NEW DOCUMENTING THE EVOLUTION OF THE WORLD

HISTORY
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YEAR BY YEAR ANCIENT CIVILISATION TO MEDIEVAL TIMES

Ancient armour Prehistoric tools Egyptian art Heroes & Heroines

Aristotle’s discoveries Religious artefacts Viking history Medieval weapons

Mapping the skies Roman times Life of the Aztecs Great leaders
 Welcome to

Book of

HISTORY
YEAR BY YEAR
Understanding the events that have come before us and how they
have shaped the world we live in is a fascinating subject. So oen,
we focus on specific dates such as 1066, 1215, 1914 and 1945, but
there’s so much more – going back so much further – that should
be recognised. In Volume 1 of this book, we take you from ancient
civilisations to medieval times, covering the origins of humanity
and ancient Egypt to the rise of the Roman empire and the
emergence of the Vikings. Displayed in an illustrative timeline
and packed with incredible details, facts and images, this is the
ideal learning tool for people of all ages, taking you on an exciting
journey through the history of the world.
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HISTORY
YEAR BY YEAR Imagine Publishing Ltd
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All About History Book of History Year by Year Volume 1 © 2014 Imagine Publishing Ltd
ISBN 978 1910 439 296

Part of the

bookazine series
 1 2 3 4
8MYA–3000BCE 3000–700BCE 700BCE–599CE 600–1449

010
008 HUMAN 022
020 EARLY 042
040 THE 106
104 TRADE &
ORIGINS CIVILIZATIONS
CIVILIZATIONS CLASSICAL
CLASSICAL AGE
AGE INVENTION

Features
Features Features
Features Features
Features Features
Features
014
012 Colonizing thePlanet
Colonizing the Planet 028
026 The StoryofofWriting
The Story Writing 048
046 Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece 120 The
122 The Vikings
Vikings
020
018 Prehistoric Peoples
Prehistoric Peoples 032
030 Ancient Empires
Ancient Empires 054
052 The Storyofof
The Story 132 The
134 The Islamic
IslamicWorld
World
Metalworking
Metalworking
038
036 Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt 142 The
144 The Aztecs,
Aztecs,Incas,
Incas,
062 The
064 The Story
StoryofofMoney
Money and Maya
and Maya
072 The
074 The Rise
Riseofofthe
the 152 The
154 The Story
StoryofofPrinting
Printing
Roman Empire
Roman Empire
082 Ancient
084 Rome
Ancient Rome
094 Classical
096 Trade
Classical Trade

CONTENTS
006-007_Contents_final.indd 6 03/06/2011 17:39
HUMAN
ORIGINS
8 ƒ3000 
Our earliest ancestors lived in Africa almost eight million
years ago. Over seven million years later, we appeared and
developed the skills – including sophisticated tool-making
and agriculture – that allowed us to colonize the world.
 8–4.5 MYA 4.5–2 MYA 2 –1.8 MYA 1.8–1.6 MYA

Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a site of great archaeological significance and it is sometimes referred
to as the “Cradle of Mankind”. At least two species of early hominin are associated with this area.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
HUMAN AND OTHER APES DNA
and blood proteins suggest that
our lineage separated from that
of the chimpanzees between
8 and 6 million years ago (MYA).
Only a few fossil specimens date
to this time: Sahelanthropus
tchadensis (7–6 MYA), Orrorin
SEVERAL DIFFERENT and still lived partially in trees. ULTIMATELY, THE
AUSTRALOPITHECINE species Their brains were about the size PARANTHROPINES’ WAY OF LIFE
lived in Africa between 4.2 and of those of modern chimpanzees, was unsuccessful and they became Boxgrove
Swanscombe
2 MYA. Although they walked on but some australopithecines seem extinct after about 1.2 MYA , while 0.95 MYA Mauer
two legs most of the time, they to have used tools. The earliest their cousins Homo habilis and Atapuerca
Steinheim
were rather small and ape-like stone tools come from Ethiopia H. rudolfensis survived. These Tautavel 1.2 MYA EUROPE
and date to 2.6 MYA , but bones early Homo species were not very Ceprano
Isernia
with cut marks made by stone different from australopithecines. la Pineta Petralona
Dmanisi
tools have been found associated It was with Homo ergaster (1.8 Kocabas

with Australopithecus afarensis MYA) that our ancestors started Ubeidiya

1.7 MYA
nearby, and date to 3.4 MYA. The to look much more familiar.

7 MYA australopithecines’ descendants

followed two distinct modes of
life: members of the genus
H. ergaster was tall and slender,
and may have been the first
hominin (a term used to describe
PROBABLY
MORE THAN
1.8 MYA
THE TIME Paranthropus had huge jaws humans and their ancestors) Bodo

WHEN and big teeth for eating tough

vegetable foods; meanwhile, Homo
without much body hair. Their
brains were larger than those of
AFRICA
Konso-Gardula

THE FIRST Lake Turkana Koobi Fora

rudolfensis and H. habilis seem to their ancestors, and they lost the
Olorgesailie
have eaten more protein, using last of their adaptations to
HUMAN
Olduvai Gorge

tools to get at the protein-rich tree-climbing to become fully

ANCESTOR marrow inside long-bones by adapted to walking and running.
scavenging from carnivore kills.
APPEARS
tugenensis (6.1–5 MYA), and OLDOWAN TOOL NOT LONG AFTER THE
two species of Ardipithecus, APPEARANCE of Homo ergaster,
kadabba (5.8–5.2 MYA) and hominins expanded their range
ramidus (4.4 MYA). While all beyond Africa for the first time.
of these species seem to A species called H. georgicus
have walked on two legs appeared in Dmanisi in Georgia by
like us, it is not certain 1.7 MYA . Another close relative of
whether any were actual Homo ergaster, Homo erectus,
ancestors of humans. lived in China and Indonesia
Because species are ACHEULEAN TOOL perhaps not long afterward.
constantly evolving, and Some archaeologists believe that
individuals of those species TOOLS earlier groups of hominins may
can vary, it is difficult to tell also have left Africa, as some of
from isolated and often poorly Many animal species use natural objects as tools, but the the skulls from Dmanisi and from
preserved fossils which species manufacture of stone tools is unique to hominins. The earliest are the much later site of Liang Bua
they should be assigned to, or how simply sharp flakes broken off stone cobbles by striking them with in Flores in Indonesia (currently
Lucy
these are related to one another. a “hammerstone”. These are known as “Oldowan” tools, after known as Homo floresiensis)
This unusually complete skeleton
However, these fossils do tell us of Australopithecus afarensis, Olduvai Gorge where they were first found. Later tools, such as resemble those of Homo habilis
a great deal about what the last discovered in Kenya in 1974, was Acheulean handaxes, required more skill. Our manufacture of tools and Homo rudolfensis.
common ancestor we shared named after the Beatles’ song might be one explanation for the evolution of the human brain. Living further north would have
with chimpanzees was like. “Lucy in the sky with diamonds”. required a different way of life

no
t us ks st
n e us s ec ar on as
ini op ate cu rain at of till ith rly ”, ,h lie ia
m nze e hr e
h a b th ; s p
lo ea d t m ols st an isei and ar inin ras
Ho pa erg nt re-d ) E
A A
t
MY i
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7 M d ch es d Sa ma anz t to
. t r
4 s sis er t z
an e e A fi
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pit e;
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s e te ini in v aeto nia A en fe m “
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bb ar id du ze ni ht m d a r d m b
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8
1. er is mo its ha they nifi n hu ence
da a v am mi an efi ig Ho rve at L anz afa s an s for grou ssils
ka nly A. r r a imp ut d upr e T e e n
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va af a sle a
A.

10
 1.6–0.35 MYA 350,000–160,000 YA

,,
,, ALL LIVING HUMANS DESCENDED
FROM COMMON ANCESTORS WHO LIVED
IN AFRICA LESS THAN 200,000 YEARS AGO.
Stephen Jay Gould, American palaeontologist, from I have Landed: the end of
a beginning in natural history, 2002

ACHEULEAN HANDAXES made by While Homo Erectus continued

Homo ergaster and H. erectus were to thrive in Asia, Homo antecessor
produced across most of Africa had appeared as far west as
and Eurasia, and demonstrate the northern Spain and Italy by 1.2 MYA.
ability to learn complex skills Marks on their bones at the site of
1.6–1.3 MYA Zhoukoudian from one another and pass them Atapuerca in Spain suggest they
Hexian down over generations. To make practised cannibalism. However,
ASIA Nanjing
Lantian Yunxian these tools, knappers had to think these early colonists may not
several steps ahead in order to have thrived in these unfamiliar
select a suitable stone and to landscapes, as very few sites are
prepare and place each strike. known. By 600,000 years ago,
Handaxes were used for a wide a new hominin species, Homo
Narmada range of activities, including heidelbergensis, had spread
1.5–1 MYA butchery, but they might also have much more widely across Europe.
been important for personal or H. heidelbergensis seem to have
group identity, demonstrating been good hunters, or at least
their makers’ strength and skill. proficient scavengers. Burying the dead
BY AROUND 350,000 YEARS AGO, Neanderthals often disposed
Trinil
Sangiran Mojokerto
while Homo erectus continued to of their dead with care. Some
KEY
Ngandong Australopithecines Homo heidelbergensis
hold sway over eastern Asia, were buried in graves, as here
461 cubic cm 1,204 cubic cm at Kebara Cave in Israel, which
Site of fossil finds (28 cubic inches) (73 cubic inches) Homo heidelbergensis in Europe dates to 60,000 BCE.
More likely route and Western Asia had evolved into
Less likely route Paranthropines Homo neanderthalensis.
517 cubic cm
(32 cubic inches) Neanderthals were stockier and their throat and voice box anatomy
Hominins beyond Africa Homo neanderthalensis
stronger than modern humans, suggests that a Neanderthal
Our earliest ancestors evolved in Homo habilis 1,426 cubic cm
Africa. Possible dispersal routes (87 cubic inches) and their brains were as large language may have been limited
Homo rudolfensis
from Africa are shown on this map, 648 cubic cm or even larger, although shaped compared to that of humans, they
with dates referring to the earliest (40 cubic inches) slightly differently. Neanderthals must have communicated in some
fossils known from each region. Homo erectus were almost certainly very fashion, perhaps by combining a
Homo ergaster Homo sapiens accomplished hunters. They were less complex form of vocalization
to life in the African savanna. 969 cubic cm 1,478 cubic cm also highly skilled at making with expressive miming.
(59 cubic inches) (90 cubic inches)
The climate was cooler and stone tools and heavy thrusting

200,000
environments were more spears with which they tackled
seasonal, with significant HOMININ BRAIN SIZES even large and dangerous animal
variation in food resources prey, such as horses and bison.
over the course of a year. Humans have a disproportionately large brain for a primate of However, despite burying their
Fewer edible plants meant their size, but archaeologists disagree about how and why this dead – which may have indicated THE NUMBER
that hominins would have had expansion happened. Switching to fatty and calorific foods such ceremonial practices or belief in
to rely more on harder-to-find as bone marrow and meat may have “powered” brain growth, and an afterlife – Neanderthals do not OF YEARS THE
and fiercely competed-for
animal protein for food. They
also demanded more complex tools and effective hunting and
foraging skills. Social skills were also a part of this process, as
seem to have created more than
the most limited art or used any
NEANDERTHAL
needed to move over greater increasing group co-operation and pair-bonding were necessary symbols, as all modern humans DOMINATED
distances and work together to
share resources and information
to sustain the longer periods of childhood that infants needed
for their larger brains to develop.
do. Whether or not they spoke in a
similar way to modern humans is
EUROPE AND
to survive in these regions. also difficult to establish. Although WESTERN ASIA
ds e
nc s
Fin us o as na st e t ide re
MY
A t
ec ted t but ur
ka ost n o Fir denc re a ov, y Ev d co nt t YA ag
e
1 r
– o e a a, “T alm leto om ia MY
A
e vi f fi ’aq tic rit A
re e ne d ha 7M ng ng
65 d A
an ske nt H an
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3 epa ak po ise rek e .12 als e unti
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11
 8 MYA – 3000 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS

A
COLONIZING THE R
I
C

PLANET
E
M
A

THE SPREAD OF MODERN HUMANS ACROSS THE WORLD H

T
R Clovis
22,000
Skeletal and DNA evidence suggests that our species, Homo sapiens,
sapiens, evolved YEARS AGO

O
12,000
in Africa and then spread across the globe. The first traces of modern YEARS AGO

N
Meadowcroft
humans beyond Africa come from fossils in Israel and possibly from stone Buttermilk Creek
tools found in Arabia. They date to before 100,000 years ago. Cactus Hill

Homo sapiens’ colonization of the globe involved many stops, starts, and sometimes retreats, as well
as waves of different groups of people in some areas. Homo sapiens may have moved into Eurasia rasia
via the Mediterranean coast of western Asia, spreading
preading into Western Europe by 35,000 years ago
go
(YA
Y ). Archaeological evidence suggests that people
eople may also have taken a “southern route”
across Arabia into southern Asia. There may also lso have been movement eastward, perhaps
much earlier, as stone tools have been found in India from 77,000 YA Y and Malaysia from
70,000 YYA
A. Some possible Homo sapiens finds from southern China are dated to 68,000 Y YA
A
(Liujiang), and even 100,000 YA
Y (Zhirendong). However, these finds remain controversial, and
most scholars favour later dates here. In Australia,
stralia, widespread colonization probably did
not occur until 45,000 YA
Y , though some sites haveave been dated to as early as 60,000 YA
Y .
Further north, Homo sapiens first spread across
cross northern Eurasia around 35,000YA Y .
However, they may have retreated during the last ast Ice Age, and not re-colonized the
region until after 14,000–13,000 YAY . Genetically, the North American colonists are likely AT L A N T I C
to have originated in East Asia. They probably travelled
ravelled across the plain of “Beringia”
– now beneath the Bering Straits between Siberiaiberia and Alaska, but exposed by low sea OCEAN

S O U
levels at the height of the last Ice Age. Distinctive
istinctive “Clovis” spear points (flaked on both
sides) are found across North America around 12,000 YA Y , so modern humans were
widespread at that point, but earlier sites are also known, including South American
sites such as Monte Verde (15,500–15,000 YA Y ).
T H

NORTH AMERICA
ASIA PA C I F I C
OCEAN
3000 BCE
A

Philippine Hawaiian Pedra

Islands Islands
Furada
M

2500 BCE
500 BCE –1 CE
E

500 BCE
Borneo
New
R

Guinea 400–1200 CE
1500 BCE
Samoan
1400–750 BCE
I C

Islands
Fiji

AUSTRALIA
1250 CE
A

NEW PA C I F I C
ZEALAND
OCEAN

LAT
AT
A E ARRIVA VA
V LS Tracking language
The islands of Oceania were some of the last parts of the The spread of languages can
often be tracked to reflect the
globe to be colonized, via the Philippines, by movement of people. This map
Austronesian-speaking early farmers from Taiwan. The shows the spread of Austronesian Monte Verde
more remote northern and eastern islands of Micronesia speakers across Oceania. Earlier
settlers were already present in
and Polynesia remained uninhabited until after 700 CE, some western areas. 15,000–11,000
and New Zealand was populated as late as 1250 CE. YEARS AGO

12
 13,000 YEARS AGO
Bering Straits
C O LO N I Z I N G T H E P L A N E T
Swan Point 14,000 YEARS AGO

Bluefish Caves Ushki Lake

Tuluaq Hill
(Sluiceway-
Tuluaq complex) KEY
General direction
Berelekh of Homo sapiens
around the world
Yana
Site of early
Ust-Mil Homo sapiens
Diuktai

35,000
YEARS AGO

Kara-Bom
Tianyuan 32,000
42,000 YEARS AGO
31,000 YEARS AGO
E U R O P E YEARS AGO
Trou Magrite Yamashita-Cho
Paviland Cave
Höhlenstein-Stadel Kostienki
Kent's Cavern
Vindija Cave 45,000 YEARS AGO A S I A
Arcy-sur-Cure Korolevo I
Saint Césaire

PA
Istállöskö
El Castillo Le Piage
Pestera cu Oase
Riparo Mochi

CI
Cueva Morín
Gato Preto 40,000
El Pendo YEARS AGO

FI
Bacho 77,000–45,000 YEARS AGO Liujiang
Kiro
Gorham's Cave Abríc Romaní

C
Temnata Uçagizli Magara Zhirendong
Cova Beneito Cave Ksar Akil

OC
Jebel Irhoud Skhul Qafzeh

EA
100,000
YEARS AGO

N
Jebel Faya

Jwalapuram Matenkupkum, Balof 2,

and Panakiwuk

A F R I C A Kota Tampan Niah Caves Huon Peninsula

INDIAN
160,000 YEARS AGO
Herto OCEAN
Omo Kibish

1.7 MYA Temperate grassland,

mediterranean shrubland
Malakunanja
Nawalabila I

Riwi and
Carpenter's Gap
Ngarrabulgan
TIME
A
Puritjarra
L I

40,000 YA 45,000
A

Temperate forest, YEARS AGO

Blombos Cave boreal forest, tundra
Klasies
R

River Mouth 7 MYA Tropical and subtropical Upper Swan

dry broadleaf forest, savanna
T

Allen's Cave Cuddie

Devil's Springs
Lair
S

Going global Changing environments

Skeletal and genetic evidence suggests that modern humans The ancient ancestors of modern humans
U

originated in Africa, and spread across the globe from there, evolved in the African tropics. Over time, as Lake Mungo
as reflected on this map. This is called the “Out of Africa” human species evolved larger brains and
A

theory. An alternative “multiregional” theory suggests that developed more advanced skills and behaviour, Kow Swamp
Homo sapiens evolved simultaneously in many different parts they became better equipped to deal with the Willandra Lakes
of the world, from ancestors who had left Africa much earlier. challenges of new environments.

13
 160,000–45,000 YA 45,000–35,000 YA 35,000–28,000 YA

These cave paintings from Lascaux in France date to around 17,000 years ago. Most cave paintings are from a similar
period, though some were created by the earliest Homo sapiens to arrive in western Europe, around 32,000 years ago.

