THE CELL

Aims and Objectives

1. To review and interpret the microanatomy
of human cells as seen under the light and
electron microscope.
2. Give examples to demonstrate the diversity
of cell types in multicellular organisms such
as humans.
 Lecture Outline

Organisation of the cell:

 Cytoplasm
 Matrix
 Organelles
 Inclusions
 Nucleus

Review questions.
THE CELL
 CELL

Cell is the basic structural and functional unit

of all multicellular organisms
 Cell

Cytoplasm Nucleus
 Cytoplasmic matrix Chromatin
 Organelles Nucleolus
 Inclusions Nuclear envelope
Nuclear skeleton
Nucleoplasm
 Cell

Cytoplasmmatrix
 Cytoplasmic Nucleus
 Organelles Chromatin
 Nucleolus
Membranous Nuclear envelope
 Non-membranous Nuclear skeleton
 Inclusions Nucleoplasm

Membranous
 Non-membranous
 CYTOPLASM

 Cytoplasmic matrix
 Organelles
 Inclusions
 CYTOPLASM

 Cytoplasmic matrix
Solution containing electrolytes, metabolites,
RNA and synthesized proteins.

 Organelles
Living structures with metabolic/synthetic
functions.

 Inclusions
Non-living structures with no metabolic function.
 CYTOPLASM

Organelles

Membranous Non-membranous
1. Plasma/cell membrane 1. Microtubule
2. Endoplasmic reticulum 2. Microfilaments
a. Smooth ER 3. Centrioles
b. Rough ER 4. Ribosomes
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 1. Plasma Membrane

rER

Plasma membrane Golgi

apparatus
sER

Mitochondrion

Lysosome
 1. Plasma Membrane - Appearance

8-10 nm thick hence not visible with LM.

Trilaminar appearance when seen with TEM

(2 dark lines enclosing a clear band)
1. Plasma Membrane - Composition

Phospholipids:
Outer portion
(hydrophilic)
 Inner portion
(hydrophobic)

Proteins:
 Integral proteins
(within lipid bilayer)
Peripheral proteins
(bound to surface)
1. Plasma Membrane - Composition

Phospholipids:
 Outer portion (hydrophilic)

Inner portion (hydrophobic)

Proteins:
 Integral proteins (within lipid bilayer)
Peripheral proteins (bound to surface)
 1. Plasma Membrane - Composition

Glycocalyx:
 A layer of glycoprotein-glycolipid molecules that covers the membrane.
 Protects the cell from chemical/physical injuries.
1. Plasma Membrane - Modifications

Cell Junctions
For joining with adjacent
cells (to form tissues)

Gap Junctions
Allow communication
between adjacent cells.
 1. Plasma Membrane - Modifications

Gap Junctions

 2 closely apposed plasma

membranes, 2nm apart.
connexion  Consist of many
communicating channels.
 Each channel is made up of
2 connexions.
 Communication between
cytoplasmic compartments
of adjacent cells allow direct
passage of ions and small
molecules.
 1. Plasma Membrane - Functions

Maintains the structural integrity of the cell.

Acts as barrier between cytoplasm and external millieu.

Controls movements of substances in and out of the cell.

Establishes transport system for some molecules.

Recognizes antigens, foreign cells, altered cells

(via receptors)
Transduces extracellular signals into intracellular events.

Regulates interaction between cells.

 1. Plasma Membrane - Summary

Not visible with LM (8-10 nm thick).

Trilaminar appearance under TEM.
Formed by protein and bilayer phospholipids.
Covered by glycocalyx (a protective layer on its surface)
Cell junctions join adjacent cells.
Gap junctions allow communication between
adjacent cells for direct passage of ions and
small molecules.
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum

rER

Plasma membrane Golgi

apparatus
sER

Mitochondrion

Lysosome
 2a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)

rER

sER

A continuous membrane in the form of anastomosing network of tubules

 2a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)

smooth ER

rough ER

A continuous membrane in the form of anastomosing network of tubules

 2a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)

A continuous membrane in the form of anastomosing

network of tubules.

