inside bubble-ie, membranous sacs
called vesicles
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Phagocytosis A large external particle is
surrounded by a pseudopod and becomes
enclosed in a vesicle
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Exocytosis – Secretion or ejection of substances
from a cell. The substance is enclosed in a
membranous vesicle, which fuses with the
plasma membrane and ruptures, releasing the
substance to the exterior
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 Endocytosis is a form of bulk transport in which
a cell transports molecules (such as proteins) into the
cell (endo- + cytosis) by engulfing them in an energy-
using process. Endocytosis and its
counterpart, exocytosis, are used by all cells because
most chemical substances important to them are
large polar molecules that cannot pass through
the hydrophobic plasma or cell
membrane by active means.
 Endocytosis includes pinocytosis (cell drinking)
and phagocytosis (cell eating).