IN AFRICA, HOMININ FOSSILS

gradually began to reveal the
characteristic skeletal traits of
HUMANS SPREAD RAPIDLY
across Europe and Asia. In
Europe, modern humans
Flores date to less than 38,000
years ago, and seem to represent
specialized, extremely small
,, THE
NEANDERTHALS
Homo sapiens from around
400,000 YA: smaller brow ridges,
appeared in Turkey from 40,000 YA,
and in western Europe shortly
forms of Homo erectus, or
perhaps even the descendants
WERE NOT
higher and rounder skulls, and afterwards. In Asia, fossils of of earlier hominins. More APE-MEN…
chins. DNA analysis of living
humans suggests that the
Homo sapiens in Indonesia and
China date to at least 42,000 YA,
evidence comes from Denisova
Cave in Russia – DNA analysis
THEY WERE
common ancestors of all living and the sea crossing to Australia of bones found here reveals AS HUMAN AS
humans (known as Mitochondrial occurred before 45,000 YA. These genetic material distinct from US, BUT THEY
Eve) lived in Africa around dates suggest that the earliest that of both modern humans and
REPRESENTED

,,
200,000 YA. An Ethiopian fossil modern humans in Asia may Neanderthals, dated to around
have encountered groups of 40,000 YA. It seems increasingly A DIFFERENT

250,000
YEARS AGO
WHEN HOMO
SAPIENS FIRST
APPEARED
skull from 160,000 YA is almost
modern in shape; this has been
identified as a subspecies of
modern humans, Homo sapiens
idaltu. Humans moved north into
Western Asia some time before
100,000 YA, but they do not seem
to have stayed there for long.
It is debated whether uniquely
human behaviours such as
language and the ability to use
symbols evolved before or after
modern human anatomy. One
theory is that such behaviours
became vital only after 74,000 YA,
when the massive eruption of
Mount Toba in Indonesia triggered
a global “volcanic winter”. DNA
analysis suggests that many
human groups died out at this
Prepared core and flake
Neanderthals and other hominins
prepared a stone core before
striking off a sharp flake to use.
In Europe this technology is
known as the “Mousterian”.
time and, in such harsh conditions,
complex modern language and
symbolism would have allowed
groups to exchange resources
and information with one
another, which could have made
the difference between survival
and extinction. However, others
argue that the impact of the
eruption of Mount Toba has been
exaggerated, and that achaeology
in Africa suggests complex hunting
practices and the development of
symbolism even before this.
It is not clear when modern
humans first spread into Eurasia.
Some researchers argue they left
Arabia before 74,000 YA. Others
say the major migration occurred
later, 50,000 YA, and via western
Asia, after developing a new form
of stone-tool technology that
involved producing long, thin flint
“blades”, which probably formed
part of composite tools.
Homo erectus, who survived in likely that several groups
China until at least 40,000 years descended from hominins who BRAND OF
ago. In Indonesia the picture left Africa before Homo sapiens HUMANITY.
was even more complicated. may have coexisted in Eurasia
Fossils found on the island of at this time. Chris Stringer and Clive Gamble, from
In Search of the Neanderthals, 1993
IN EUROPE, MODERN HUMANS
overlapped with Neanderthals,
who survived until at least 30,000
years ago. How and why
Neanderthals died out is one of
the most intensely debated topics
in archaeology. There is little
evidence of violent interactions
between the species, and
comparison of DNA increasingly
suggests that there may have
been some exchange of mating
HOMO SAPIENS NEANDERTHAL partners between the groups.
Early humans may have
MODERN HUMANS AND NEANDERTHALS outcompeted their relatives for
food and raw materials in the
Neanderthal skulls (right) were about the same size as rapidly changing environmental
anatomically modern human skulls (left), but they had lower, conditions. Environments at the
more sloping foreheads and a double arch of bone over their time were highly unstable, so
eyes that created heavy brow ridges. Their lower faces jutted even a slight increase in
out and they did not have chins. Overall, Neanderthal skeletons competition could have been
reveal that they were much more muscular than modern humans, significant. However, populations
as well as being extremely physically active and well-adapted were small and spread out, and
to cold climates. co-existed for up to 10,000 years
in Europe, and more than 30,000

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14
 28,000–21,000 YA 21,000–18,000 YA 18,000–12,000 YA

ATL ANTIC
OCEAN
in Indonesia. Alternatively, the PACIFIC IN EUROPE, SOPHISTICATED BONE and art objects may have helped
exchange of resources and OCEAN
and antler points, needles, and establish group identities and
INDIAN
information allowed by modern OCE AN harpoons characterize the territories, as the number of
humans’ language and symbol “Magdalenian” technologies that archaeological sites in this period
use, and their planned and were used to hunt a wide range of suggests that populations were
flexible technologies made species, especially reindeer. growing, and competition for rich
Homo sapiens better able to The Magdalenian (18,000– and localized resources may have
withstand climatic downturns THE MAXIMUM EXTENT OF THE LAST ICE AGE 12,000 YA) is famous for its been intensifying.
than Neanderthals. beautiful art objects, engravings, A rise in temperature led to the
Others believe that these European climates after 23,000 BCE grew steadily cooler, and and cave paintings. There are many retreat of the ice sheets that had
behaviours were not unique to during the “Last Glacial Maximum” (21,000–18,000 YA) ice-caps theories about what these mean covered northern Europe, and
modern humans. Hominins covered most of northern Europe. Further south huge areas of and why they were produced. As these areas were rapidly
would have needed to use rafts grassland with few trees offered good hunting for groups of most depict animals that were recolonized, with groups
or boats to reach the island of humans able to survive the cold. hunted, the paintings may expanding as far north as Siberia
Flores in Indonesia by 800,000 YA . represent a magical means of by around 14,000–13,000 YA. Some
Some late Neanderthal sites ensuring hunting success, or groups later moved on into Alaska
also contain elements of THE “GRAVETTIAN” CULTURE OF AT THE HEIGHT OF THE GLACIAL show information about the best and the Americas. Further east in
technologies normally associated Europe and Russia (28,000– Maximum, when the ice caps ways to hunt different species. China and in the Jomon culture of
with Homo sapiens, although it is 21,000 YA) is known for its were at their maximum extent, Paintings of imaginary half-human, Japan, some of the first pots
possible that Neanderthals may elaborate sites, which often have people living in more northerly half-animal creatures and the manufactured from clay appeared
have copied, traded with, or even complex structures and burials, and mountainous areas retreated inaccessibility of some cave art between 18,000 and 15,000 YA.
stolen from modern humans. as well as large amounts of shell to “refuge” areas such as – in suggests that painting may have
A combination of environmental jewellery, and sculpted bone and Europe – northern Spain and been a magical or ritual activity, Altamira cave paintings
unrest and increased competition antler. Also found at Gravettian southwest France, where this perhaps practised by shamans This Paleolithic cave painting
is currently considered to be the sites are some of the earliest period is known as the “Solutrean”. or during initiation or religious of bison was discovered at the
most likely explanation for known clay objects, including some Globally, many groups probably ceremonies. Alternatively paintings Altamira cave site in Spain.
Neanderthal extinction. of the famous “Venus” figurines. died out, but some held on in
These may have been fertility or more sheltered regions. To survive
religious charms, or part of a the harsh conditions, much time
system of exchange between and effort was invested in hunting.
E U RO PE social networks across the region Weapons include beautifully
as the Ice Age intensified. worked points known as “leaf-
AT L A N T I C
OCEAN
points”. Although little evidence
“Venus” statuette survives beyond finely worked
Me This figurine bone needles, people probably
dit
er
ra
from Willendorf developed sophisticated clothing
ne in Austria depicts
an to keep them warm. Perhaps
Se a stylized pregnant
KEY a
or obese female more importantly, hunters
KEY Neanderthal sites figure. would have worked hard to
Modern human sites predict and intercept the
movements of herds of large
Neanderthal and human ranges
Modern humans and Neanderthals animals, ensuring the
exaggerated
co-existed for several thousand belly hunting success that was
years. Sites appear to show evidence the difference between life
for interaction between the groups. and death.

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15
10,000–3000 BCE

Megalithic (large stone) architecture was used for monumental tombs in Neolithic Europe. Developments around
3300 BCE included the construction of stone circles, such as this example at Castlerigg in northern England.

6700-
6400BCE
7500-
6700BCE
8500-
7500BCE
9600-
8500BCE
13,000-
9600BCE
Population density
The population in western Asia grew
rapidly from 13,000 to 6400 BCE.
AS STEEPLY RISING TEMPERATURES
between 12,700 and 10,800 BCE
melted the northern ice sheets,
global sea-levels rose, lakes
formed, and rainfall increased,
promoting the
spread of forests
and grasslands
and providing new
opportunities for
hunter-gatherer
communities.
Coastal areas
drowned by rising sea levels were
rich sources of aquatic foods, as
were lakes and rivers. Grasslands
sustained large herds of animals,
while forest margins provided
abundant plant foods and game.
Most hunter-gatherers moved
seasonally to exploit the
resources of different areas, but
particularly favoured places such
as river estuaries could support
people year round. One such
region was coastal Peru and Chile,
where the cold Humboldt current
provides especially rich fisheries.
Settled communities lived here productivity. Farming was were domesticated in the Yellow
by 7000 BCE, including the therefore a choice that people River valley and rice in the Yangzi
Chinchorro who created the made, increasing local valley in China, from where they
world’s first mummies (see productivity, often at the cost of spread through East and Southeast
panel, opposite). increasing work and risk. Their Asia. In Africa, other millets and
Another area with reasons for farming may have African rice were domesticated
favourable conditions was included extending their period of after 3000 BCE. In the Americas,
West Asia. Here, residence in a settled village, maize was the principal cereal.
vegetation included wild providing extra food for feasting or However, although it was cultivated
cereals that could be to support a growing population, by 6000 BCE, it was not until
stored, sustaining and boosting the supply of 2000 BCE that maize was
communities throughout the preferred or declining foodstuffs. sufficiently productive to support Lepinski Vir "fish god"
Abundant fish supported a settled
year when Cereals were common staples of permanently settled villages. hunter-gatherer village on the
supplemented early agriculture. Wheat and barley Pulses and vegetables were Danube in Serbia. Its inhabitants
by other wild were domesticated in West Asia, grown alongside cereals in many carved fish-human sculptures,
foods such as spreading into North Africa, parts of the world. probably representing gods.
gazelle. A period Europe, and Central and South Tubers, such as manioc and
of cold, arid Asia. Broomcorn and foxtail millet yams, and treecrops were meat. However, in the Americas
conditions from cultivated in moist tropical only the Andes had animals
10,800 to 9600 BCE regions, beginning at an early date suitable for domestication:
led to a steep in the New Guinea highlands and guineapigs, llamas, and alpacas.
the rainforests of Central America Birds, particularly chickens,
and northern South America.
Domestic sheep, goats, pigs,
and cattle were raised across
Eurasia and Africa, initially just for
decline in the availability of wild
cereals. This prompted some West
Asian villagers to turn to
cultivation, planting cereals.
Agriculture began in many
parts of the world at different
times, using local resources. holes bored
Domesticated plants and animals into skull
spread by trade between
neighbouring groups and when bone and antler
farming communities colonized lightened by
new areas. Agriculture was not a scraping
discovery: hunter-gatherers had a Star Carr deer cap
deep knowledge of the plants and This skull-cap from a hunter-
animals on which they depended, gatherer site in England may have
and often took actions to increase been used in hunting rituals.

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16
ducks, and turkeys, were also kept
by Old and New World farmers. By
,, THE NEOLITHIC WAS… A POINT
IN A CONTINUOUS STORY OF
CHINCHORRO MUMMIES

,,
5000 BCE cattle, sheep, and goats
were raised for milk as well as
meat, while cattle were used to
GREATER ECONOMIC CONTROL The earliest mummies come
not from Egypt, but from
pull ploughs, enabling people to OVER RESOURCES... FROM coastal northern Chile, an
cultivate much larger areas. SCAVENGING TO... FARMING. arid region where natural
Wool-bearing sheep were bred in mummies occur from
West Asia in the 4th millennium Clive Gamble, from Origins and revolutions: human identity in earliest 7000 BCE. After 5000 BCE the
BCE, and rapidly spread into prehistory, 2007 Chinchorro began artificial
Europe and Central Asia. The use mummification. They removed
of pack animals such as llamas decorated with paintings and bones of a number of individuals. the flesh, reassembled and
and donkeys allowed long- modelled animal heads. Native (naturally occurring pure) reinforced the skeleton, stuffed
distance transport. After 7000 BCE farmers spread copper and gold were being the skin with plant material,
Agriculture was more productive from Turkey into southeast and shaped into small objects by cold coated it in clay, and painted
than foraging and could support central Europe, while hammering before 8000 BCE in it with black manganese or
larger communities. Settled life Mediterranean hunter-gatherers West Asia. Around 7000 BCE, ores red ochre. Only some
also encouraged population gradually turned to agriculture, were smelted here to extract individuals, particularly
growth. Many early farming using imported West Asian crops metal and by 6000 BCE copper and children, were mummified.
villages in West Asia grew to a and animals. By 3500 BCE most of lead were also cast. Metals were
considerable size. Most Europe had adopted farming. initially made into small personal
remarkable was Çatalhöyük in Megaliths – stone chambered objects that could enhance distant sources. A trading and political complexity was also
Turkey, occupied around 7400– tombs of which a wide variety were prestige and status. Later, network developed that emerging in Elam (southwest
6200 BCE, which housed as many built, often with earthen mounds however, copper began to be used stretched from Egypt through Iran) and Egypt. All three regions
as 8,000 people. Its tightly packed – were constructed in western and for tools, and by 4200 BCE copper West Asia to the mountainous developed writing systems
houses were entered from the northern Europe from the early 5th ores containing arsenic were borderlands of South Asia, with before 3000 BCE, which they used
roof by ladders, and were millennium BCE. Most housed the deliberately selected to produce a towns controlling sources of to record and manage economic
harder metal. The addition of tin materials and strategic points transactions and the ownership
created a stronger alloy, bronze, along the routes. Sumer of property. The earliest known
which was in use in West Asia (southern Mesopotamia) was at pictographic writing, around
ASIA
by 3200 BCE. the forefront of this development, 3300 BCE, comes from Uruk in
NORTH
EUROPE
The development of water- but social, religious, economic, Sumer, a huge and complex
AMERICA 4000 BCE
7000 BCE 8000 BCE control techniques enabled West settlement that is deservedly
2500 BCE 9000 BCE 9000 BCE
6500 BCE 6000 BCE
Asian farmers to colonize the known as the world’s first city.
4500 BCE
8000 BCE 6500 BCE Copper axe heads
7000 BCE southern Mesopotamian plains, Gold and copper were the
6000 BCE 2500 BCE where agriculture depended first metals to be worked.
AFRICA
7000 BCE SOUTH 7000 BCE entirely on irrigation but was They became widespread
6000 BCE AMERICA KEY
5000 BCE highly productive. By the mid 4th in Europe around
Livestock AUSTRALASIA
millennium BCE, this region was 2500 BCE.
KEY Cereals
densely populated, and villages
Livestock Other
were developing into towns, with
Cereals Areas with agriculture
craft specialists. There was a
Other
The spread of agriculture growing demand for raw
Areas with agriculture
Humans began to cultivate plants and manage animals independently, materials, including metal
in different areas at different times, across the world. ores, which often came from

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17
 8 MYA –3 0 0 0 BCE HUMAN ORIGINS

colourful minerals define

geometric hole for
facial features
design cord

reed
framework geometric,
coated in abstract
thick plaster pattern

finely detailed
engraving

Pottery shard Human figurine Schist plaque Engraved bone

4000 BCE • ROMANIA
Different cultures can be identified
by their unique ways of decorating
objects – this shard is typical of the
Cucuteni-Tripolye culture.
6750–6500 BCE • JORDAN
This large statue from Ain Ghazal
is one of several from sites in
the Near East that may have
represented ancestors or gods.
4000 BCE • PORTUGAL
It is unclear what Neolithic engraved
plaques, like this one from Alentejo,
symbolized, but they seem to have
been made for burial with the dead.
13,000–8000 BCE • FRANCE
Paleolithic artists often carved as well
as painted their depictions of animals,
as with this scene of a bison being
chased, from Laugerie-Basse.

PREHISTORIC PEOPLES
EARLY HUMANS ARE DEFINED BY THE RAW MATERIALS THEY USED TO FASHION TOOLS, WEAPONS, AND ORNAMENTS

Prehistory is traditionally divided into the Stone, Bronze, carefully carved antler
and Iron ages, but many other kinds of raw materials sharpened tip setting

such as wood, hide, and plant fibres were also used in

early technologies. Little evidence of these survives.
leather or
As well as being functional aids to survival and subsistence, the objects sinew binding
made by prehistoric peoples would also have been important in their social
lives. Different groups develop their own ways of manufacturing and
decorating objects, and distinctive designs may become badges of identity
or status symbols. The trade and exchange of objects is another vital way in
which individuals and groups establish social relationships and hierarchies.
flint head
set into
scars where wooden
blades chipped sleeve
long, thin
from core
blade

remains of
flaked cobble

Oldowan tool
2.6–1.7 MYA • AFRICA
The earliest stone tools were
simple, sharp-edged flakes of
stone, made by striking a stone
cobble with a hard “hammerstone”.
reproduced
Blades and core wooden handle
100,000 BCE ONWARDS • WIDESPREAD
Early modern humans produced uniform,
narrow blades that would have been fitted
to wooden and antler handles or held in the
hand, as tools for many different purposes.
thick base is
easy to hold

Flint hand-axe Digging tools with adze heads

Antler harpoon 200,000 BCE • UK 11,660–4000 BCE • EUROPE
8000 BCE • UK barbed head made Hand-axes, such as this one from These Mesolithic adzes were used
This harpoon head is attached to a long from antler Swanscombe, were skilfully made for digging up edible roots or cutting
handle for spearing fish – a key source of food and used for a wide range of activities, wood in the forests that spread across
when sea levels rose as the last Ice Age ended. including woodworking and butchery. Europe after the last Ice Age ended.

20

18
020-021_collection_Prehistoricv2.indd 20
020-021_collection_Prehistoricv2.indd 20 20/05/2011 14:33
26/05/2011 10:04
 P R E H I S TO R I C P E O P L E S

Clay burial chest

4000 BCE • NEAR EAST
One Chalcolithic (“copper age”)
burial practice involved leaving
the dead out to decay, then
collecting the bones and placing
excavation
them in clay chests like this one.
damage

Carved spear-thrower
10,500 BCE • FRANCE
Spear-throwers, such as this one from
Montastruc, were often carved into animal
shapes – here, a woolly mammoth made exaggerated
from antler. They enabled hunters to throw features
spears further and with greater force.

Neolithic flint blade Lespugue Venus

set in reproduction 24,000–22,000 BCE • FRANCE
handle This ivory figurine from Lespugue in Mummified head
the Pyrenees is one of many “Venus” 7000–3000 BCE • PERU
figurines – depicting women who are In very dry climates, bodies can
pregnant or obese, or whose female become mummified. Some of
features are greatly exaggerated. the earliest mummies have
been found in Peruvian deserts.

Bronze Age
sickle
Gold jewellery
gold easily worked
4700–4200 BCE • BULGARIA into decorative
At the cemetery of Varna in animal shapes
Bulgaria, more than 3,000
pieces of some of the earliest
gold jewellery have been found,
mainly buried with elite males. loom
weight

bone
shuttle
soft clay was baked
to preserve design
iron sickle blade

Neolithic seal
Agricultural tools 7500–5700 BCE • ANATOLIA
9500 BCE–1834 CE • WIDESPREAD Seals such as this one
First wild and later domesticated from the settlement of
cereals were harvested using Çatal Höyük were used
sickles like these, until they were during the Neolithic to
superseded in most places by the stamp decorative designs
invention of the combine harvester. on to skin or cloth.
Cloth-making tools
6500 BCE • ORIGIN UNKNOWN
From the mid-Neolithic, weaving
became common. Loom weights
held vertical threads taut; bone
shuttles were used to weave
horizontal threads in and out.

21

19
020-021_collection_Prehistoricv2.indd
020-021_collection_Prehistoricv2.indd 21
21 20/05/2011
26/05/2011 10:05
14:33
EARLY
CIVILIZATIONS
3000700 
This period saw the emergence of complex civilizations.
Communities flourished and trade developed in the fertile
valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europe, and
Central and South America also flourished during this time.
3000–2700 BCE

Stonehenge in western Britain was a ceremonial site from around 3100 BCE . An early earth enclosure

50
and a circle of wooden posts was later replaced by the outer circle of stones seen here.