Devoid of ribosomes (not covered with ribosomes)

Responsible for cytoplasmic eosinophilia

 2a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Functions

Functions:
Detoxification (drugs, noxious substances)
Lipid metabolism
Glycogen metabolism
Membrane formation
Segregation / release of calcium ions
 2a. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum - Location

sER is found in abundance in:

 cells that synthesize and secrete steroids, cholesterol.
(e.g. adrenal cortical cells; testicular interstitial cells)

 cells that detoxify toxic materials

(e.g. liver cells)

cells that contract

(e.g. skeletal / cardiac muscle cells)
sER as a specialised form - sarcoplasmic reticulum,
regulates muscle contraction
 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

rER

sER

Particles of ribosomes stud the exterior surface of the membrane

 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

smooth ER

rough ER

Particles of ribosomes stud the exterior surface of the membrane

 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

Particles of ribosomes stud the exterior surface of the membrane (EM)

 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

arrows indicate
clear area

Basophilic part of cytoplasm (ergastoplasm) is the image of rER

 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

Functions:

Synthesizes proteins
(that are to be delivered to the plasma membrane)

Manufactures integral proteins and lipids of all cell

membranes.
 2b. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)

rER is well developed in:

 cells that synthesize proteins

(e.g. secretory and glandular cells, plasma cells,
fibroblasts, osteoblasts, odontoblasts, ameloblasts)

 cells that contain large amounts of plasma membrane

(e.g. nerve cells)
 2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER
Anastomosing tubular cisterns
Not covered with ribosomes
Eosinophilic cytoplasm
(due to abundant membrane content)
Lipid synthesis
(Adrenal cortex cells)
Detoxification (Liver cells)
Muscle contraction
(Skeletal/cardiac muscle cells)
Rough ER
Anastomosing flat sacs
arranged in stacks
Covered with ribosomes
Basophilic cytoplasm
(due to numerous polyribosomes)
Protein synthesis
 Fibroblasts (collagen)
 Pancreas acinar cells
(digestive enzymes)
 Plasma cells (immunoglobulins)
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 3. Golgi Apparatus

rER

Plasma membrane Golgi

apparatus
sER

Mitochondrion

Lysosome
 3. Golgi Apparatus

Under LM, Golgi apparatus is

seen as a large clear area that
is surrounded by the basophilic
ergastoplasm (rER)

Functions:
 Synthesizes carbohydrate.
 Modification, sorting and
packaging of proteins.

arrows indicates the clear area

3. Golgi Apparatus

Under EM, Golgi appears as

stacks of flat membrane-bound
sacs lying close to secretory
vesicles.

Functions:
 Synthesizes carbohydrate.
 Modification, sorting and
packaging of proteins.
 3. Golgi Apparatus

Under EM, Golgi appears as

stacks of flat membrane-bound
sacs lying close to secretory
vesicles.

Functions:
 Synthesizes carbohydrate.
 Modification, sorting and
packaging of proteins.

cv = condensing vacuole; sv = secretory vacuole;

ff = forming face; mf = maturing face
sER, rER and Golgi complex
sER, rER and Golgi complex
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 4. Mitochondria

rER

Plasma membrane Golgi

apparatus
sER

Mitochondrion

Lysosome
 4. Mitochondria

Inner membrane enzymes

(cristae)

Outer membrane

 Rod-shaped or rounded with double membrane

Outer membrane : smooth
 Inner membrane : folded shelves (cristae)
: studded with enzymes
 4. Mitochondria

 Rod-shaped or rounded with double membrane

Outer membrane : smooth
 Inner membrane : folded shelves (cristae)
: studded with enzymes
 4. Mitochondria

Mitochondria, in large numbers, produce cytoplasmic

acidophilia (due to large amount of membrane they contain)

Mitochondria contain their own DNA for protein synthesis

and replication independent of the cell nucleus.

Functions:
Formation of ATP (generate energy) 
Synthesis of lipid
 4. Mitochondria

Found in which cells?