DURING THE LAST HALF OF THE

FOURTH MILLENNIUM BCE, the
world’s first civilizations arose,
first in Western Asia, then North
Africa and South Asia. Civilization
also appeared in China in the
early second millennium BCE. By
3000 BCE, the world’s first urban
culture had begun to develop in
southern Mesopotamia, in what
is now Iraq. The lower Euphrates
River plains had been farmed
from c.6200 BCE, after the
development of irrigation
systems – the Greek word
“mesopotamia” means “land
between the rivers”. By 3500 BCE,
farming communities were
growing into towns and then
cities such as Ur, Uruk, and
Eridu. Over the next 300 years,
each city came to dominate its
surrounding area, forming a
group of city-states in the land
called Sumer in southeast
Mesopotamia.
Metalworking had begun in
Mesopotamia around 6000 BCE.
Around 3200 BCE, Sumerian
s
t ain
un
s
M
o first dynasty.
ru
au
T
THOUSAND The Early Dynastic Period
(c.3100–2686 BCE) was already
characterized by many of the
made the land fertile. As early
as 8000 BCE, millet had been
cultivated in the area around
THE POPULATION celebrated aspects of Egyptian Yangshao in Henan Province.
culture: hieroglyphic writing, a Around c.2400 BCE, the
OF THE CITY OF sophisticated religion (including neighbouring Dawenkou culture
URUK c.2800 BCE belief in an afterlife), and
preserving the dead using
developed into the Longshan
culture of Shangdong Province.
mummification. A complex Longshan farmers grew rice
smiths began manufacturing river’s annual flood (known as the hierarchical society developed, after developing irrigation
bronze. The plough had been in inundation) spread black silt along with the king at the apex systems. As in other early
use since about 5000 BCE, wheeled its banks. The Egyptian farming accorded semi-divine status. civilizations, agricultural success
carts from around 3500 BCE, and year began in autumn when the Egyptian kings – later known as allowed the development of an
such advances made farming inundation subsided, and farmers pharaohs – ruled with the help of elaborate society. Chinese
more productive. The resulting cultivated wheat, barley, beans, a chief minister, or vizier, regional craftsmen were making bronze
food surplus freed some people and lentils in the fertile soil. governors (nomarchs), and a tools c.3000 BCE, jade vessels
from the farming life, allowing By the end of the 4th huge staff of lesser officials c.2700 BCE, and silk weaving had
specialization into professions millennium BCE, farming including priests, tax collectors, begun by 3500 BCE.
such as priesthood, crafts, trade, communities had evolved into and scribes. The Bronze Age was underway
and administration. The world’s two kingdoms: Upper Egypt in In China, civilization originated in western Asia by 3000 BCE, and
first tiered society developed, the south and Lower Egypt in in the valleys of eastern rivers possibly considerably earlier. The
headed by kings sometimes the north. King Narmer united such as the Huang He (Yellow Bronze Age in Europe seems to
known as lugals. the two kingdoms c.3100 BCE. River), where the rich loess soil have developed separately from
In Egypt, one of the world’s most After Narmer came Menes, around 2500 BCE, using ore
complex ancient civilizations although historians are sources from the Carpathian
was forming along the banks of unsure whether Menes was Mountains in Central Europe.
the River Nile by 3100 BCE. The Narmer’s successor This era also saw the
Nile formed a narrow strip of or a different name for beginnings of the Minoan
cultivatable land, floodplain, as the Narmer himself. Menes civilization on the Greek
is credited with founding island of Crete around
Tigris the Egyptian capital at 2000 BCE, with trading links
Memphis and Egypt’s to the nearby Cyclades
Islands and the wider
Euphrate M Zagr
s es
op
os M
oun
As in Mesopotamia, Mediterranean. In Western
ota efficient agriculture Europe, the earlier tradition of

E la m ta ins
m i a Nippur
Kish Umma produced prosperity and megalithic tomb building and a
Syrian
Shuruppak Lagash specialism, allowing arts, growing interest in astronomical
an

Desert
crafts, engineering, and observation gave rise to a new
a ne

Uruk Ur Persian
Se rra

t Arabian Peninsula
Eridu Gulf early medicine to develop. megalithic tradition of erecting
di
e

Me stone circles, stone rows,

standing stones, and tombs
Ancient cities of Mesopotamia KEY Narmer Palette
Sumer in southern Mesopotamia was the This carved piece of green siltstone including astronomical features.
Extent of Early Dynastic
location of the world’s first urban civilization city-states records the triumph of the legendary These include Newgrange in
from c.2900 BCE as agricultural success Ancient coastline King Narmer of Upper Egypt over Ireland, Stonehenge in England,
led to a complex society. his enemies. and Carnac in France.

E
BC
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CE
ze E CE of 0B n CE st
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B
00 w wn n 40 e 6B y Fir ts
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w
20
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Ea opot as Erid in S p an
e s uch
M s

22
2700–2500 BCE

2.3
MILLION
THE NUMBER OF
BLOCKS USED TO
BUILD THE GREAT
PYRAMID OF GIZA

The three pyramids at Giza were built for the pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura between 2575 and 2465 BCE .
They are guarded by the statue of the Sphinx, which may bear the features of King Khafra.

The Indus Valley civilization

Standard of Ur
This box-like object has two side
panels – one depicting war, the other
(shown here) times of peace.
SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA was
a patchwork of over 40 city-states,
among which Ur, Uruk, Nippur,
and Kish were the most important.
Trade flourished using a network
of rivers and canals, and trade
links extended to Anatolia
(modern-day Turkey), Iran,
and Afghanistan, with grain,
minerals, timber, tools, and
vessels traded. The Sumerian
population was unique in being
predominantly urban. In Ur,
Uruk, and other centres, people
lived in clustered mud-brick
houses. At the heart of the city, the
ziggurat – a terraced temple
mound – provided the focus for
religious ceremonies, and grain
was stored in storerooms within
the temple precincts. From around
2500 BCE, some citizens of Ur were
buried in tombs along with
treasures such as the Standard
of Ur. The purpose of its intricate
side panels is still a mystery; they resources. This led to conflicts
may have formed the soundbox over land and water, and alliances
of a lyre. between cities were forged
Arising from the need to keep and broken.
economic and administrative The first signs of civilization in
records, the first pictographic the Americas appeared along the
writing developed in Sumer coast of Peru and in the Andes
(c.3300 BCE). Pictographs (pictorial c.2800 BCE. Andean farmers grew
writing representing a word or potatoes and the cereal quinoa,
phrase) evolved into a script called and raised alpacas and llamas.
cuneiform c.2900 BCE, in which There were fishing communities
scribes pressed sharpened on the coast, while inland towns
reeds into soft clay to leave became ceremonial centres,
wedge-shaped impressions. built around mud-brick temple
Southern Mesopotamia platforms. An exceptional example
became densely populated, is Caral, about 200km (125 miles)
putting pressure on natural from Lima and dating from
c.2600 BCE. Another, Aspero, had
Cuneiform tablet six platform mounds topped by
Over time, the inventory of signs temples. Cotton was grown in the
regularly used in cuneiform script region, and maize was cultivated
was greatly reduced. from around 2700 BCE.
began to emerge in South Asia in
the fourth millenium BCE, as flood
control technology developed. By
2600 BCE, the Indus Plain contained
dozens of towns and cities. Of
these, Mohenjo-daro on the
River Indus, and Harappa, to the
northeast, were pre-eminent, with
populations of around 100,000 and
60,000 respectively.
In Egypt, King Sanakht acceded
to the throne in the year 2686 BCE,
marking the beginning of the Third
dynasty and the Old Kingdom era
– a time of strong, centralized
rule and pyramid-building.
These magnificent monuments
were built as royal tombs. In
Early Dynastic times, kings had
been buried beneath rectangular
mud-brick platforms called
mastabas. Around 2650 BCE, the
first pyramid, the Step Pyramid of
Saqqara, was completed for King
Djoser. Designed by the architect
Imhotep, it resembled six stone
mastabas on top of one another.
Straight-sided pyramids
appeared soon after, the greatest
of which were the three pyramids
at Giza. These incredible feats of
engineering were constructed not
by slaves as was once thought, but
by a staff of full-time craftsmen
and masons supplemented by
farmers performing a type of
national service during the Nile
floods. Enormous blocks of stone
(lower stones of 6–10 tonnes;
higher ones of 1–2 tonnes) were
cut from local quarries, hauled on
site using sleds, and then heaved
up ramps, which grew ever-higher
as construction progressed.

d
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Kh

ep
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BC re c in uc ids on e, w cts
6 –2 ast ith 6 5 S jo ) Ce , su uilt u n str am pt r
B op fa d
68 dyn ts w ht –2 t at g D BCE CE s b r Co pyr , Egy CE) CE r te n
7
66 uil Kin 648 0 B ntre ral, l Pe 0 B Eu ar ola
c. 2 hird star nak 0
6 ce Ca st a BC
E e
re iza 04 B 50 s in nze in P
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58 of th at G c.25 . 2
c gin bro ed
y gS m t, 6 co
Eg Kin ra yp (r.26 c. 2 s d be iest ver
Py Eg gin te rl co
be mple ea dis
(co

23
 2500–2350 BCE 2350–2200 BCE

The ruined citadel of Mohenjo-daro was made up of various buildings. It was Silbury Hill in Wiltshire, England, is one of the tallest man-made chalk mounds
built on a platform to guard against flooding of the River Indus. in Europe. These mounds probably had a social or cultural function.

IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 3RD A NEW POWER AROSE IN

BRONZE AGE EUROPE
MILLENNIUM BCE, civilizations Shortughai Hi MESOPOTAMIA c.2334BCE, King
ma
continued to develop in western la Sargon (c.2334–2215 BCE) from
ya

s
Asia, Egypt, and and southern s the northern region of Akkad Bronze-working had begun

Indu
Asia, and complex societies were Ropar
defeated Lugalzagesi of Umma to in West Asia c.3200BCE (see
Ir a nia n
emerging in China, Europe, and Pl atea u Harappa
Banawali become the ruler of Sumer. 10,000–3000BCE). It was
South America. Kalibangan Rakhighari Through subsequent campaigns developed by the Únětice
y
In southern Asia, the Indus to the Levant, Syria, and Anatolia, culture of Bohemia and
lle

Nausharo
Va

civilization (see 2700–2500BCE) Sargon carved out the world’s first Poland c.2500BCE, and
us

emerged in its mature form Mohenjo-daro empire – the Akkadian Empire – 200 years later had
Ind

Z
around 2500BCE, stretching Mo agr stretching from the eastern spread to Italy and the
un os Chanhu-daro
tai
1,700km (1,060 miles) from east ns Dholavira Mediterranean to the Gulf. Balkans. Bronze
Indus

to west and 1,300km (800 miles) Pe

Sargon’s exploits were recorded provided a hard metal
Lothal
from north to south. The region’s rsi
an Sutkagen-dor in several documents, such as the for forging armour,
Gu Kuntasi
prosperity was based on farming, lf
Ar a bian Sumerian King List. His name weapons, and tools
mining, crafts, and trade. More Sea means “legitimate king”, which such as this hand axe.
than 100 sites have been Indus civilization
KEY led some scholars to believe that The bronze industry
excavated, including the cities Excavations suggest that the Indus Zone of urban civilization he took power through force. also increased trade,
of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, civilization covered an area far larger than Urban centres Sargon spoke Akkadian, a making Europe more
and Dholovira. Mesopotamia and Egypt combined. Modern coastline Semitic language that replaced interconnected than
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa Sumerian as the official ever before.
were well-planned cities laid such as pottery, bead-making, the surrounding regions in return language of the empire.
out on a grid system. Each city and metalworking. for metal ores, precious stones,
was protected by brick walls Indus cities and towns had the and timber. Long-distance trade ,, grandson, Naram-Sin, extended
and dominated by a citadel most advanced plumbing system routes reached as far as UNDER HIM the empire, but it lasted for only
overlooking a “lower town” of
public buildings and residential
in the ancient world, with enclosed
wells and covered drains. Latrines
Mesopotamia and Afghanistan.
By around 2500 BCE, an Indus
ALL COUNTRIES four generations before falling
to attacks. Sargon’s rule
town houses of one or two storeys. emptied waste into drains, which script of hundreds of signs LAY [CONTENTED] established a practice of
The residential areas ran below the streets. appeared on seals and pottery. statewide bureaucratic controls
IN THEIR

,,
were seemingly These urban centres were also Attempts to decipher the script and standardization in many
divided by industry, connected by extensive trade have failed; hence, many aspects MEADOWS, AND aspects of economic life.
links. Merchants
supplied craft
of this culture remain a mystery.
In western Asia, Mesopotamia
THE LAND In Egypt, this period saw a
weakening of the power of the
products from (see 2700–2500BCE) remained a REJOICED. Old Kingdom rulers (see
the valleys to patchwork of small but powerful 2700–2500BCE), in favour of
city-states, each controlling the Lugalzagesi, king of Sumer, regional governors called
defeated by Sargon c.2316 BCE
surrounding farmlands where nomarchs, who administered
Agrarian lives barley, pulses, and date palms different parts of the Nile valley
A clay model of a were grown. To the west, city- Akkadian rule was enforced and delta. To the south of the first
bullock cart found states were developing in Syria through regional governors who cataract on the Nile, the kingdom
at Mohenjo-daro,
dating back to and the Levant. A trade network collected tributes and taxes. The of Nubia also grew more
c.2500–1900 BCE, gives linking Mesopotamian towns empire’s weakness lay in its lack powerful. Nubia was centred
one-piece an insight into farming suggests co-operation between of defensible borders, and it around the city of Kerma at the
cart wheel life in the Indus states, but there was frequent came under regular attacks from third cataract. By the end of
civilization. warfare as well. neighbouring hill tribes. Sargon’s the Sixth dynasty (c.2184 BCE), the

ins ial
n ces E eg on E
ha BC e b ope re C
gs du la, 0 g r tu re m d 0 B esi es CE
on a pro silk r Eb r 50 e A Eu Ma s n
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c.2 ri, a in Sy em
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CE es
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x a
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026-027_2500_2000BCE.indd 26 26/05/2011 11:51

24
 2200–2000 BCE

Relief sculptures in Egyptian tombs represented everyday life and religious rituals. This carving from
the Sixth dynasty shows boys with sticks, on the left, and youths wrestling, on the right.

authority of the Egyptian rulers and along the Pacific coast and THE MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF brought fertility to the Nile Longshan pottery
had steadily eroded. inland valleys. Andean cultures GUTIUM ATTACKED the Akkadian valley. The rule of This elegant pottery tripod
In Western Europe, the Bell were based on farming and Empire c.2150 BCE. Sumerian Memphis, the capital city jug has tapering legs and
Beaker culture flourished. herding. Coastal settlements states such as Kish, Ur, and of the Old Kingdom, was swirling patterns,
characteristic of
Named after the distinctive shape such as Aspero (Peru) were Lagash took the opportunity to overthrown as nomarchs and
the Longshan
of pottery vessels found in unique in their dependence on reassert their independence. nobles seized control of the culture.
graves, this culture emerged by fishing rather than on agriculture. For the next 80 years, the provinces. This ushered in a
c.2600 BCE in France, Spain, and The coastal people grew cotton for city-states vied for control in time of unrest called the First
the Netherlands. Over the next textiles, and gourds, which were Mesopotamia. In 2112 BCE, Ur Intermediate Period, the first
three centuries, it spread to used as fishing floats. under Ur-Nammu (r.2112– of the three eras of uncertainty
Germany and Britain. Around 2095 BCE) gained ascendancy. The in Egyptian history. For 140
2300 BCE, bronze technology armies of Ur overran eastern years, kingdoms such as
from Mediterranean regions and Mesopotamia and Elam, and Herakleopolis in central Egypt
from Central Europe started regained much of vied for control with Thebes
to spread northwards Sargon’s empire. in the south. In c.2040 BCE,
along the Rhine and Ur-Nammu founded the the Theban ruler Nebhepetre
Danube. The Third dynasty of Ur, Mentuhotep defeated his
increasingly which witnessed a rivals and united Egypt once
militaristic societies revival of Sumerian more, beginning the start of
used bronze to create power, as well as an what came to be known as the
weapons, triggering artistic and cultural Middle Kingdom.
the appearance of renaissance. Sumerian In China, the Neolithic
small chiefdoms scholars devised a method Longshan culture (see 3200 BCE)
across Europe. of counting, based on units continued to develop along the been found to confirm the
As populations grew, of 60. This system is Yellow River in Shandong existence of a centralized state
competition over land reflected in our modern province. According to Chinese in China at this time.
and resources division of hours into 60 historical tradition, the first By the end of the 3rd millennium,
intensified. Fields were minutes, minutes into 60 dynasty, Xia (Hsia), was founded Europe’s first civilization was
enclosed, farming seconds, and a circle into by Yu the Great. However, no emerging on the Mediterranean
expanded, and boundary 360 degrees. archaeological evidence has island of Crete, which lay at the
walls built. Imposing Ur-Nammu also heart of Mediterranean trade

100
structures such as chalk commissioned the first routes. Known as the Minoan
mounds were constructed ziggurat in Ur – an imposing civilization, it grew prosperous
in many areas. stepped platform topped through trade and farming.
In South America, with a temple. The ziggurats Cretan farmlands produced wheat,
societies continued to later became a characteristic olives, wine, and wool, which could
develop in two distinct of ancient western Asian be easily transported by sea. The
regions: the upland valleys architecture. Minoans also made bronzework,
and high plains of the Andes, In c.2181 BCE, Egypt’s Old pottery, and dyes for export. By
Kingdom collapsed following
a series of natural disasters,
THOUSAND 2000 BCE, Crete was home to
several small kingdoms.
Akkadian warrior king
This bronze cast of an Akkadian including famine. This THE LIKELY
ruler may depict Sargon I or his
grandson, Naram-Sin, who
undermined the authority of
the king, who was believed to
POPULATION
extended Sargon’s empire. secure the annual floods that OF UR c.2100
e
sty ty etr
ge pe, na h as ep
e A ro dy riod ral n ut yn bh
nz n Eu s th e tu st iod bia so ma D E ) e
N f ls
ro r an Six m p na rity Fir er Nu rges Ker ile ird y BC CE o iva
E B the alk CE gdo fter tho CE te P C E e at f N Th ed b 004
2 4 0 B tep ats r
BC ou B 1 B in a au 1 B ia pt 0 B em d o BC
E
nd to 0 ho fe
00 in s the 18 d K ypt en 18 ed gy 15 m ase act 12 fou u ( c.2 ntu s de ypt
3
c.2 gins and c.2 d Ol Eg eak c.2 term in E E) c.2 gdo pt, b atar 21 Ur, mm Me ebe e Eg
be Italy an ds in rs w In gins 0 BC kin Egy rd C f
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in en aste r be 204 of Thi Ur to
dis rule (to on
of

ed at of s
nd y
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it an stat h as t
E t y e s
BC e S gyp s b ines e
t y CE e i ce t
ho t I t dd all
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ge ce tu l a Mi ins r f ng
–21 II of in E a CE c a, s ce 09 of U opo emp at er ala te en pita his; beg f U ndi Ur
78 py st y i
X n C g d t 176 0 B ans; ami , rea den 2–
2 u e s s t u r m
E n p Cre M ca mp om
o
ity s, e of
22 f Pe yna CE ster rdin sai ntil 5
ot 11 mm f M Ur’ zigg a , CE
1 di 0 B ew Me gd E C ite ty
h n E
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o d 5 a
20 in e t, ac ditio led
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50 e Mi atio 04 a n ear Kin BC lam nas
c. 2 ru A Me L ind r
U m ebu u a 0 z c . 2 n 0 4 E dy 24/05/2011 14:06
026-027_2500_2000BCE.indd 27
Gr
ea tra r c.2 of th ivili 20 to
c

25
 3 0 0 0 –7 0 0 BCE E A R LY C I V I L I Z AT I O N S
hieratic script reads
from right to left
Prehistory
Pictograms
Pictures painted on walls
of caves up to 25,000
years ago are considered
a precursor to writing,
recording information
that could then be
understood by others. Cave images by Anasazi Indians
3300 BCE
Cuneiform
The first proper written
script is developed by the
Sumerians of Mesopotamia.
Writing with a reed stylus
creates a wedge-shaped
impression on tablets of wet
clay, which then dry hard.
28
26
028-029_Story_Writing.indd
028-029_Story_Writing.indd 28
28
hieroglyphs
are picture
symbols
Egyptian hieroglyphic and hieratic script
This ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript shows two forms of
papyrus, made illustration shows a Egyptian writing: hieratic script (left) and hieroglyphic script
by pressing priest making an offering (right) above the two figures. Hieroglyphic is an elaborate script
together layers to the god Osiris in which signs take a highly pictorial form, while hieratic is a
of strips of reed simplified version of hieroglyphic for ease of speed and writing.
c.3200 BCE 8th century BCE 100
Egyptian hieroglyphs The Greek alphabet The Roman alphabet
Egyptian writing develops The first alphabets, using The Romans adapt the
100 years after cuneiform. only consonants, develop Greek script to write Latin.
This script begins as a form in the Levant by c.1150 BCE. Through the Roman Empire,
of picture writing, and They include the Phoenician this alphabet spreads across
includes signs for words and alphabet, which spreads to Europe and is used for
also sounds. It remains in the Greeks through trade, personal as well as official
use until the 4th century CE. who add vowels. Greek wax tablet correspondence.
c.1900 BCE c.6th century BCE
Chinese writing Parchment
The first surviving Chinese Made from dried and
writing appears on oracle processed animal skins,
bones, used in divination. parchment becomes a
This ancient script is still popular medium for writing
in use today. Chinese script around the 6th century BCE,
involves 50,000 characters taking over from papyrus, Chinese
Mesopotamian tablet that stand for words. Chinese paper scroll a paper made from reeds. parchment scroll
24/05/2011 17:56
25/05/2011 10:21
 T H E S TO R Y O F W R I T I N G

THE STORY OF
WRITING
FROM CAVE PAINTINGS TO THE DIGITAL AGE, WRITING IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS HAS ALWAYS BEEN AN IMPORTANT PART OF OUR CIVILIZATION

The development of writing was an amazing breakthrough as it allowed people

to communicate over distance and record information for posterity. Writing
evolved separately in different cultures: in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus
Valley before 2500 BCE and later in Crete, China, and Mesoamerica.

Some scholars consider that prehistoric cave
paintings featuring images and symbols constitute
a form of writing. The first proper script was
developed by the Sumerians of Mesopotamia (now
Iraq) around 3300 BCE. Soon, a number of different
ancient cultures had developed writing, usually to
keep economic records or track of time. As writing
developed, it was commonly used to reinforce the
authority of rulers. Many early texts, including
monumental ones in stone, glorify the deeds of
kings and attribute their success to divine approval.
Writing systems can be divided into three types,
according to the function of the signs used:
logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. However,
some scripts make use of two types of signs. In
logographic scripts, each sign stands for a whole
word; Chinese writing is an example, although it
also uses syllabic signs. The drawback is that a very
large number of symbols are needed (Chinese has
50,000 characters). In syllabic scripts, signs stand
Roman mosaic Modern sign
for syllables. A smaller but still large number of
signs are needed – 700 in Babylonian cuneiform. PICTOGRAPHIC SYMBOLS
In alphabetic scripts, each sign stands for a sound.
Far fewer symbols are needed – usually around 26. Pictograms, or picture signs, are an ancient form
of communication. Some scholars do not consider
The first alphabets developed in the Levant between
pictograms to be “true” writing, since the symbols
1450 and 1150 BCE. For years, the spread of writing do not convey the sounds of words in any language.
was limited by the labour involved in hand-copying For example, the pictures above – from a house
texts, but this changed with the invention of in Roman Pompeii dating to 79 CE, and a modern
printing. In the late 20th century, writing became sign – convey the same warning. The symbol
electronic with the invention of word processors. can be read in any language, for example as
canis, chien, Hund, or dog. Those words convey
In the 1990s, the spread of information was again
the same idea but reproduce the sounds of different
revolutionized by the arrival of the Internet. languages – Latin, French, German, and English.
Pictograms have limited use but remain
Ancient texts in the digital world widespread, appearing for example on street
Nowadays, ancient texts can be viewed digitally.
signs, maps, and clothes labels.
Here, a student examines a digitized page of the Codex
Sinaiticus, handwritten in Greek over 1,600 years ago.

7th century c.1450 1884 1990–present

Arabic script Invention of printing The fountain pen Text messaging
The Arabic alphabet is In medieval times, the laboriousness The first practical fountain In the 1990s, the first text
used to write down the of copying by hand limits the pen is produced by American messages are sent via mobile
Qur’an, the holy book spread of writing. The invention inventor L.E. Waterman, and phones. Texting becomes very
of Islam. Its use spreads of printing using moveable type quickly replaces the quill popular in the 2000s. In 2009,
with the Islamic faith to makes writing far more accessible. pen. Biros, invented by more than 1.5 trillion
become one of the world’s Medieval In 1500, an estimated 35,000 texts László Bíró, are in use Waterman text messages
most widely used scripts. Qur’an are in print. by the 1940s. fountain pen are sent. Smartphone

4th century 7th–9th centuries 1867–1868 1971

The codex
The codex, or manuscript
in book form, gradually
supersedes the roll of
parchment. Originally
developed by the Romans,
the use of codices spreads
with the Christian religion.
Illuminated manuscripts
In early medieval times, the
use of writing spreads through
the copying of Christian texts.
Illuminated manuscripts are
highly decorative, with ornate
capital letters and marginal
illustrations.
The typewriter Writing enters the digital age
American inventor Christopher In 1971, Ray Tomlinson sends the
Latham Sholes helps to build first electronic message (email)
the first practical typewriter. from one computer to another.
The patent is sold to Emails become popular with the
Remington, who puts spread of personal computers
the first typewriters The Remington in the 1980s.
Book of Durrow on sale in 1874. Model I

29

27
028-029_Story_Writing.indd
028-029_Story_Writing.indd 29
29 24/05/2011 17:5
25/05/2011 10:2
 2000–1850 BCE 1850–1790BCE

Egyptian hieroglyphics involved the use of pictorial signs. This example

40
is from a coffin from the Middle Kingdom period.

THE MINOAN CIVILIZATION, named
after the legendary King Minos,
flourished on the Aegean island
of Crete in the early 2nd
millennium, reaching its peak
between 2000 and 1600 BCE. It is
thought that Crete’s prosperity
was based on the export of
pottery, gold, and bronze, as well
as possibly grain, wine, and oil,
to Egypt, Cyprus, and Palestine.
The Minoans established colonies
in many parts of the Aegean,
including the islands of Kythera,
Thera, Melos, and Rhodes, and at
Miletos on the Turkish mainland.
The farmlands of Crete were
ruled from cities with central
palaces that housed workshops,
the administration, religious
facilities, and state storerooms.
Those at Knossos, Phaestos,
Mallia, and Zakros were
particularly impressive, judging by
their remains. Around 1700 BCE,
these palaces were burnt down,
and only Knossos was rebuilt, on
a more magnificent scale than
before, suggesting its dominance
over the entire island. The palace
was five storeys high, with rooms
opening onto inner courtyards.
This maze-like complex is thought
to have given rise to the labyrinth
in the legend of the Minotaur, a
bull-headed monster.
Bulls certainly featured in
Minoan ceremonies. The deities
worshipped in Minoan shrines
seem to have been female, with
a goddess of nature being the
most popular. However, details of
Minoan culture remain obscure
since the Minoan scripts, known
as Cretan hiroglyphic and Linear
A, have yet to be undeciphered.
In Egypt, King Mentuhotep had
reunited the country at the end
of the 3rd millennium (see
2350–2000 BCE). Yet, the second of
Egypt’s eras of strong, centralized
rule only began with the reign of
Amenemhet I, from about
1985 BCE, during the Middle
Kingdom. In 1965 BCE, his
successor Senwosret I conquered
the land of Nubia to the south,
THE NUMBER
OF DAYS IT
TOOK TO
MUMMIFY
A BODY
extending Egypt’s borders as far
as the second cataract of the Nile.
Nubia yielded gold, copper, and
slaves to swell the ranks of
Egypt’s army. Around a century
later, Senwosret III also made
Levant a vassal state of Egypt.
Middle-Kingdom Egypt was
more democratic than it was
during the Old Kingdom period.
Rulers presented themselves as
shepherds of the state rather than
absolute monarchs. The process
of mummification, once confined
to kings, was now permitted for
ordinary citizens. In order to
preserve it as a permanent home
Shang bronze
This bronze plate was found at
Erlitou, and is of the Xia period. It is
inlaid with turquoise mosaic, believed
to represent a dragon’s scales.
IN CHINA, THE SHANG
CIVILIZATION developed along
the Yellow River by 1850 BCE.
According to legend, China’s first
dynasty was the Xia, but current
archaeological evidence points
to Shang as the first dynasty.
At Erlitou in Henan province,
archaeologists have uncovered
a palace complex built on a

20,000
for the spirit, the body was dried
in natron salt, its vital organs were
removed, and it was stuffed with
linen and wrapped in bandages.
THE NUMBER
Charging bull OF CLAY
Minoan rituals included a bull-leaping
ceremony, in which athletes grasped
TABLETS SO
the bull’s horns and vaulted over
its back.This Knossos fresco dates
FAR FOUND
back to c.1500 BCE. AT MARI
h
f lis
ls s gs no s tab ia,
ty – oo tor m rin d eig quer o es tam
Ci mes ern 00
0 CE ll T ces fro to BC
E
t I b ing CE tI ty cte E R n ia t po il
CE o th c.2 50 B Sma , an read ada 5 5 he ur d
B
0 os re Ci stru BC co o l
0 B bec nor 19 m t d rio 92 CE n 81 d; tam es En
0
0 ur in 17 ctic tion , sp Can 5 – ne yp pe –1 nw 0 B u co w 17 -Ada opo er M bat-
c.2 Ash ant mia Ar pula Inuit oss d 98 Ame o Eg om 9 65 of Se 0
9 to lo 1
–
3 shi es p u
of min ota n .1
c ng ty t gd c.1 ign pt c.1 Erli Yel a 18 am rn M f U at S p h
po the acr nla Ki bili Kin of ound Chin Sh rthe m o ital
do sop of aska Gree Re Egy
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r
a ver, no ngdo cap
A ttle Mi Ri Ki th its
se wi

,
ns
ea d tI us
e , b vate h CE re nd s
i z lt i rt os and nd E I ; it
sa s
B
Ma cu No ce 00 of n w ia s BC nes ally
CE hes ern tan e 16 ion t of Se ub far a le wn dom ia 0 0 li u
0 B s st is lac 0 – izat eigh E
BC ts
N
as
i To g ol 17 ec ad ne
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c.2 n ci ches nd bylo 60 fea m on 0 B all An 90 atio ities ban
c.2 nd s outh ; lon es i o u a 19 t de gdo ract 0
9 sm g i n .1 a
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030-031_2000-1650BCE.indd 30 c.1 t dy te n sec de 24/05/2011 14:08
s ex
fir

28
 1790–1650 BCE

,,
KEY
Area of Shang influence
Shang city Yellow River
AS I A
,, IF A MAN PUTS OUT THE EYE
OF AN EQUAL, HIS EYE SHALL
Bo Hai
Shang China
Taixicun
BE PUT OUT.
on

g
The middle course of the Yellow River Xi’ang Xingtai
an
d
was the heartland of the Shang Shang capital Sh
1400–1300 BCE Ye llow Law Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon
Anyang
civilization from c.1800–1100 BCE. Shang capital Sea
From here, Shang influence, such as Huixian 1300–1027 BCE
bronze-working, spread elsewhere. Zhengzhou WHEN THE ASSYRIAN KING measure as the crime committed
Luoyang Shang capital
1600–1400 BCE
SHAMSHI-ADAD died in 1781 BCE, – “an eye for an eye”. However, it
Erlitou he was succeeded by his son is thought that the law code was
er

East China Sea

Riv
platform of compressed earth. Huai Ishme-Dagan. During his reign, more of a moral statement of
They have also unearthed bronze Henan Assyria declined, allowing the principle than an enforced judicial
iver

vessels. Evidence suggests that state of Babylon to come to the system. As such, the code bound
R

Panlongcheng
ze

many features that were to fore. During the reign of Shamshi- the powerful and wealthy as well
t
ng

characterize Chinese society later,
such as a strong bureaucracy
and the worship of ancestors,
date back to this time.
In southern Asia, the Indus
civilization, which had thrived
during the 3rd millennium (see
2500–2350 BCE), went into a
decline by around 1800 BCE.
Scholars believe that this was
partly caused by the changes in
the regimes of the rivers that
provided water for irrigation.
Cities seem to have been ravaged
by diseases such as cholera and
malaria. Trade with Mesopotamia
also declined. Meanwhile, new
crops such as millet and rice were
introduced. All these factors seem
to have led to a decline in urban
culture, characterized by writing
and a centralized bureaucracy, in
favour of a rural-based culture.
In South America, large-scale
cultivation was taking place along
the Pacific coast by about
1800 BCE. Substantial settlements
such as El Paraiso and Sechin
Alto in Peru were dominated by
massive temple complexes.
Long-distance trade routes linked
coastal towns with communities
in Andean valleys to the east and
beyond. This allowed for the
spread of pottery from Colombia
to Peru by 1800 BCE. Meanwhile,
in North America, crops such
as sunflowers and gourds began
to be cultivated in the east.
In Western Asia, the fall of the
Ur III Empire led to the rise of two
states – Assyria in the north and
Babylon in the southeast – which
were to dominate Mesopotamia
for the next 1,500 years. The first
dynasty of Babylon was established
Ya
Wucheng Adad, Babylon was probably a as ordinary people; the strong
vassal state of Assyria, but as were exhorted to refrain from
Assyria declined, King Hammurabi oppressing the weak.
of Babylon saw his chance to seize
in c.1894 BCE. In the north, the city a wider kingdom. From 1760 BCE,
of Ashur became an important Hammurabi embarked on a series
trading centre in the 20th century of conquests, which made
BCE. In 1813 BCE, it was taken over Babylon the region’s foremost
by the Amorite king Shamshi- state. Between 1763–1762 BCE,
Adad, who carved out a kingdom he defeated Elam to the east and
in northern Mesopotamia. This Larsa, which controlled Sumer, to
kingdom was a forerunner of the the south. Between 1757–1755 BCE,
Greater Assyrian Empire of the King Hammurabi conquered
9th century BCE (see 900–800 BCE). much of northern Mesopotamia
Clay tablets recovered from Mari and took the city of Eshnunna
in central Mesopotamia hold after diverting its water supply.
records of trade and tributes Hammurabi introduced the
levied by Assyria from vassal- Babylonian law code in the region
states. Writing from this period under his control. Its 282 laws
included copies of the earliest covered property, family, trade,
surviving work of literature, and business practices. The Law
The Epic of Gilgamesh. Code of Hammurabi is famous
for punitive laws which meted out
punishments in the same
Sumerian hero
Tablets and stone carvings
from the Old Babylonian Set in stone
period provide a record of Hammurabi’s code was inscribed on
the Epic of Gilgamesh, stone pillars called stele. This stele
previously passed down shows the god of justice Shamash
in the oral tradition. (right) dictating laws to the king.

bi
CE ura es
0B sh al
g 75 amm tabli e in ion of g r
an –1
dit ea to
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Re Bab nian ia a lawc emp
B
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80 tio 66 r f as g t 75 t c te
c.1 iliza a of bylo otam es a his 17 te fo dyn rdin y
Ba sop lgat hou
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in
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ere lori ru 0 B com Alt
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8 00 tre o buil rem of S ed i
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030-031_2000-1650BCE.indd 31 co 26/05/2011 10:51
sta

29
 300 0 – 7 0 0 BCE E A R LY C I V I L I Z AT I O N S to Central and
Northern Europe

MYCENAEAN
GREECE
WILUSA
Sardinia Troy
Ionian Gla SEHA
Sea RIVER MASA
LAND
Orchomenos Thebes
Apasa MIRA
Mycenae ARZAWA
Sicily Miletus
Athens
Pylos LUKKA
Menelaion Tiryns

TRADE COMMODITIES
Knossos
gold
Crete
silver
tin Med
A F R I C A iter
copper rane
fine metalwork
an Sea
fine pottery
TRADE COMMODITIES textiles
gold timber
silver grain
The importance of trade
tin ivory
Trade was essential to supply societies with the raw
materials and manufactured KEY
goods needed for daily life copper ivory objects
(such as metals and timber), for displaying
Mycenaean status
Greece (such as fine metalwork perfumed oils
fine weaponry), or for embellishing religious
Hittite Empiremonuments fine pottery olive oil
and royal palaces (such as lapis lazuli). Trade also promoted
Mitanni TRADE COMMODITIES textiles wine
the spread of knowledge, technology, and ideas.
Assyria gold timber glass

S
KEY Kassite Babylonia silver grain faience objects
Mycenaean Greece Elam tin ivory turquoise

A
Hittite Empire New Kingdom Egypt copper ivory objects murex dye

H
Mitanni Arzawa fine metalwork perfumed oils seashells
Assyria Trade routes c.1350 BCE fine pottery olive oil horses
R

A
Kassite Babylonia textiles wine weapons
Elam timber glass
A

ANCIENT EMPIRES
New Kingdom Egypt grain faience objects
Arzawa ivory turquoise
Trade routes c.1350 BCE ivory objects murex dye
perfumed oils seashells
olive oil horses
THE BIRTH OF ADVANCED SOCIETIES wine weapons to sub-Saharan Africa
glass
faience objects
In the 3rd millennium BCE, states emerged in Egypt,
turquoise Mesopotamia, and the

Indus. Urban society was consolidated in Western Asia in the 2nd millennium,
murex dye
THE WORLD PICTURE
seashells
and powerful states vied for control of lands; in contrast, in South Asia, towns
horses Urbanism and complex societies became more
disappeared. Complex societies emerged in Chinaweapons and the Americas. widespread during the 2nd millennium BCE.
While they shared many features such as
The exceptional agricultural productivity of the increasingly focused on urban centres, and came trade, high agricultural productivity, dense
Nile, Euphrates, Indus (see p.26),
24 and Yellow River into competition for resources and markets. populations, and their managerial needs, urban
(see p.31)
29 valleys undoubtedly played a part in the High-level diplomacy was essential to the smooth societies took many different forms. In the
precocious emergence of civilizations in these operation of international trading networks and Americas, large ceremonial complexes KEY with
regions. So did international trade, which was also to success in inter-state power struggles. Royal residential suburbs provided the focus Chavín
for the
important in the development of the first New letters found in the Egyptian capital, Akhetaten communities of the wider region, stronglyOlmec

World civilizations. Trade also enabled many (Amarna), provide a fascinating picture of relations connected by shared religion and trade.Shang
Mycenaeans
neighbouring societies to achieve prosperity: between the 14th-century BCE rulers of the rival
Advanced centres Egypt
through time they developed complex cultures great states of the eastern Mediterranean. This map shows
KEY Babylonia

,,
established and
,, FOR A LONG TIME WE HAVE
HAD GOOD RELATIONS BETWEEN
emerging civilizations
in the later 2nd
millennium BCE.
Societies of farmers
Chavín
Olmec
Shang
Mycenaeans
Assyria
Hittites
Mitanni
Elam
and hunter-gatherers
US KINGS… occupied other
regions.
Egypt
Babylonia
Assyria
Babylonian king Burnaburiash II to Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten,
Hittites
from the Amarna letters, 14th century BCE
Mitanni
Elam

32

30
032-033_Ancient_empires.indd 32 03/06/2011 17:39
 Blac
k S
ea KINGDOMS OF ANCIENT EGYPT
TUMMANNA The Nile Valley's exceptional agricultural Cyprus
PALA KASKAS fertility promoted the early development
Hattusas UPP of urbanism in Egypt. Settlements clung Me
diterr
a nean Sea
ERL
AND to the Nile Delta and riverbanks, beyond
HITTITE URUADRI which lay arid desert. The great mineral Nile Delta
LOWER
EMPIRE (URARTU) resources of the flanking desert regions
Giza
Saqqara
Memphis
Sinai
ISUWA EGYPT
HAPALLA and Nubia, which included gold, were Eastern
A Desert
TN important for both domestic use, and to

Ni
A UWACarchemish

le
S W

Re
TA R H U N T A S Z Washshukanni support international trade. ES Abydos
KIZ DE TER

d
ME
N UPPER

Se
SE
Harran

DJ
MUKISH RT EGYPT

a
A
Alalah Nineveh Arbil
Arbil
KEY Elephantine

Ugarit Aleppo Emar MITANNI Trade routes Capital cities

ASSYRIA
NUBIA
Cyprus Arwad NIYA E
Euupp SATJU
(Alashiya) Tunip Ashur S
A
YAM
IA
N
hr

HA NUB ERT
Qatna
at

R A DES
es

Qadesh
Tig

to Afghanistan
Afghanistan
ris
to
Simurru Labwe
Byblos Kumida Dur-Kurigalzu
Dur-Kurigalzu Old Kingdom c.2686–2181 BCE
Sidon Hazor Rulers exercised centralized control
BABYLONIA and commanded impressive resources,
Tyre Shechem Babylon as shown by the pyramids at Giza.
SEALAND
SEALAND Susa
Susa ELAM
Gaza Jerusalem Nippur
Lachish
Sharuhen Uruk
Ur
Ur
Anshan
Anshan Cyprus
Memphis
Me
diterr
a nean Sea
Avaris
Pe
(Tell el-Dab’a)
Liyan
Liyan
rs
capital
LOWER c.1650–1550 BCE
Akhetaten
ia
Memphis Sinai
EGYPT
n
Itjtawy
EGYPT capital Eastern
Gu

c.1985–1650 BCE Desert

Ni
lf

le
W Waset (Thebes)

Re
ES Karnak
DE TER

d
N
Ni

Se
SE UPPER
RT
le

a
capital EGYPT
Thebes DILMUN
DILMUN c.2055–1985 BCE
and c.1650–1550 BCE
NUBIA
Re

WAWAT
Ar ab i an S
A
HA
IA
NUB ERT
N
dS

R A D E S

Pen i n su l a KUSH
ea

Middle Kingdom c.2040–1640 BCE

Decorated tombs record prosperous life
to
to Punt
Punt under the stable 12th dynasty, but the
state disintegrated under later rulers.