All cells except red blood cells, terminal keratinocytes
 Cells that produce/spend large amount of energy
striated muscle cells
 middle piece of spermatozoa
 proximal convoluted renal tubule cells

Found in which part of cell?

 Region where energy usage is intense e.g.
 apex of ciliated cells
 mid-piece of spermatozoa
 base of proximal convoluted renal tubule cells
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 5. Lysosome

rER

Plasma membrane Golgi

apparatus
sER

Mitochondrion

Lysosome
5. Lysosome

Lysosomes (L) seen as dark stained

cytoplasmic granules in renal tubular
cells

Lumen of renal tubule seen as

a long slit

L = Lysosome; N = Nucleus
 5. Lysosome

Mitochondria

Lysosomes

EM showing 4 dark secondary lysosomes surrounded by mitochondria

 5. Lysosome

Digestive organelles, rounded in shape.

Contains hydrolytic enzymes

(e.g. protease, lipase, ribonuclease, acid phosphatase)

Functions: digestion 
Intracellular
Recycling of cellular components

Numerous in cells with phagocytic activity

(e.g. macrophages, neutrophil leucocytes,
renal tubular cells)
Lysosomal enzymes inactive at cytosol pH (~7.2)
(this prevents leakage of enzymes)
5. Lysosome

Acid Vesicle System

Primary lysosomes
Lysosomes newly formed
from Golgi cisternae.

Secondary lysosomes
Primary lysosomes that
contains the material to be
digested.

Residual bodies
(Tertiary lysosomes)
Vacuoles filled with hydrolytic
breakdown contents of
secondary lysosomes.
 MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Plasma/cell membrane

2. Endoplasmic reticulum
a. Smooth ER
b. Rough ER
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 6. Peroxisomes (Microbodies)

Peroxisomes seen as small membrane-bound, spherical bodies (arrows)

 6. Peroxisomes (Microbodies)

Spherical membranous structures containing oxidative

enzymes (peroxidases, catalases)

Functions:
Detoxify noxious agents
Peroxidases
Kill microorganisms
Regulate H2O2 content of cells Catalases
 oxidation of fatty acids

Numerous in liver and kidney cells.

 CYTOPLASM

Organelles

Membranous Non-membranous
1. Plasma/cell membrane 1. Microtubule
2. Endoplasmic reticulum 2. Microfilaments
a. Smooth ER 3. Centrioles
b. Rough ER 4. Ribosomes
3. Golgi apparatus
4. Mitochondria
5. Lysosomes
6. Peroxisomes
 NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments Cytoskeleton
3. Centrioles
4. Ribosomes

Functions:
 Maintains cell shape
Movement of
organelles or entire cell
 1. Microtubules
13

Structure
Nonbranching hollow cylinders
Protofilament

 (20-25 nm in diameter; 5nm thick)

Tubulin 
dimer Composed of 13 circularly arranged
globular protein subunits - protofilaments

Basic subunits of protofilaments are

known as Tubulin dimers/molecules

Each tubulin dimer is composed of

-tubulin and -tubulin molecules
 1. Microtubules

arrows = microtubules, LS arrows = microtubules, TS

 1. Microtubules

Functions:
Provide rigidity of cell.
Maintain shape of cell.
Regulate movement of organelles and vesicles.
Regulate movement of chromosomes.
(during mitosis and meiosis)

Provide motion of cilia and flagella.

 1. Microtubules

Microtubules are present in all cells except red blood cells

Microtubules are found in the following regions of cells:

Axoneme of cilia and flagella (A)
 Basal bodies of cilia (B)
Centrioles (C)
Mitotic spindle fibers (M)

A M

B
 NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments Cytoskeleton
3. Centrioles
4. Ribosomes

Functions:
 Maintains cell shape
Movement of
organelles or entire cell
 2. Microfilaments (Thin filaments)

Actin microfilaments are found in all cell types

Muscle cell contains 2 types of microfilaments -
actin and myosin
 Actin filaments are thin filaments that interact with
myosin to produce intracellular or cellular movement
 2. Microfilaments (Thin filaments)

EM of fibroblast cytoplasm showing actin filaments and microtubules

AF = Actin (thin) filaments; M = Microtubules
 2. Microfilaments (Thin filaments)

Functions:
Anchorage and movement of membrane proteins.
Movement of plasma membrane
(e.g. endocytosis, exocytosis, cytokinesis)

Formation of structural core of microvilli.