Cyprus
S i b e r i a
Me
diterr
a nean Sea
Hattusas
Mycenae Per-Ramesse (Qantir)
Anyang
Xi’ang LOWER
Babylon Ashur EGYPT Sinai
Susa Zhengzhou PACIFIC Memphis
Memphis
ATLANTIC OCEAN
Eastern
OCEAN S A H A R A Akhetaten (Amarna) Desert
Ni
le

W
Re

San ES Waset (Thebes)

Lorenzo DE TER
d

SE N UPPER
Se

RT EGYPT
a

NUBIA
Chavín de ATLANTIC
Huántar INDIAN
OCEAN S N
A IA
PUNT OCEAN HA NUB ERT
R A D E S

PACIFIC KUSH
OCEAN

New Kingdom c.1550–1069 BCE

Egypt reached its greatest power and
prosperity, conquering Nubia and the
Levant, and building several temples.

33

31
032-033_Ancient_empires.indd 33 26/05/2011 18:22
 1650–1550 BCE 1550–1400 BCE

Hattusas, the Hittite capital, was founded by Hattusalis I Built over 300 years, the temple complex at Karnak, Egypt, includes the world’s
in 1650 BCE and destroyed in 1180 BCE. largest temple, dedicated to Amun-Re, the patron deity of the pharaohs.

AFTER HAMMURABI’S DEATH in IN c.1550 BCE, THE THEBAN KING Egyptian religion was very on the Greek mainland. Its people
1750 BCE, the Babylonian Empire Ahmose I (r.1550–1525 BCE) complex. Every village, town, and are now known as the
(see 1850–1790 BCE) declined. drove the Hyksos from Lower district had its own patron deity. In Mycenaeans, after the fortress-
At the same time, other powers Egypt, ushering in the third paintings and sculptures, many palace of Mycenae, believed to be
were on the rise, such as the period of settled rule in Egypt, deities were shown with animal the home of the mythical king
Hurrians of Mitanni in Syria, and known as the New Kingdom heads, representing their most Agamemnon from Homer’s Iliad.
the Hittites of Anatolia in Turkey. (c.1550–1070 BCE). During this important attributes. For example, However, the Mycenaeans
By 1650 BCE, the Hittites had time, Egyptian rulers assumed the falcon god Horus protected
built an extensive kingdom in the king, while the ibis-

2000
central Anatolia, with its capital headed Thoth was the
at Hattusas. The Hittites had patron god of scribes.
developed advanced bronze- and By 1600 BCE, a
iron-working skills and they IRON-WORKING new civilization
were also known to be fierce emerged
fighters. In 1595 BCE, the Hittite The Hittites developed iron
king Mursilis (r.1620–1590 BCE) smelting by c.1500 BCE. At THE NUMBER
raided Babylon and expanded his first iron was used only in OF NAMES FOR
empire. However, he was killed luxury objects, such as in the
soon after, and the empire shrank decoration of this box from GODS AND
back for about a century.
In Egypt, the Middle Kingdom
Acemhoyek. Later, as
technology developed, iron
GODDESSES
(see 2000–1850 BCE) was waning was used to create superior IN ANCIENT
weapons. Though the Hittites
traded iron goods, they kept
EGYPT
this technology secret for
about 300 years. Around the title “pharaoh”, meaning
1200 BCE, iron-working “great house”. A succession of
spread to Greece, and then to warrior kings campaigned to
Central Europe by c.750 BCE expand Egypt’s boundaries
– the dawn of the Iron Age. once more. Tuthmosis I
(r.1504–1492 BCE) drove the
Nubians back in the south and
by 1670 BCE, partly due to erratic recaptured Sinai and parts of
floods in the Nile. As regional Syria and Palestine. Under
governors became more Tuthmosis III (r.1479–1425 BCE),
powerful, civil war broke out. Egypt controlled a strip along the
Outsiders soon took advantage Mediterranean coast and north of
of the unrest. The Nubians the Euphrates (see p.33). Mask
won back lands that the The conquered states paid huge of gold
Egyptians had taken earlier annual tributes to Egypt, a part of German
Man and beast archaeologist
(see 2000–1850 BCE). In 1650 BCE, which was spent building one of
The Hittite Empire was known for its Heinrich
bronze craftsmanship. Bronze the Hyksos from the Levant the world’s largest religious sites Schliemann found this
weapons and artefacts fetched a high seized Lower Egypt, but at Karnak and the impressive funerary mask at a grave
price. This statuette of a man and a Upper Egypt remained under the mortuary temple of Queen in Mycenae, and claimed it
horse was probably a commission. control of Egyptian kings. Hatshepsut (r.1473–1458 BCE). belonged to King Agamemnon.

o g
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034-035_1650-1300BCE.indd 34
p h o n ew no 26/05/2011 19:20

32
 1400–1300 BCE

Tutankhamun was buried with fabulous treasure. This detail from the
pharaoh’s throne shows him being anointed by his wife Ankhesenamun.

probably called themselves Black Sea IN c.1352 BCE, AMENHOTEP IV, Since the 1570s BCE, Egypt’s
Ahhiyawa. They had migrated T H RAC E a religious reformer, became pharaohs had been buried in
from the Balkans or Anatolia IA Egypt’s pharaoh. He broke with rock-cut tombs in the Valley
ON Sea of
about 500 years earlier. Their ED Marmara
the traditional religion, with its of the Kings, on the west bank
AC
M
lands were a patchwork of small pantheon of gods, and initiated of the Nile. Rulers hoped their
kingdoms, each later dominated Lemnos the worship of a single god, Aten, tombs would be safe from
THESSALY
by a palace-citadel such as the Iolcus Lesbos
or sun-disk. He changed his name robbers, but almost all the
ones at Mycenae, Tiryns, and Spor Aegean Anatolia to Akhenaten, meaning “living tombs were robbed of their
ades
Pylos. They spread their influence Gla Euboea Sea spirit of Aten”, and founded a new rich goods. However, in 1922,
Ionian Orchomenus
through trade. After the collapse Islands Gu l f o f C o r Thebes Chios capital between Thebes and British archaeologist Howard
in t h
of the Minoan Empire in Athens Memphis. He named it Akhetaten, Carter discovered
Mycenae Dendra
c.1450 BCE, the Mycenaeans took Argos Aegina
Miletus
meaning “horizon of Aten”. Tutankhamun’s tomb virtually
Tiryns
over several sites formerly Ionian Peloponnese Cyclades Akhenaten’s religious reforms intact. The shrine room had four
Do

Menelaion
occupied by the Minoans, Sea Pylos were believed to have been gilded shrines, holding the
de

Vapheio Melos an
Phylakopi
c

including Knossos.
After c.1400 BCE, they also took
over Minoan trade networks
and established settlements
on Rhodes, Kos, and the
Anatolian mainland.
The Mycenaeans
inherited Minoan arts
and crafts, adapting
the Linear A script
to write an early
form of Greek
known as the
Linear B script.
They were great
traders, and ventured
out to Sicily and Italy.
A ship believed to be
of Canaanite origin,
wrecked off Uluburun on
the coast of Turkey, was
found to contain tin from Iran
or Afghanistan, copper and
pottery from Cyprus, ivory and
jewellery from Egypt, and
Mycenaean swords.
The late Bronze Age was a
time of unrest in Western Asia.
From 1550–1400 BCE, there was
a struggle between various
powers in the region, including
es
e unpopular, especially with the king’s coffin and mummy with
Thera
influential priestly elite. After his a solid gold mask. The other
Rhodes
Sea of Crete death in c.1336 BCE, his son rooms contained jewellery,
Mediterranean
Chania Knossos Tutankhamun ascended the furniture, golden statues, and
Sea Crete
Phaistos
throne at the age of nine. He musical instruments.
restored the old gods
Aegean civilizations KEY
Around 1450 BCE Mycenaean and abandoned the new
Mycenaean site
influence spread throughout the capital. Tutankhamun is
Mycenaean major palace
Aegean, including to several sites that believed to have died
had been part of the Minoan Empire. under mysterious
circumstances at 18,
the Hurrians, Hittites, Elamites, by defensive walls. Kings and and was hastily buried
Egyptians, and the Kassites. In nobles were buried in tombs, in a minor tomb. It was
the 1570s BCE, the Kassites had which held fabulous grave goods. thought for years that
gained control of Babylon. The Shang capital moved several Tutankhamun died of a
However, by 1450 BCE, the Hittite times during this period. Shang blow to the head, but
New Kingdom was growing society was believed to be well the latest evidence
in influence, partly due to an organized and extremely suggests he died of
alliance with Egypt. Around this hierarchical. Writing began blood poisoning after
time, the Mitanni dominated Syria, around 1900 BCE. Most examples breaking his leg in a
but by the 1400s, the Hittites were of early writing took the form of chariot crash while out
fighting for control of the region. oracle bones, attesting to the hunting in the desert.
In China, the Shang civilization Shang rulers’ practice of
(see 1850–1790 BCE) flourished consulting their ancestors on
around 1500 BCE, with its rulers important decisions. Questions Sun worship
dominating a large area of concerning the future were Akhenaten instituted the
central China. However, the inscribed on the bone of an ox or worship of the sun disk
Aten. In this relief carving
Shang had to regularly fend off on a turtle shell, which was then found at Akhetaten
threats to their kingdom from struck with a hot metal tool. (modern el-Amarna), he
nomadic tribes to the north. The way the bone cracked was is seen worshipping the
Shang capitals were surrounded believed to provide the answer. sun with his wife Nefertiti.

n s g
ea tche g kin 80– s of
ze na an m te r ty
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Br ds t and y
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BC
0s te e ia to c is en ’s o isk hen eign un; esto ndo
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M de con Re w hip t the Tu h
e s es Ak
034-035_1650-1300BCE.indd 35
tak r
wo tak
26/05/2011 19:20

33
 1300–1200 BCE 1200–1100 BCE

The facade of the temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel features four colossal seated The boulders used to make these walls, now in ruins, at Mycenae on the Greek
statues of the pharaoh, but the statue second from left has perished. mainland were so huge, later civilizations believed they were built by giants.

TOWARDS THE END OF THE 2ND Ancient propaganda BETWEEN 1250 AND ABOUT 1050 could not prevent them from
MILLENNIUM BCE, the eastern A detail from the temple BCE, many of the powers that colonizing the Levant.
Mediterranean and Western Asia of Ramesses II at Abu had dominated Western Asia for Around 1200 BCE, the
were a mosaic of empires, which Simbel shows the king centuries went into decline, and Mycenaean kingdoms entered a
firing an arrow, taking
comprised Egypt, Babylonia, Elam, on the Hittite army some disappeared altogether. The time of upheaval, a result of both
Assyria, and the Hittites in Anatolia. single-handed at the eastern Mediterranean entered internal disintegration and
Borders fluctuated as each kingdom Battle of Qadesh. a time of turmoil, and many external threats. The defences of
strove to gain ascendancy over its coastal cities were laid waste by many Mycenean palaces were
neighbours through conquest or unknown invaders – written strengthened. Records at Pylos
diplomacy. In war and peace, vital the most famous was records of the period give few show the inhabitants feared attack
trade routes, through which tin and the Battle of Qadesh clues as to their identity. First to from the sea. By 1100 BCE, most of
copper for bronze reached the (c.1274 BCE). Although succumb were the Hittites, whose the Mycenaean palaces had been
region, remained intact. Ramesses claimed capital Hattusas was sacked sacked and abandoned. This
A frequent flashpoint for conflict victory at Qadesh, the and abandoned c.1200 BCE. triggered the so-called Dark Age
was the Levant (modern Syria and battle is believed to By c.1180 BCE, Hittite possessions of Greece, when writing fell out of
Lebanon), which Egypt had lost to have been inconclusive, in the Levant were lost and the use, not to be reintroduced until
the Hittites following the reign and the Hittites held on empire fragmented. the Homeric age (see 800 BCE).
of Akhenaten (see 1350 BCE). In the to the region. These conflicts were most likely In the late Bronze Age, parts of
13th century BCE, Pharaoh Seti I and In 1259 BCE, after instigated by the waves of migrants Europe came to be dominated by
his son Ramesses II campaigned further campaigns in known collectively as the Sea the Urnfield Culture – named
to win it back. Ramesses’ 67-year Syria, Ramesses tried Peoples. These warlike peoples after the practice of cremating the
reign (r.1279–1213 BCE) was a different tactic, and came from many different areas, dead and burying the remains in
negotiated a pioneering peace The late 2nd millennium BCE including Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, funerary urns, sometimes
,, treaty with the new Hittite king, saw the resurgence of Ashur, Libya, and Anatolia. Whatever accompanied by rich grave goods.
YOU ARE A Hattusilis III. Ramesses also took in what is now called the Middle their origins, their movements This culture originated in the
GREAT WARRIOR two Hittite princesses in marriage
(he had about seven wives in total).
Assyrian Empire (1350–
1000 BCE). Following the death of
through the eastern Mediterranean
in c.1200–1100 BCE led to attacks
Danube region in 1300 BCE, and
spread to Italy and central and
WITHOUT EQUAL,

,,
Following the treaty, Ramesses Shamshi-Adad in 1781 BCE (see on Cyprus, Egypt, Anatolia, and eastern Europe in the following
VICTORIOUS IN kept up a friendly correspondence
with the Hittite ruler, which was
1850 BCE), Ashur had become
a vassal, first of Babylon, then
Canaan and Syria in the Levant.
In 1178 BCE, the Egyptian pharaoh
centuries.
Between 1200 and 700 BCE iron
SIGHT OF THE recorded on clay tablets in of Mitanni. A revival of Ashur’s Ramesses III drove the Sea technology spread northwards
WHOLE WORLD. Akkadian cuneiform script. fortunes began under Ashur- Peoples from Lower Egypt, but from Greece to Central Europe.
Ramesses also embarked on uballit I (r.1363–1328 BCE), who
an extensive programme of broke free of Mitannian rule and
Inscription commemorating the
victory of Ramesses II at Qadesh monument-building. On Egypt’s
southern border with Nubia he
constructed the magnificent
carved out a kingdom in northern
Iraq. His later successors,
Shalmaneser I and Tukulti-
,,THEY CAME BOLDLY
SAILING IN THEIR WARSHIPS

a time of stability and prosperity
for Egypt. Through a combination
of war, diplomacy, and strategic
marriage, Ramesses sought
to extend Egyptian influence to
Western Asia. In the 1270s BCE, he
fought a series of wars with the
Hittite king, Muwattalis II, of which
,,
temple of Abu Simbel. He founded Ninurta I, continued to gain
a new capital at Per-Ramesses in
Lower Egypt, although Thebes in
territory, expanding the kingdom’s
borders west to conquer eastern
FROM THE MIDST OF THE
Upper Egypt remained an
important centre. West of Thebes
Mitanni and briefly, from 1225–
1216 BCE, southeast to Babylonia.
SEA, NONE BEING ABLE TO
he built a vast mortuary temple, In the Aegean, the Mycenaean WITHSTAND THEM…
which doubled as a palace, court, palace-kingdoms of the Greek
and centre of learning. mainland continued to thrive. An inscription by Ramesses II (r.1279–1213), referring to the Sea Peoples

ts n
li eig t he f
E
to
ra f r gyp vín n t re n o pt’s
BC
00 pas e r t o in E C ha es i ltu R eig Egy ,
10 d th
a
St s II rg cu II, oh ite
0 – an gh
CE
0 B me es ec o
CE
4 B s I ra E) itt ses
30 rs ou in BC
E
se 20 e e nd lm xic 18 se pha BC EH p
c.1 rme thr sin 79 es E) c.1 ltur an A E O Me c.1 mes eat 153 BC
ol l a
12 Ram 3 BC 0
18 e c
Fa read s Ba ndia f
o 12 1 cu ruvi BC
00 es in Ra t gr (to 1 c.1 pir
sp nge rn I (to Pe 2
c.1 erg las rts Em
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no

E
BC
ld nd al 0 s
15 ce
fie s a le pit c.1 efen ting
rn s in ca ed s
E U rge be t ian Batt sh i te troy ate d a k
0 B eme anu ion
C
yp e e t
it es St vant an indic ttac
30 Eg t th Qad EH s d E
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036-037_1299-1000BCE.indd 36 20/05/11 12:46 PM

34

Iron rapidly replaced bronze in
tools and weapons, signalling the
end of the Bronze Age.
In Mesoamerica, the region’s
first great civilization, the Olmec,
was emerging in the lowlands of
Mexico’s southern Gulf coast. The
Olmecs built ceremonial centres,
including San Lorenzo, constructed
temples and houses on earthen
mounds, and carved huge stone
y t o iate
E M an eg
BC
100 end ece
1 d
c. rio Gr
pe e of
Ag
036-037_1299-1000BCE.indd 37
heads clad in helmets. They also
established long-distance trade
routes. Meanwhile, other cultures
were emerging, such as at Cerro
Sechin, in what is now Peru.
Stone warrior
Monumental carvings from temples
at Cerro Sechin on the Peruvian
coast show warriors, torture victims,
and human sacrifices.
ea
n ed
na rk
ce Da s
d in
s b
e 10 ird in E
1100–1000 BCE
,, WHEN ALL LONGINGS THAT ARE
IN THE HEART VANISH, THEN A
MORTAL BECOMES IMMORTAL…
Krishna Yajur Veda
THE CLOSE OF THE 2ND MILLENIUM
SAW MAJOR CHANGES in the
power politics of West Asia
In 1070 BCE, the Egyptian New
Kingdom ended and Egypt
entered a time of unrest called
the Third Intermediate Period,
which lasted until 747 BCE (see
800–700 BCE). Historians believe
that the power of the pharaohs
had been eroded by a priestly elite
who had gained control of many
areas. By 1000 BCE, all the
territories won by New Kingdom
pharaohs had been lost.
In Mesopotamia, there were
frequent wars between the
Babylonians, Assyrians, and
Elamites; the region was also
subjected to devastating raids by
Aramaean nomads from the west.
Meanwhile, other powers were
rising in the region. A Semitic-
speaking people, who called
themselves Canaanites, had
inhabited the Levant for centuries,
living in city-states that controlled
the surrounding territory. They
were skilled seafarers and played
a major role in international trade.
By 1100 BCE, Canaanite port cities
such as Arwad, Byblos, Tyre, and
Sidon were expanding their
operations, establishing trading
posts and colonies throughout the
eastern Mediterranean. They
traded cedarwood from Lebanon,
glass- and ivory-ware, metal ores,
and most important, an expensive
purple dye made from murex
shellfish. It was this luxury
commodity that caused them to
be known by their more familiar
Greek name, the Phoenicians,
after phoinix, the Greek for purple.
f uc
ar
St med
er gypt
E
BC
69 Int
h
T ri o d
Pe
ng as
Ki g h of
E
i n
BCk
27 g da ule
10 Shan an to r
s ed M ven
im it
a
cla forfe He
In China, a new dynasty replaced
the Shang in 1027 BCE, when King
Wu of the Zhou defeated the last
Shang ruler, Di-Xin. The Zhou
dynasty was to rule China for
700 years. This long era is usually
divided into two periods: the
Western and Eastern Zhou.
During the first era the Zhou capital
was Zongzhou. This was a time
of prosperity and strong central
control. Zhou territory was divided
into fiefs held by trusted noblemen,
in return for military allegiance.
But many aspects of Chinese
tradition already present in the
Shang period continued in the Zhou,
including ancestor worship and the
use of oracle bones for divination.
Meanwhile in Japan, the Jomon
culture, named after the cord
patterns (jomon) that decorate its
pottery, continued. The Jomon
people were still hunter-gatherers,
albeit prosperous and sedentary.
In northern India, small groups
of nomadic pastoralists had been
migrating into the Ganges basin
from Central
Asia since
the 1500s BCE.
By the
1100s BCE, most
had begun to
settle and cultivate
crops. They spoke
Sanskrit, which became
the language of early Indian
Mark of a culture
In this example of late-Jomon
pottery, the bowl and stand bear
the distinctive rope patterns that
give the Jomon period its name.
id
av of th tes)
ED g
6 BC
k in rae
0 0 as
1 ul ws
Sa bre
He
Wu
te
co
,,
sacred writings. Sanskrit, an
Indo-European language related
to Iranian and almost all European
languages, is also the ancestor
of modern languages such as
Hindi and Urdu.
Sacred writings called the
Vedas were transmitted orally
in Sanskrit for many centuries.
Although the Vedas are largely
religious writings and hymns,
the geographical information that
they contain not only describes
the gradual spread of farmers
and pastoralists from the Punjab
to the Ganges basin, but also
gives some information about
conflicts with other groups, and
local life at the time. For example,
the division of society into
varnas or castes is described in
the Vedas, first appearing in Book
X of Rigveda, although there is
nothing in the text to suggest
that the system was hereditary
at the time.
s
ce
s e
li
( Is
E
BC
0 h
00 lis
c.1 stab und
e o
s ar nean
an ts
n ici por erra
oe nd di t
Ph es a Me
lo ni the 20/05/11 12:46 PM
35
 3 0 0 0 –7 0 0 BCE E A R LY C I V I L I Z AT I O N S

knob is part of
neck is circled locking device
by a collar

Decorated
ecorated box of Perpauty
1370 BCE
c.1370 CE
This sycamore box belonging
Perpauty
to a man called P erpauty may
have held linen. All four sides
are painted with scenes. This
side shows Perpauty and his
Perpauty and children bringing wife being offered gifts by their
his wife offerings son and three daughters.

Cat figurine
c.600 BCE
This copper alloy figurine sits on a
wooden base. Cats were linked with
the goddess Bastet, who protected
the pharaoh. A hole through the
nose originally held a ring.
Duck-shaped flask
Statue with stele c.1700 BCE
c.1360 BCE This jar is carved in the shape of a
A carved figure representing a high-priest duck, which appears to be trussed
of Amun holds a stele, or carved slab. These and plucked. It probably held cosmetic
slabs were used as grave or commemorative paste, such as eye-paint, which was
markers. The inscription is a hymn to the Sun likely removed and applied using a
god and lists local dignitaries. stopper-cum-applicator, now lost.

ANCIENT EGYPT
material is the rare
blue stone, anhydrite

A REMARKABLE CIVILIZATION REVEALED THROUGH EVERYDAY ITEMS AND TREASURES

Artefacts manufactured over some 2,000 years bear Mummiform shabti

c.1300 BCE
witness to the skills of Egyptian craft workers. They also This large shabti figure has
been carved from wood.
reflect Egypt’s wealth and its trade network, through The tools the figure carries
which ebony, lapis lazuli, and turquoise were imported. are traditional symbols of
kingship, while the scarab
represents the god Khepri.
Many of the objects shown here were used in daily life by well-to-do
scarab ornament
Egyptians. They reflect belief in the afterlife and the practice of burying on chest
possessions that it was believed would be used by the dead person’s
spirit in the afterlife. The ruling classes were buried with great wealth,
but almost all of their tombs were stripped of their riches either in
antiquity or more recently.
mask of cartonnage – a combination
of plaster and linen

details such
as eyes are
modelled
in paler
wrappings

Shabtis
1292–1190 BCE
Statuettes of servant-figures called shabtis lapis lazuli
were commonly placed in tombs. The Egyptians inlay
believed they would come alive to serve the
dead person’s spirit in the life to come.

Funerary mask Mummified jackal or dog

c.1500 BCE c.600 BCE
This mask would have been placed over the head Jackals and, from the 8th century BCE
of a mummy. The Egyptians mummified bodies onwards, also dogs were mummified in
because the deceased spirit could not survive honour of the jackal-headed god Anubis,
unless there was a body for it to return to. who presided over funerals and embalmings.

36
038-039_collection_Egyptian.indd
038-039_collection_Egyptian.indd 38
38 20/05/2011 18:09
25/05/2011 10:06
 A N C I E N T E GY P T

Necklaces Ear
Ear studs and earring
c.1550–1069 BCE 1550–1069 BCE
c.1550–1069
Egyptian craftsmen had access Once the basic shapes for these
to many semi-precious stones studs and earring were made,
and precious metals. Necklaces strands of glass in a contrasting
were worn in daily life and also colour were wound around
buried with the dead. them. The
he studs required large
perforations in the wearer’s lobes.

backing for
mirror
Wooden comb
c.300 BCE
This double-sided comb has a
gold band row of longer and shorter teeth.
Many Egyptians had short hair handle and
purple amethyst and wore wigs. Combs were backing made
used to keep both natural hair of ebony
and wigs tidy.
ibex symbolizes grace
and mastery over the
natural world
Cosmetic spoon
c.1360 BCE
This spoon for cosmetic paste has
been carved from schist in the
shape of an ibex, with its head
bent over its back, so that its
straight horns touch the bowl.

disk representing sun

Amulet Mirror handle

912–343 BCE
The wedjat eye symbolizes
the eye of the god Horus. This
charm was placed on mummies
to protect the dead person’s
spirit in the afterlife. It also
symbolized regeneration.
c.1360 BCE
This hardwood mirror setting
originally held a polished
bronze mirror disc. The handle
is carved in the shape of a
papyrus column topped with
the god Bes – a popular deity.

Male figure amulet Frog amulets

c.2200 BCE
This golden charm shows a
kneeling male god clasping
two palm ribs. He is probably
the god Heh, who symbolized
eternity. The palm ribs are
notched, representing years.
c.1360 BCE
Frogs were a symbol of life
and fertility. Women wore
frog amulets for luck. These
charms are made of blue
faience (pottery) with details
picked out in gold.

inlay held charm may

within cells have been part
of gold of a necklace

Scarab pectoral Winged scarab

c.1361–52 BCE
This magnificent chest ornament
represents the scarab god Khepri
rolling the red sun-disk. It was found
in the tomb of King Tutankhamun.
644–322 BCE
Scarabs were common lucky charms.
The scarab beetle was a symbol for
rebirth and was worn as jewellery
in ancient Egypt.

39

37
038-039_collection_Egyptian.indd
038-039_collection_Egyptian.indd 39
39 20/05/2011 18:09
25/05/2011 10:08
 1000–900 BCE 900–800 BCE

In the mid-10th century BCE , during the reign of King Solomon, Megiddo (in The jaguar featured in many Mesoamerican and South American religions.
modern Israel) was an important Israelite fortress and administrative centre. Here it is depicted in a stone carving from Chavín de Huántar.

IN THE 10TH CENTURY BCE, THE were skilled engineers and

PERIOD OF DECLINE in the major
powers of Western Asia continued.
Egypt, Babylon, and Assyria had
weakened, enabling the rise of the
short-lived but historically
significant Kingdom of Israel.
The Israelites were Semitic-
speaking pastoralists who,
according to the Bible, migrated
into the land of Canaan in the
1200s BCE. There, they came into
conflict with the local Philistines
and Canaanites. Around 1000 BCE
King David (r.1006–965 BCE)
united the Israelite tribes, and
established his capital at
Jerusalem. David’s son Solomon
(r.c.965–928 BCE) increased
Israelite territory and built a
magnificent palace and temple in
the capital, but on his death the
kingdom split in two. Eventually
Etched in gold
This golden plaque showing the
protective wedjat eye symbol dates
from the reign of Psusennes I of the
21st dynasty, when Egypt was divided.
SHALMANESER III (858–824 BCE)
architects who built canals and
levelled slopes for farming and
In the 9th century BCE, King construction. The main
Shalmaneser III of Assyria settlement, Chavín de
greatly expanded his empire, Huántar, was high in the
with campaigns against Andes, and seems to have
Grave goods
Mesopotamian tribes, Israel been a pilgrimage centre for a
This Iron Age brooch
and Judah, Syria, Urartu, and cult of supernatural beings that was discovered in a grave at Hallstatt
Anatolia. This black limestone were part-human, part-animal. in Austria. The type of jewellery
obelisk commemorates his The main god, the “Staff God”, is found suggests that a woman was
deeds and those of his usually depicted with fangs. buried there.
commander-in-chief, Dayyan- In Europe, iron was gradually
Assur. It details, in cuneiform, replacing bronze as the metal of plied the western Mediterranean.
the enforced tributes paid by choice for tools and weapons. The Colonies were set up in Cadiz, in
the people he conquered. area around Hallstatt in Austria Spain, on the Balearic Islands,
became a centre for an early Iron and, most notably, on the North
Age culture which developed from African coast at Carthage (in
Israel and, later, Judah became THE OLMEC CULTURE CONTINUED the Urnfield culture (see 1200 BCE). modern Tunisia). Through this
part of the Assyrian Empire. TO DEVELOP IN MESOAMERICA Hallstatt chieftains dominated trading network, the Phoenician
Meanwhile, Assyria began to in the 9th century BCE. After local salt-mining and iron working. alphabet became known
re-emerge as a major power in San Lorenzo was destroyed They lived in hilltop forts and were throughout the Mediterranean.
Mesopotamia. King Ashur-dan II in c.900 BCE, La Venta to the buried with rich grave goods. In Western Asia, the Neo-
(r.934–912 BCE) boosted agriculture, northeast became the main During the 9th century BCE, the Assyrian Empire began to
bringing prosperity. His successor Olmec centre. This larger Phoenicians were becoming a expand, and, one by one, Israel,
Adad-nirari II increased Assyria’s settlement was dominated by major power in the Mediterranean. Judah, and the small states of
territory, regaining lands that had a 34m (111ft) high pyramid, the Their trading ships, previously nearby Syria and Phoenicia were
been held by the Middle Assyrian forerunner of Mayan temples. confined to the eastern sea, now brought under Assyrian control.
Empire in the 13th century BCE. The Olmecs also devised a script
KEY
of glyphs – the first in the region.
Assyria
Their influence spread across EUROPE
Egypt
Mesoamerica, impacting on other
Phoenician
cultures that were starting to colonies Black Sea
emerge at this time – the Phoenician
Caere
Pithekoussai
Zapotecs and the Maya. city-states Athens Khorsabad
Nimrud
In eastern North America, the Greek Gadir
Corinth Miletus
Syracuse Sparta Al Mina
Adena culture was developing colonies Carthage Me
dite Byblos
Greek rranean
in the Ohio Valley. It was Sea Babylon
city-states Jerusalem
characterized by ritual earthworks Tanis
Emerging AFRICA Bast
and burial mounds containing Etruscan
objects of fine craftsmanship. city-states
Far to the south, the Chavín Mediterranean region
culture had appeared in the This map of the Mediterranean region in the 8th century BCE shows
Peruvian Andes by c.1200 BCE and the colonies established by the dominant civilizations of the period,
spread to the coast. The Chavín including the Phoenicians and Greeks.

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040-041_1000-700BCE.indd 40 ve So srae 26/05/2011 20:48
de I

38
 800–700 BCE

In 705 BCE, the Assyrian capital moved to Nineveh. This stone relief shows the Assyrian
king and his queen feasting in the gardens of the royal palace there.

ASSYRIA CONTINUED ITS POLICY In China, the Zhou capital moved been embroiled in a Kushite statue
OF AGGRESSION through the 8th east to Luoyang in 770 BCE, destructive civil war, and This alabaster statue dates
century BCE, conquering rival marking the start of the earlier was now divided into from the period of Kushite
states in Western Asia and part of the Eastern Zhou era, small states. In the 8th rule in Egypt. Amenirdis I,
sister of Shabaka (r.c.716–
reducing them to provinces. which lasted until about century BCE, the Kushite
702 BCE), is shown holding
Assyrian success was based 480 BCE (see 500 BCE). Royal ruler of Nubia to the a flail – a traditional
on a disciplined, technically control had weakened, as the south, Piye (r.747– symbol of Egyptian rule.
advanced army and an efficient lords who held large fiefdoms had 716 BCE), conquered
bureaucracy. Conquered peoples grown more powerful. Now both Upper and
had to pay costly tributes, and central control disintegrated, and Lower Egypt, and for their own language,
Ritual container
revolts were ruthlessly crushed. Zhou smiths were highly skilled rival warlords fought one another. united them under and not long after, Homer’s
Particularly troublesome nations metal-workers. This bronze bowl Despite the chaos, this era was a Kushite rule. epic poems the Iliad and
suffered forced deportations – dates from the 8th century BCE, the time of technical and cultural In the Mediterranean, the Odyssey – hitherto
large numbers of people were time of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. advancement. Iron tools increased Phoenician influence transmitted orally – were
resettled in Assyria. efficiency in agriculture and food continued to spread, probably written down.
Following a period of weak rule Anatolia, conquering Babylon and, production. Populations and cities as the city of Carthage In the 8th century BCE,
in the first half of the 8th century in 714 BCE, defeating the Armenian grew, and philosophy, the arts, in North Africa grew central Italy was a mosaic
BCE, Tiglath-Pileser III (r.744– state of Urartu. He also defeated and literature began to develop. powerful. Greece, of small states ruled by the
727 BCE) recouped Assyria’s losses. the Israelites and transported the In Egypt, the unrest of the Third meanwhile, was starting dominant Etruscans – Italy’s
His successor Sargon II (r.722– “ten lost tribes” of Israel to Intermediate Period continued. to emerge from the Dark first indigenous civilization
704 BCE) campaigned in Iran and northern Mesopotamia. Since 850 BCE, the country had Age that had followed the – and Italic tribes such as
Mycenaeans’ downfall. the Latins, Umbrians, and
City-states or poleis were Sabines. Rome is thought
forming on the Greek to have been founded by
mainland, centred on the Latin chief Romulus
hilltop citadels. To in 753 BCE. In its early
increase their territory, the days, the city, built on
poleis founded colonies seven hills, was ruled by various
around the shores of the Aegean. peoples, including the Etruscans,
Although rivalry between cities Latins, and Sabines.
was often intense, a distinct
Greek identity and culture
was emerging. All Greeks were
identified as “Hellenes”. In 776 BCE
the first pan-Hellenic games were
,, SUCH A
GREAT TASK
held in honour of Zeus at Olympia.
By the mid-700s BCE the Greeks had
IT WAS TO

,,
adapted the Phoenician alphabet
FOUND THE
Twin discovery
This painting by Charles de La Fosse ROMAN
depicts the legend of Romulus and
Remus, who were abandoned as RACE.
babies and suckled by a she-wolf,
before being rescued by shepherds. Virgil, from Aeneid 1:33

n- d
pa el , rs
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040-041_1000-700BCE.indd 41 Ur 26/05/2011 19:06

39
3
THE
CLASSICAL AGE
700–599
This period saw the emergence of complex civilizations.
Communities flourished and trade developed in the fertile
valleys of Egypt, India, western Asia, and China. Europe, and
Central and South America also flourished during this time.
700–676 BCE 675–651 BCE

,,
,, HE EVERYWHERE
SOUGHT EXCUSES FOR
STIRRING UP WAR.
Livy, from Histories book I, xxi, on Tullus Hostilius, third King of Rome

Pyramids from the cemetery at Nuri, Sudan, which was the burial site of the

7
Napatan and Meroitic kings from around 650 BCE .

,,
IN CHINA, THE CITY OF LUOYANG
HAD FALLEN TO THE SHEN in
771 BCE, and the Western Zhou
THE
NUMBER
IT TOOK A CONCERTED CAMPAIGN
BY ASHURBANIPAL (r.668–627 BCE)
in 664–663 BCE to defeat the
,, TAHARQA THE GODLESS
CAME OUT TO TAKE
capital was transferred east to Egyptians who had rebelled
Chengzhou. From there, the OF against Assyrian rule, and to EGYPT.
Eastern Zhou dynasty presided KINGS push Assyrian control as far south
over the fragmentation of China as Thebes (modern Luxor). This
into as many as 148 states. From OF ROME was not the last rebellion against
Ashurbanipal's account of the conquest of Egypt, 664 BCE

around 700 BCE the Zhou were the Assyrians – only ten years
ruled by puppet-emperors, while In Italy, the city-state of Rome later, the vassal king of Saïs, The new ruler, Cypselus (reign assisted Psammetichus I of
real power lay with the ba (“senior was beginning to acquire an urban Psammetichus I (r.664–610 BCE), c.657–627 BCE) relied on force of Egypt in his revolt against the
one”) among nearby states. heart, and the first forum was revolted against his Assyrian personality rather than divine Assyrians. He also adopted an
Under Qi Huan Gong (r.685– constructed. The second king of masters, driving them out and sanction, and established a aggressive stance towards his
643 BCE) the state of Qi had Rome, Numa Pompilius (r.716– founding the 26th Dynasty, under dynasty under whom Corinth neighbours, the Ionian Greeks of
supremacy. After Huan Gong’s 674 BCE) is believed to have which Egypt’s independence was enjoyed a seven-decade period Miletus and Smyrna.
death the competition for power established the main Roman restored. After the final collapse of dominance, creating colonies According to Japanese tradition,
between his five sons weakened priesthoods and a calendar. of Assyrian power, in 609 BCE, throughout the western the first emperor, Jimmu Tenno,
Qi, and Jin Wen Gong (r.685– In the Near East, the Assyrians Egypt was able to establish a Mediterranean. a descendant of the sun goddess
643 BCE), the ruler of Jin, rose to continued their expansion, foothold in Palestine under On the fringes of the Greek Amaterasu, ascended to the
become ba. By the end of the confronting Egypt, whose Pharaoh Necho II (610–595 BCE). world, in western Asia Minor, the throne in 660 BCE. The stories
century, power in China alternated intermittent support for rebels In Greece, the rise to pre- kingdom of Lydia was increasing of his migration from southern
between the states of Qi, Jin, against Assyrian rule in Syria had eminence of a number of city in power under Gyges (685– Honshu eastwards to establish
Qin, and Chu. long been a source of tension. In states began, notably Athens, 647 BCE), its first great king. He his kingdom near Nara are
671 BCE, the Assyrian ruler Sparta, and Corinth. In Corinth, a allied with Ashurbanipal of legendary, but may echo real
Esarhaddon invaded, capturing new type of ruler, the “tyrant”, Assyria to see off a joint threat events of the Japanese Yayoi
the Egyptian royal capital of emerged with the overthrow of to their two lands by Cimmerian period after 100 BCE, when tribal
Memphis. However, Assyrian the Bacchiadae kings in 658 BCE. raiders in 668–665 BCE, but then chieftains began to consolidate
control over Egypt was weak, their territories.
and the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa ASHURBANIPAL (r.668–627 BCE) The third king of Rome, Tullus
drove the invaders out. Hostilius (r.673–642 BCE) was
The Etruscans expanded Ashurbanipal initially shared more martially inclined than his
southwards from modern rule over Assyria with his precedessor Numa Pompilius, and
Tuscany and Umbria around brother, Shamash-shuma-ukin.