Extension of cell processes.

Locomotion of cells.
 Intermediate Filaments

8-10 nm

Fibrous subunit

In addition to thin (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments,

cells contain another class of intermediate-sized filaments
(10-12 nm diameter).
 Intermediate Filaments

Type of Intermediate Filament Location

Cytokeratins (Keratins) Epithelial cells

Desmin Muscles (smooth and striated)

Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Astrocytes

Neurofilament protein Neurons (soma and

processes)
Nuclear lamin Nucleus of all cells

Vimentin Mesenchymal cells

 Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments in skin epithelial cell

 Intermediate Filaments

Functions:
Provide structural framework/support for cell.
Provide connection between cell membrane and
cytoskeleton
Provide structural framework of nuclear membrane.
Anchor the nucleus in place.
 Intermediate Filaments
Clinical Application
Identification of specific type of intermediate filament
in tumors can reveal the origin of tumor.
This information is important for diagnosis and treatment.

Identification of intermediate filament proteins is done

by immunocytochemical methods.

Antigens
Diagnosis
Type of Intermediate Filament
Cytokeratins (Keratins) Tumors of epithelial origin
Desmin Tumors of muscles
Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein Tumors of glial cells
Vimentin Tumors of connective tissue
 NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments Cytoskeleton
3. Centrioles
4. Ribosomes

Functions:
 Maintains cell shape
Movement of
organelles or entire cell
 3. Centrioles

Each centriole is composed of 9 microtubule triplets

(linked by proteins)
Centrioles exist in pairs, arranged at right-angles to
each other.
Located near the nucleus of non-dividing cells
 3. Centrioles

Functions:
Organises formation of mitotic spindle in both normal
and dividing (mitotic) cells.
Organises development of specialised microtubules
in motile cilia.

Centrosome
It is the site from which microtubules originate.
This region contains a pair of centrioles.
 NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

1. Microtubules
2. Microfilaments Cytoskeleton
3. Centrioles
4. Ribosomes

Functions:
 Maintains cell shape
Movement of
organelles or entire cell
 4. Ribosomes

Composed of rRNA and proteins.

Found as free form or membrane-bound.
Synthesize protein.
 4. Ribosomes

Polysomes
are groups of ribosomes attached to a thread of
messenger RNA (mRNA)

Cytoplasmic basophilia
is due to the presence of numerous rRNA.
 4. Ribosomes

Functions
Types of Ribosome Proteins Synthesized

Polysomes Proteins exported from cell.

 Integral proteins of plasma membrane

Free ribosomes Proteins within cell (cytoplasmic elements)

Primary components involved in protein synthesis

Ribosomes/polysomes

Rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER)

Golgi apparatus
 CYTOPLASM

 Cytoplasmic matrix
 Organelles
 Inclusions
 Inclusions

Non-living components of the cell.

 No metabolic activity.

Components of Inclusions
Membrane-bound Without membrane

Secretory granules Lipid deposits

e.g. zymogen granules (storage form of triglycerides)

Pigment deposits Glycogen deposits

e.g. Hb, melanin, lipofuscin (storage form of glucose)
 Inclusions
Secretory granules

Secretory granules seen in

association with Golgi complex and
vacuoles
C
S
G
S
C = Vacuoles; G = Golgi complex;
S S = Secretory granules
Inclusions
Pigment deposits

Liver cells with pigment deposits

(Giemsa stain)

H = Hepatocyte; M = Macrophage;
PD = Pigment deposit
 Inclusions
Lipid deposits

Lipid droplets as seen under EM

in adrenal gland

Lipid droplets appear as vacuoles

in the cytoplasm (under LM)
(as lipid was extracted by solvents
during tissue processing)