30,000
700 BCE. Their language remains After defeating his brother’s
undeciphered, but lavish tombs revolt in 648 BCE he greatly
indicate a rich material culture. expanded the Assyrian domains.
During their expansion, the As well as annexing Egypt, he
Etruscans founded cities such attacked Elam, sacking its
as Capua, but came into conflict capital, Susa, in 647 BCE. His THE NUMBER OF
with Greek colonies and with
Rome. Although more powerful
latter years saw none of the
military successes of his early
CLAY TABLETS
Nubian Pharoah at first, the Etruscans were reign. At his death a dispute UNCOVERED IN
Taharqa ruled Egypt for 19 years
before an Assyrian invasion forced
politically disunited, and a long
series of wars with the Romans
between his two sons further
weakened the Assyrian Empire.
ASHURBANIPAL’S
him to return to Nubia in 671 BCE. turned against them. LIBRARY
ic ,
ad to of alem to ge
s n
ria ipal m ing ypt
m t ib re g Gy he a ins
No egin nen er erus yria ul
tu kin s
liu om
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44
42
 650–601 BCE

A lion frieze from the Processional Way in Babylon, which was built around 600 BCE and ran
through the heart of the city to the Ishtar Gate.

THE ASSYRIANS HAD FINALLY to them and the Scythian King 600 BCE. New cities were in the 8th century BCE. The
CONQUERED BABYLON in 691 BCE, Bartatua was even sufficiently established as far west as Spain, hereditary monarchy was
PHRYGIA URARTU
MEDES partially destroying the city. influential to be given an Assyrian and around the Black Sea coast. replaced by nine “archons”,
LYDIA Harran
Carchemish
Nineveh
Khorsabad Reconstruction work began under princess as his wife. The alliance In Greece itself, the city-state of chosen annually. Shortly after a
Ashur
Cyprus ASSYRIA Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE), and by with Assyria survived into the Sparta was establishing its damaging popular uprising by
Me

PHOENICIA BABYLONIA 652 BCE Babylon had recovered its reign of his son Madyes, but dominance in the Peloponnese. A Cylon in 632 BCE, Athens received
di

Se rran Tyre ELAM

te

Damascus Babylon
a ea
n ISRAEL SYRIAN Uruk
Jerusalem AMMON DESERT
EGYPT JUDAH
MOAB
Memphis
The Assyrian Empire
From its core around Assur and
Nineveh, the Assyrian empire grew to
encompass Babylonia, Media, Elam,
Urartu, Syria, and Egypt.
led the war against neighbouring
Alba Longa, which ultimately led
to that city’s destruction and the
deportation of its population to
Rome, in the first major Roman
expansion. The fourth king,
Ancus Marcius (641–617 BCE),
expanded Roman territory towards
the coast, and founded Rome’s
great port of Ostia at the mouth of
the Tiber. His successor,
Tarquinius Priscus (616–578 BCE)
was the fifth king of Rome and one
of the city’s greatest kings. He
came from an Etruscan
background, a sign of the high
level of Etruscan influence over
the early city of Rome. Tarquinius
Priscus won a series of victories
over the Sabines, the Latins,
and the Etruscans, who all
competed with Rome for
dominance over central Italy. He is
also said to have established the
public games in Rome.
importance and became the around 615 BCE the Scythians defeat by the city-state of Argos, its first law code, drafted by Draco
Ur
centre for a major revolt led by switched sides and played a key in 669 BCE, was followed by in 621 BCE. The Draconian law
Shamash-shuma-ukin against his role in Assyria’s destruction. military reforms and victory was later known for the severity of
younger brother Ashurbanipal. It Their Median subjects soon turned against the Messenians (660– the punishments it prescribed.
took four years of war to on them and around 590 BCE the 650 BCE). By 600 BCE, Sparta had To the south of Egypt the state
suppress the Babylonians and Scythians retreated north. conquered almost all the of Napata became a power of the
their Elamite allies, and the In the Greek world, there was a southern Peloponnese and first order, conquering Egypt
fighting drained Assyria’s ability to growing movement to establish established a stratified social under Piankhy (751–716 BCE) and
hold on to its empire. By 630 BCE, colonies in the Mediterranean. system. controlling it under after the death
Assyria had lost Egypt and Among the earliest were in Italy, Sparta’s future rival, Athens, of Taharqa (690–664 BCE).
Palestine, and in 626 BCE the including Syracuse, founded gradually united the area
Babylonians regained their around 733 BCE. In North Africa, surrounding Attica under its rule
independence. By 616 BCE Greek settlers founded Cyrene (in
Babylon was strong enough to Libya) in about 630 BCE, and
invade Assyria, aided by the Massilia (Marseilles) around
Medes (whose base was in
northwestern Iran). In 612 BCE
the Babylonians, Medes,
and Scythians sacked
the Assyrian capital of
Nineveh. The
Assyrian empire
crumbled.
A remnant of the
Assyrian army
regrouped and
established a small
kingdom around Harran,
but by 609 BCE this, too, stylized
had fallen. body
The Scythians
formed part of a
culture of nomadic
horsemen which held
Scythian stag
a large territory on the
The flowing lines and realistic
steppes north of the depiction of the stag’s muscled
Caucasus from around flanks in this late 7th century shield
800 BCE. In 652 BCE they ornament are typical of the art
forced the Medes to submit of the Scythians.

n n
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45
43
 600–551 BCE 550–501 BCE

A medieval view of the city of Jerusalem, which was captured by the Babylonians in 597 BCE . It was taken again, Central Asia became a stronghold of Buddhist beliefs. These cave paintings
and largely destroyed, 10 years later. After both sieges many of its inhabitants were deported to Babylon. at Dunhuang in China illustrate a variety of Buddhist parables.

HAVING HELPED DESTROY THE Under the last Median king, The powerful city-state of Athens CYRUS, RULER OF THE SMALL
ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, Nabopolassar Astyages (r.584–549 BCE), Median experienced reforms under Solon KINGDOM OF PERSIS (also called
(r.626–605 BCE), first king of the armies campaigned in Azerbaijan about 600 BCE, notably a law code Pars) in the west of Persia (Iran),
neo-Babylonian dynasty, and controlled land as far west as that protected the property rights revolted against his Median
embellished the city of Babylon. Lydia (Turkey). But by the 550s BCE, of the poor, forbade debt-slavery, overlords in 559 BCE. By 550 BCE
His son Nebuchadnezzar (r.605– Media was under pressure from and moderated the more extreme he had conquered the Median
562 BCE) defeated the Egyptians in the Babylonians to the south and parts of the Draconian laws capital of Ecbatana and
605 BCE, repaired Babylon’s main the new power of Persia. (see 650-601). Around 560 BCE, overthrown their ruler, King
ziggurat, and ordered the building The kingdom of Judah had long Pisistratus seized power and began Astyages. Afraid of the increasing
of the famous “Hanging Gardens”. acted as a block to Assyrian and to rule as a tyrant (dictator). Driven power of Persia, the Lydians
The last neo-Babylonian king, Babylonian expansion to the west. out once, he returned in 547 BCE under King Croesus opposed
Nabonidus (r.556–539 BCE), moved In 597 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar took and established a stable regime. Cyrus, but he struck west and
his royal court to the Arabian Jerusalem and deposed King The Greek city of Miletus saw the in 547 BCE, on the River Halys,
oasis of Tema, but discontent Jehoiakim. The king they installed beginnings of philosophical defeated the Lydian army and
rose among the Babylonians in his place, Zedekiah, turned thought from about 600 BCE. annexed western Asia Minor. Darius the Great
during his reign. against the Babylonians, and in Thales (born c.624 BCE) tried In 539 BCE Cyrus captured King Darius is shown enthroned and
The Medes of northwest Persia 587 BCE there was another siege. to understand the basic nature Babylon, acquiring most of bearing symbols of power in this
(Iran), consolidated their kingdom Much of the city was burnt, the of the universe and thought its Mesopotamia and making the frieze. His son Xerxes succeeded him.
under Cyaxares (r.624–585 BCE) Jewish Temple destroyed, and fundamental element was water. Persian Empire the greatest in
and took part in the destruction many of its inhabitants deported the Middle East. Cyrus died in Cambyses died in 522 BCE and
of the Assyrian Empire in 612 BCE. to a life of exile in Babylon. 530 BCE while fighting in what after the brief rebellion of Bardiya,
is today Turkmenistan, and was who was either the younger
succeeded by his son Cambyses. brother of Cambyses or someone
In 526 BCE Cambyses sent his impersonating him, Darius, a
armies south into Egypt. The Persian noble, took over as king.
Pharaoh Amasis had just died and Widespread revolts broke out,
his successor Psammetichus III including in Media, but Darius put

,,
,, I HAVE FOUGHT 19
BATTLES IN ONE YEAR…
I HAVE WON THEM.
The Behistun inscription of Darius

was not well established. them all down. He then expanded

Cambyses defeated the Egyptian
army at Pelusium in 525 BCE and
then captured the royal capital
at Memphis. He installed himself
Lawgiver and reformer as the pharaoh and then subdued
This image shows the Greek statesmen and lawgiver Solon teaching. His south Egypt. Persian rule in
reforms began to undermine the power of the aristocracy in Athens. Egypt lasted until 402 BCE.
the Persian Empire
by annexing lands in central Asia
and on the borders of India from
519 to 515 BCE. In India, the
political power had coalesced
around the Mahajapanadas, a
group of around 16 powerful

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 ,,
,,EVEN DEATH IS NOT
TO BE FEARED BY ONE
WHO HAS LIVED WISELY
Gautama Siddharta (Buddha), 563–483 BCE

482
THE NUMBER
OF YEARS OF
THE ROMAN
REPUBLIC
kingdoms. Of these, Magadha
was the most important state.
Afterwards, Darius subdued most
of the Greek city-states of Ionia,
before he crossed into Europe in
513 BCE to conquer Thrace.
In Italy, Servius Tullius (r.578–
534), the sixth king of Rome and
said to be a former slave, had
succeeded Tarquinius Priscus in
578 BCE. During his reign he
implemented important reforms,
fixing the formal boundaries of
the city by dividing the Romans
into four “tribes”, a system that
would be extended as Roman
territory grew, and also into
classes that were graded by
wealth. The population was
divided by what equipment they
could afford and what role they
played in the Roman army. The
wealthiest class fought as cavalry,
the higher classes as heavy
infantry, and the poor as light
auxiliary troops.The votes of the
richer classes carried much
greater weight in the popular
assembly. The last king of Rome,
Tarquinius Superbus (r.534–
509 BCE) was an Etruscan.
Concerned at the growing
tyranny of his rule, a group of
Roman aristocrats led by Lucius consuls were elected by the material life. He is known as the Spring and Autumn period. From
Junius Brutus and Lucius popular assembly each year. Buddha (which means the the age of 15 he devoted himself
Tarquinius Collatinus (the king’s Some time around 530 BCE, “awakened one” in Sanskrit) and to scholarship, and the political
cousin) won over the army and Gautama Siddharta, a Hindu his followers, who became known philosophy he developed reflects
barred the gates of the city to prince of Kapilvastu (now in as Buddhists, spread his ideas the turbulent times. He taught
the king, who was deposed. Nepal), had a religious revelation throughout South Asia and, in the that the righteous man (or junzi)
The coup leaders then and rejected his noble upbringing late 3rd century CE into China and must have regard to others and
established a republic in which to embark on a quest for thence to Korea, Japan, and inflict no unnecessary harm.
supreme authority was held by “enlightenment”. Six years later Southeast Asia. His philosophy, as developed
two magistrates called consuls. he received it and began to preach Confucius (or Kong Fuzi) was by his disciples, taught respect for
The power of the consuls was a way of moderate asceticism to born around 551 BCE, in a period of elders and became a cornerstone
limited by the fact that new gain release from the suffering of political instability during China’s of the later imperial system.
CYRUS THE GREAT
(r.559–539 BCE)
Little is known about the
early life of Cyrus. He was
the ruler of the kingdom of
Pars when he led a revolt
against his Median overlord
Astyages. By defeating
Astyages, Cyrus became king
of the Medes. He then
continued to expand Persian
influence with the conquest
of Lydia. Cyrus adapted local
ideas about kingship to cast
himself as an ideal ruler in
the cities he conquered. Persian elite
Cyrus died in 539 BCE. These archers from the palace of Darius at Susa were the elite of the Persian army, which
included representatives from provinces as far off as Ethiopia and Afghanistan.

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45
 snake-haired
Medusa figure

Medusa antefix
DATE UNKNOWN
This terracotta antefix
– an ornament placed at
the cornice of buildings
or at roof eaves – is in
the form of Medusa,
the mythical creature
whose gaze turned
people to stone.
swept-forward
cheek piece

leaf-shaped blade

Corinthian helmet Spearhead

600–500 BCE
The Corinthian helmet, made
from a single bronze sheet, was
the most common type in Greece,
from around 750–300 BCE.
600–400 BCE
Greek hoplites (armed
infantry soldiers) carried
a large thrusting spear,
of which this is the tip.
Aphrodite,

ANCIENT GREECE
the goddess
of love

FROM THE FUNCTIONAL TO THE DECORATIVE, THE GREEKS PRODUCED ART OF GREAT BEAUTY

Bronze mirror
While the Greeks created magnificent monumental art, smaller fastening
490–460 BCE
This mirror is richly
items such as jewellery, musical instruments, weaponry, and chain
adorned with an image
vases show the Greek love of intricate forms and decorative of Aphrodite flanked
by cupids.
adornment throughout all periods of their history.

Greek art underwent a series of phases that were reflected in all aspects
of artistic production, but particularly on vases. In the Geometric phase
(c.850–700 BCE), decoration was mainly composed of geometric forms,
replaced in the Orientalizing phase (c.700–600 BCE) with floral and
animal themes, followed by the more naturalistic representations
of the Classical phase (from 600 BCE).

Bronze cymbals
500–400 BCE Gold earrings
Greek cymbals are bell- or 420–400 BCE
cup-shaped, and are often These delicate gold filigree
depicted on vases being earrings depict boats containing
held by fauns or satyrs, sirens, mythical creatures
or by women in whose beautiful voices lured
Bacchanalian revels. unwary seafarers to their doom.

Mirror lid and fibula

cup-shaped form
Aulos
400 BCE
This wind instrument was
originally a double one (one
wooden pipe has been lost),
silver mouthpiece
played through a reed.
420–400 BCE
This silver fibula (brooch) and
chain may have fastened together
a cloak. The ornate mirror-back
shows Aphrodite with the Gold brooch
half-goat god Pan. 650–600 BCE
This hawk-shaped brooch dates
from a period in which Oriental
(and particularly Egyptian)
finger hole
influences were strong in Greece.

48

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 Ostrakon
c.475–470 BCE
In Athens, influential politicians could be
ostracized (exiled) by public vote. The name retrograde
of the politician each voter wished to be (right-to-left)
banished was inscribed on a piece of pottery. inscription

Boeotian horse and rider figurine Boeotian figurine Discus

550 BCE
The depiction of this horse and
rider has an archaic feel about it,
in contrast to the production of
Boeotian terracotta workshops
over 200 years later (see right).
400–200 BCE 600–500 BCE
This terracotta figurine of a This fine bronze discus belonged
woman holding a jar comes to an athlete called Exoidas. After
from Boeotia, where a tradition he won a victory in a sporting contest
of such sculptures began as using it, he dedicated the discus
early as the 8th century BCE. to the gods Castor and Pollux.

lotus and Attic askos

honeysuckle 425–400 BCE
pattern The askos was a type of vessel for
pouring liquids such as oil, shaped
in the form of a traditional wine sack.
The design is in the red-figure style
that became popular around 530 BCE.

Attic skyphos Apulian pyxis

525–500 BCE
This drinking vessel shows a
couple at their wedding standing
in a chariot. The vase is painted
in the black-figure style.
500–400 BCE
A pyxis was often used for storing
small items of jewellery and
cosmetics. This south-Italian example
is decorated with geometrical shapes.

checker-board
pattern

cylindrical
neck
hero Hercules carrying
Erymanthean boar double band
of meanders
lotus bud
pattern
top of foot and
lower base
painted black

Athenian amphora Attic lekythos Epichysis

540–530 BCE 480–470 BCE 375–340 BCE
An amphora was a type of vessel used Greek vases were often painted with The long-spouted epichysis was a vessel
for storing wine. This one is decorated mythological scenes. This black- used for pouring wine. This south-Italian
using the black-figure technique, which figure vase shows the goddess vase has its base decorated with a pattern
pre-dates the red-figure method. Athena beating a giant to his knees. of white chevrons.

49

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 500–491 BCE 490–476 BCE

,,
,, THIS IS GOOD NEWS … IF THE
PERSIANS HIDE THE SUN, WE SHALL
DO BATTLE IN THE SHADE.
Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, quoting words attributed to Dieneces, a Spartan, on being told that the Persian
archers shot so many arrows they would conceal the Sun; from Histories

This 19th-century painting shows the Spartan king Leonidas I (centre, facing) and his men at the Battle of
Thermopylae in 480 BCE. Thermopylae became a byword for heroic defiance against overwhelming odds.

THE KINGDOM OF MAGADHA
emerged as an important state in
northern India under the rule of
Bimbisara (r.543–491 BCE), friend
and protector of Gautama Buddha
(c.563–c.486 BCE), who founded
Buddhism (see 550–501 BCE).
Bimbisara’s son Ajatashastru
(r.491–461 BCE) strengthened the
royal capital at Rajagirha and built
a centre at Pataligrama on the
Ganges, which later became
Pataliputra, the Mauryan royal
capital By conquering Kosala
and Kashi, and annexing the Vrijji
confederacy, Ajatashastru turned
Plebeians withdraw from Rome Magadha into the dominant
The departure of the plebeians (on the left in this engraving) threatened to power on the Ganges Plain.
split Rome irreparably, so the patricians (right) ceded some political power. In China, the political system of
the Spring and Autumn period
THE GREEK CITY-STATES OF IONIA uprising against the Persians. evolved into the Warring States
in western Anatolia had been Sparta rejected his pleas, but only period (481–221 BCE), in which
subjects of the Persian Empire Athens and Eretria sent forces. A seven main states engaged in
since Cyrus conquered Lydia, their failed attack on Sardis led the a constant round of diplomatic
previous overlord, in 547 BCE (see Athenian forces to return home.
550–501 BCE). In 499 BCE, The Ionians gradually lost ground
manoeuvres to weaken each
other, periodically interrupted
by outbreaks of war.
In 490 BCE, Darius I (548–486 BCE)
of Persia decided to take revenge
on the mainland Greeks for their
support of the Ionian revolt.
Darius despatched a huge naval
expedition under Artaphernes
and Datis, which sailed from
Cilicia, landing first at Naxos
Persian winged-lion rhyton
The Persian Empire enjoyed
vast wealth, as illustrated by
everyday items such as this
golden drinking vessel. They
directed huge resources towards
the conquest of Greece.
before seizing Eretria, which had
aided the Ionians in 499 BCE.
Although the Athenians appealed
to Sparta for aid, the only help
they received came from Plataea,
which sent 1,000 reinforcements.
The Athenians opted to march
out to meet the Persians rather
than wait for a siege, on the
advice of their general, Miltiades
(550–489 BCE). In 490 BCE at

7
Aristagoras, the ruler of Miletus, to a Persian land offensive from
set out to mainland Greece to 497 BCE. The fall of Miletus to the
recruit allies for a planned Persians that year and the death
of Aristagoras undermined Ionian
unity and, after a great naval
defeat at the Battle of Lade in
494 BCE, the revolt fell apart.