L = Lipid droplets;
M = mitochondria (anomalous)
 Inclusions
Glycogen deposits

 appear as:
 empty regions under LM
(as they were lost during
routine tissue processing)
 rosette-shaped granules
under EM
 found in large amounts in liver
and striated muscle cells

G = glycogen granules;
m = mitochondria; N = nucleus
 Inclusions
Glycogen deposits

 appear as:
 empty regions under LM
(as they were lost during
routine tissue processing)
 rosette-shaped granules
under EM
 found in large amounts in liver
and striated muscle cells

G = glycogen granules;
m = mitochondria
 Cell

Cytoplasm Nucleus
 Cytoplasmic matrix
Nuclear envelope
 Organelles
Nucleoplasm
 Inclusions
Nucleolus
Chromatin

Cell is the basic structural and functional unit

of all multicellular organisms
 THE NUCLEUS

Size Largest organelle of the cell

Shape Spherical
Spindle to oblong

 Disk-shaped
Twisted
Lobulated
Number Single
Multiple (skeletal muscle, osteoclast)
Absent (mature RBC)
Central
Position
Peripheral (skeletal muscle)
Smooth Muscle Cell Nuclei
Characteristic Features

 Oval shape
Single nucleus per cell
Central in position
Skeletal Muscle Cell Nuclei
Characteristic Features

 Flattened nuclei
More than one nucleus per cell
Peripheral in position
Skeletal Muscle Cell Nuclei
Characteristic Features

 Flattened nuclei
More than one nucleus per cell
Peripheral in position
 The Nucleus
Outer nuclear
membrane  Nuclear envelope:
rER
 Inner nuclear membrane
Nuclear pore
 Outer nuclear membrane
(covered with ribosomes)
 Impermeable to molecules
Inner nuclear and ions of all sizes.
membrane
 Nucleoplasm (np)
np
Part of protoplasm surrounded
ch
by the nuclear envelope.

nu  Nucleolus (nu)
Dense, basophilic non-membrane
structure visible during interphase.

 Nuclear pore
ribosomes
Exchange of substances between
nucleus and cytoplasm occurs
only through the pores.
 The Nucleus
Outer nuclear
membrane  Chromatin (ch)
rER
Nuclear pore  DNA inside the nucleus in
the form of coiled strands.
 Visible as chromosomes
during cell division.
Inner nuclear
membrane
 Heterochromatin
np  Visible under LM as

ch condensed basophilic clumps.

 At the periphery of nucleus.
 Inactive form of chromatin.
nu

 Euchromatin
 Not visible as well defined
structure under LM.
 Scattered throughout nucleus.
ribosomes
 Active form of chromatin.
 The Nucleus

 Chromatin (ch)
 DNA inside the nucleus in
the form of coiled strands.
 Visible as chromosomes
euchromatin
during cell division.

 Heterochromatin
 Visible under LM as
nucleolus condensed basophilic clumps.
 At the periphery of nucleus.
 Inactive form of chromatin.

 Euchromatin
hetero-
chromatin  Not visible as well defined
structure under LM.
 Scattered throughout nucleus.
 Active form of chromatin.
 The Nucleus

 Chromatin (ch)
 DNA inside the nucleus in
the form of coiled strands.
 Visible as chromosomes
during cell division.

nucleolus
 Heterochromatin
 Visible under LM as
heterochromatin
condensed basophilic clumps.
 At the periphery of nucleus.
 Inactive form of chromatin.

 Euchromatin
euchromatin  Not visible as well defined
structure under LM.
 Scattered throughout nucleus.
 Active form of chromatin.
 Review questions

 What is the difference between organelle and

inclusion?
 Name:
 4 membranous organelles
 4 non-
membranous organelles
 Is the plasma membrane visible or not?

 Name 2 modifications of plasma membrane

stating the function of each.
 Review questions

 For each organelle, state one function and one

location (cell) where it is found in abundance,.

 Name the largest organelle.

 Name 4 inclusions and state the content of each.

 State 2 main functions of cytoskeleton.

 State the differences between euchromatin and

heterochromatin.
END OF “THE CELL”