600 In Italy, the young Roman

Republic was rocked by social
PERSIA dissent in 494 BCE when the
THE NUMBER
353 plebeians (the lower social
groups) withdrew from Rome en OF WARRING
IONIA masse in protest at their
treatment by the patricians (the STATES
higher social groups); they
The Battle of Lade
threatened to set up an alternative
The Ionian Greek navy fought hard at animals were
Lade, but the pre-arranged defection state. They were persuaded back often the
of the Samians to the Persians led to only by official recognition of their inspiration for a
its utter defeat. own representatives (tribunes). rhyton’s shape

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48
 475–451 BCE

Marathon, the Greek hoplite THR ACE

(heavy infantry) formation
advanced head-on against a far
more numerous Persian force to
win an unlikely victory.
Chastened, the Persian
expeditionary force withdrew from
Greece after Marathon, but in
481 BCE Xerxes I (519–465 BCE)
despatched another huge Persian
army, which crossed over the
Hellespont (near modern-day
Istanbul) and proceeded south
towards Athens. Many northern
Greek states chose to submit,
but Athens and Sparta patched
together a league of southern
states. In 480 BCE, a heroic defence
of the pass at Thermopylae by
the Spartan king Leonidas I,
in which he and all his 10,000
soldiers died, bought time for the
Athenians to evacuate. The
Persians burnt the city, but soon
after, under the command of
Themistocles (see panel below),
the Athenian fleet inflicted a
serious defeat on Xerxes’s naval
force at Salamis. Further Greek
THEMISTOCLES (c.524–460 BCE)
A clever politician and strategist,
Themistocles persuaded the
THE ATHENIANS ENJOYED EARLY
Black Sea
SUCCESS under the direction of
M AC E D O NI A
Cimon (510–450 BCE), wresting
Pella Byzantium Eion on the Strymon river (in
THESSALY Anatolia) from the Persians in
Larissa Abydus 476 BCE and then attacking
MY SIA
Artemisium 480 A eg ean Carystos on Euboea (which had
Thermopylae 480 S ea LY DIA submitted to the Persians) in
Plataea 479
Marathon 490
Sardis 498 470 BCE. An attempt by the island
Salamis 480 Athens Anatolia
Peloponnese Ephesus of Naxos to leave the Delian
Mycale 479
Sparta Miletus 494 League around the same time led
GREECE IONIA
to an Athenian expeditionary force
M editer r anean
that powerfully suppressed the
KEY
The Greco– S ea Rhodes breakaway movement. In 469 BCE,
Persian wars Annexed by Persia Athenian treasury at Delos
Crete Athenian forces won a great All members of the Delian League
Although the Persian campaigns
Cyprus
against Greece victory over the Persians at the had to deposit funds at treasuries on
Persians possessed KEY
vastly superior numbers, the
490–479BCE River Eurymedon on the south Delos, but the contribution of Athens
Annexed by Persia
Greek forces were motivated Greek victory coast of Anatolia, establishing was the most important.
Persian campaigns
to win crucial land and sea against Greece Persian victory Athenian supremacy in the Aegean.
engagements. 490–479BCE Indecisive battles Pericles (c.495–429 BCE), the and by 462 BCE their last stronghold
Greek victory Athenian statesman largely at Ithome had been reduced. Soon
victories followed in June 479 BCE, After
Persian the initial defeats of the
victory responsible for making Athens after, open conflict broke out
on land at Plataea in Boeotia and Persians
Indecisive in 480–479 BCE, Athens
battles the political and cultural focus of between Sparta and Athens and
at sea at Mycale off the Ionian sought to formalize the league of Greece, tried but failed to their respective allies. The First
coast. The Greeks then took the anti-Persian allies. A treasury prosecute Cimon in 463 BCE, on a Peloponnesian War was
offensive, and during 478–477 BCE was set up on the island of Delos charge of having neglected a inconclusive. It ended in 451 BCE
won a string of victories in Ionia in around 477 BCE. The league’s chance to conquer Macedonia. with a five-year truce, extended in
and Cyprus, which reversed most funds were to be deposited here From this manoeuvre, Pericles’ 446 BCE to a Thirty Years Peace
of the Persians’ gains. and regular meetings were to take vision and ideas of expansion for between the two sides.
place. But this Delian League Athens were already evident. Meanwhile, the western part of
soon became little more than an When the leading figure among the Greek world was becoming
Athenian empire, and Sparta and the democrats, Ephialtes, was increasingly important, marked by
its allies refused to take part. assassinated in 461 BCE, Pericles, the rise of the Sicilian city-state of
his protégé, swiftly took his place. Syracuse. Under a series of able

,,
Athenians to use the wealth of a Periodically, the Persians had rulers (tyrants) that began with
silver mine discovered at
Laurium in 483/2 BCE to double
their fleet. However, after the
naval victory at Salamis, he
,,THE GREAT
STRUGGLE
tried to bribe the Spartans into
diversionary attacks on Athens but
initially to little effect. In 464 BCE, a
revolt of the Messenian Helots
Gelon (r.485–478 BCE) and his
brother Hieron (r.478–467 BCE),
Syracusan forces subdued the
neighbouring city of Acragas and
became the object of increasing
jealousy from political rivals. In HAS COME. (unfree men) in the western
Peloponnese further distracted
expanded territory around Catana.
Although Hieron’s younger
about 470 BCE Themistocles was the Spartans from any attempt to brother Thrasybulus was driven
ostracized from Athens (exiled Herodotus, ancient Greek historian, stem the rising power of the out in 466 BCE, the Syracusans
quoting Pausanias, the Spartan
by public vote). commander, before the Battle of Delian League. The Messenians retained their dominant position
Plataea in 479 BCE; from Histories received little outside assistance, in Sicily beyond the 450s BCE.

I
es es ns n les s is
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050-051_500-451BCE.indd 51 d s be stra CE
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P 51
49
 450–431 BCE 430–404 BCE

In the late 5th century, the Mexican city of Monte Albán began to build its public
buildings – the ancestors of its later magnificent pyramids, shown here.

IN THE ROMAN REPUBLIC, the two

social classes – the patricians and
the plebeians (see 500–491 BCE) –
villages. Monte Albán’s centre
housed large-scale public
buildings – including truncated
ATHENS AND SPARTA HAD FOUGHT
EACH OTHER BEFORE (see 451 BCE).
The Athenian Empire had the
,, THE EMPIRE YOU POSSESS
IS BY NOW LIKE A TYRANNY

,,
were still divided. The two sides pyramids, great plazas, and naval advantage as it included
came to an agreement in 451 BCE,
appointing a group of ten men
ballgame courts – as well as
elaborate burial tombs. Within
most of the island and coastal
states around the northern and
– PERHAPS WRONG TO
(the decemviri) to govern Rome
outside the normal constitution.
150 years, the population of
Monte Albán would swell to
eastern shores of the Aegean Sea.
Meanwhile, the city-state of Sparta
ACQUIRE IT, BUT CERTAINLY
In 449 BCE, the decemviri produced
the Laws of the Twelve Tables,
around 17,000, making it the
largest city in Mesoamerica.
led an alliance of independent
states from the Peloponnese and
DANGEROUS TO LET IT GO.
which formed the basis of all central Greece, as well as Corinth, Thucydides, ancient Greek historian, relating a speech by Pericles to the
Roman law codes. and had the strongest army. Athenians; from History of the Peloponnesian War, II.63
Zapotec figure from Monte Albán
Around 450 BCE in Central This elaborate ceramic deity is Despite the Thirty Years Peace of
Europe, a new Celtic culture typical of the production of Monte 446 BCE, tensions remained high hostilities in 430 BCE began three force at Pylos southwest of
emerged called La Tène, which Albán, which became Mexico’s between Athens and Sparta. The years earlier, when Athens had Sparta. Yet neither side could land
supplanted the earlier dominant premier site in the 5th century BCE. events that led to renewed intervened on behalf of Corcyra a fatal blow and in 421 BCE they

12
in a dispute with Corinth; the
Spartans took it as a sign that
Athens had breached the peace.
An attack by Thebes, a Spartan
ally, on Plataea, which supported
Athens, was similarly taken by
the Athenians to indicate Sparta
was fixed on war. Athens, led by
Pericles, achieved early success in
THE NUMBER the Peloponnesian War (431–
404 BCE). In 426 BCE, the Athenians
OF TABLES OF invaded the Peloponnese, and
ROMAN LAW the following year landed a large
agreed the Peace of Nicias, which
was supposed to last for 50 years.
The truce soon began to unravel.
Corinth refused to recognize its
authority, a pro-war leadership
emerged in Sparta, and a complex
set of political manoeuvres by
Alcibiades (450–404 BCE), the
newly dominant politician in
Athens, led to the renewal of the
war in 419 BCE. The following year,
Sparta’s allies won a key victory
at Mantinea. Athens struck back

SOCRATES (469–399 BCE)

Halstatt culture. Ruled over by a
warrior aristocracy that buried its One of the greatest Greek
dead with swords, spears, and philosophers, Socrates served
funerary chariots, La Tène had on the Athenian Council in
important centres in Bohemia (in 406 BCE, but his challenges to
what is now the Czech Republic) conventional morality at a time
and around the Marne and of political uncertainty gained
Moselle rivers (in modern France). him powerful enemies. He
In Oaxaca on Mexico’s Pacific refused to mount a conventional
Coast, a new centre arose shortly defence against charges of
before 450 BCE at Monte Albán. corrupting the Athenian youth
This proto-city, on a hill top above and was sentenced to die by
the Oaxaca Valley, drew people drinking the poison hemlock.
from the surrounding agricultural

k s
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052-053_450-381BCE.indd 4 4 L52
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52
50
 403–381 BCE

The Great AFTER ITS VICTORY IN THE (r.404–358 BCE). Cyrus was
Amphipolis T HR AC E
422 Abdera
Byzantium Peloponnesian War PELOPONNESIAN WAR, Sparta defeated and killed at the Battle
Pella Thasos
Sea of Marmara The period of 431 to found itself embroiled in a quarrel of Cunaxa in 401 BCE, but in its
Spartolus Thasos Cyzicus 404 BCE saw the with Persia over whether the aftermath some 10,000 Greek
429 Acanthus
Methone Aegospotami destruction of the
Lampsacus 410 Ionian Greek cities should regain mercenaries were left trapped in
Potidaea 405
Athenian Empire at the
Lemnos Cynossema PHRYGIA
hands of a coalition of their autonomy. Through the northern Mesopotamia. Under
EP

411
Sparta and its allies. 390s BCE, sporadic fighting and Xenophon, the Greeks marched
IR

THESSALY PERSIAN
US

Corcyra
Lesbos EMPIRE
abortive peace talks diverted to the Black Sea coast and
Aegean
Ambracia
Sea Mitylene Sparta from a weakening position safety near Trapezus (Trabzon
Arginusae
Leucas 406 in mainland Greece. The “King’s in modern-day Turkey), a feat
Phocaea
Cephallenia Delphi
Delium Chalcis Peace”, a definitive treaty with their commander immortalized
424 Eretria Chios
Gul
f of C Thebes I O N IA KEY Persia in 386 BCE, deprived the in his book Anabasis.
ACHAEA o ri n t h Euboea Notium
Corinth 407
Ephesus
Athenian Empire Ionians of autonomy but allowed In Italy, the Romans widened
Athens Andros
Zacynthus Mantinea Argos CARIA Athenian ally
the Spartans to quash any threats their territory and annexed the
418 Epidaurus
Peloponnese
Miletus
Sparta and allied states
to its supremacy. In 385 BCE, they city of Veii in 396 BCE, whose
Do d

Cyc lades attacked Mantinea in the central submission represented the end
Pylos Sparta neutral territory
eca

Sphacteria Peloponnese and in 382 BCE of any Etruscan threat. However,

425 Cnidus Athenian victory
ne

se
Melos occupied Thebes. Spartan power c.390 BCE, an army of Celts, who
Spartan victory
Cythera Rhodes seemed unassailable. had been attacking the Etruscan
Lindus In Persia, the death of Darius II city of Clusium, turned south,
(r.423–404 BCE) was followed by a defeated a Roman army at the
brief civil war, when Cyrus the Battle of the Allia, and then took
7,000 Younger tried to overthrow his Rome itself. This disaster haunted
2,800 18,500 30,000 older brother Artaxerxes II the Romans for centuries.
ATHENIANS
Spartans Spartans
ATHENIANS BOEOTIANS ATHENIANS
420 3,000

BATTLE OF SPHACTERIA 425 BCE BATTLE OF DELIUM 424 BCE SIEGE OF SYRACUSE 415–413 BCE

in 416 BCE by capturing Melos – the in Athens was briefly overthrown. In Magadha in India the
only main Aegean island not in Democracy was restored the Haryanka dynasty founded by
its possession – but fatally following year, and, though the Bimbisara was replaced c.413 BCE
over-reached itself in 415 BCE with Athenians won victories at Cyzicus after the death of Ajatashatru
an expedition to Sicily, ending in in 410 BCE and Arginusae in 406 BCE, (c.459 BCE) and a series of
the total destruction of the the total destruction of their ineffectual rulers. Shishunaga
Athenian force by the Syracusans fleet at Aegospotami off Ionia in founded a new dynasty, which
in 413 BCE. The Spartans, 405 BCE left Athens defenceless. was responsible for overseeing
meanwhile, established a fort at The Spartans blockaded the city, the final transfer of the Magadha
Decelea in Attica, which denied and, despite a determined royal capital to Pataliputra.
the Athenians access to the rich resistance, the Athenians were The Shishunaga dynasty lasted
silver mines. An alliance with forced to surrender. Athens was only 500 years.
Persia further strengthened deprived of its fleet and in 404 BCE Etruscan tomb painting
Sparta’s position in 412 BCE, and a a pro-Spartan Council of Thirty The Etruscan language has never been deciphered, so it is through the
year later the democratic regime was installed to govern it. frescoes in their tombs that much has been learnt of their culture.

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052-053_450-381BCE.inddc. 453 yna aga un set Ae an e val S y r D 25/05/2011 16:52
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53
51
 7 0 0 BCE– 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

plain boss connected circular plate at base

with sliding catch of buckle tongue
on backplate
animal interlace
picked out in circles

Sutton Hoo buckle

Sutton Hoo buckle

Made of solid gold and decorated with an
interlaced animal pattern, the Anglo-Saxon
Sutton Hoo belt buckle was found in a 7th- bird’s head central interlace animal interlace with
century ship burial in East Anglia, England. in profile pattern a biting head and tail

c.1500–1200 BCE c.900 BCE–100 CE c.100–700

Refinement of Using iron Anglo-Saxon
Prehistory bronze casting Ironworking spreads metalworking
Use of copper ore New techniques are from western Anatolia, The Anglo-Saxons
In western Iran and developed for casting reaching Greece around bring a new level
Anatolia, copper ore is and adorning bronze 900 BCE and West Africa of sophistication to
ground or beaten into vessels, such as about 400 BCE, enabling metalworking, often
shape to make small decorating them by Shang stronger tools and using animal forms
objects such as beads. Copper ore beating on the inside. cauldron weapons to be made. Weapon heads as decoration.

2600–2400 BCE c.1500–30 BCE c.640–500 BCE

Use of beaten
copper plate
Early copper smelting
methods are refined,
allowing the beating
of copper while still
hot into more
complex shapes.
Purifying gold Metal as money
The ancient Egyptians learn how Metal coins (made of an
to separate pure gold from silver alloy of gold and silver)
in around 1500 BCE and begin to are first used in Lydia (in
use it more extensively for present-day Turkey) around
decorative purposes. 640 BCE. The ancient Greeks
Funeral mask of adopt the idea and spread it
Sumerian copper bull Tutankhamun around the Mediterranean. Greek coin

54

52
054-055_Story_Metalworking.indd
054-055_Story_Metalworking.indd 54
54 18/05/2011 14:33
26/05/2011 19:39
 TH
THE ES S
TOTO
RRY YO O
F FMM
EETA
TALWO
LWORR
KKI NI N
GG

THE
THESTORY
STORYOF
OF
METALWORKING
METALWORKING
FROM
FROMEVERYDAY
EVERYDAYOBJECTS
OBJECTSTOTOCOMPLEX
COMPLEXMACHINES,
MACHINES,METALS
METALSARE
AREVITAL
VITALFOR
FOROUR
OURCIVILIZATION
CIVILIZATION

Since
Sincetheir
theirearliest
earliestknown
knownuse useininthe
the8th
8thmillennium
millenniumBCE , metals
BCE , metalshave
have
played
playeda acrucial
crucialrole
roleininthe
theproduction
productionofofa avast
vastrange
rangeofofobjects,
objects,and
andeven
even
today,
today,with
withthe
theavailability
availabilityofofsophisticated
sophisticatedpolymers
polymersand andcomposites,
composites,
they
theystill
stillpermeate
permeateevery
everyaspect
aspectofofmodern
moderncivilization.
civilization.

Around
Around 7000
7000BCE , naturally
BCE , naturallyoccurring
occurring metals,
metals, together
together inin a furnace.
a furnace. This
Thismethod
method ofof
production
production
notably
notably copper,
copper, began
began toto
bebe
used
used forfor
small
small continued
continued until
untilthe theintroduction
introduction ofofblast
blastfurnaces
furnaces
items
itemssuch
such asaspins
pins inin
western
western Iran
Iranandand inin
Europe
Europe inin thethe15th15thcentury.
century. TheTheIndustrial
Industrial
eastern
eastern Anatolia.
Anatolia. These
Thesewere
were made
made byby Revolution
Revolution ininthethe 18th
18th century
century brought
brought new
new
simply
simply grinding
grinding oror
beating
beatingthethemetal
metal techniques
techniques andand thethe use
use ofof coking
coking coal
coal inin blast
blast
into
into
shape.
shape. Heating
Heatingcopper
copper furnaces,
furnaces, butbutit it
was was English
English inventor
inventor Henry
Henry
totomake
make it it
more
more malleable
malleable waswas Bessemer’s
Bessemer’s invention
invention ofof the
the Bessemer
Bessemer converter
converter
probably
probably discovered
discovered bybyaccidentally
accidentally inin 1856
1856 thatthat permitted
permitted the
the large-scale
large-scale production
production
dropping
dropping thethemetal
metalinin
fire,
fire,
butbutit it
waswas ofof steel,
steel, a strong,
a strong, high-quality,
high-quality, iron–carbon
iron–carbon alloy.
alloy.
thetheintroduction
introduction ofof
smelting
smelting ininaa Later
Later ininthethe Industrial
Industrial Revolution,
Revolution, further
further advances
advances
crucible
crucible around
around 3800
3800BCE that
BCE thatledled
totothethe made
made it it possible
possible toto produce
produce other
other metals,
metals, such
such asas
large-scale
large-scale use
useofofmetals.
metals. aluminium,
aluminium, magnesium,
magnesium, and
and titanium,
titanium, whose
whose light
light
weight
weight andand strength
strength played
played a vital
a vital role
role ininthethe
THE
THE DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT OFOF ALLOYS
ALLOYS development
development ofofthe the aviation
aviation andand space
space industries.
industries.
About
About 3000
3000 BCE
BCE, the
, thefirst
firstalloy
alloy – bronze
– bronze – was
– was

1,083°C
1,083°C
produced.
produced. Made
Made bybysmelting
smelting tintin
andand copper
copper HOW
HOWALLOYS
ALLOYSARE
AREMADE
MADE
together
together inin
a crucible,
a crucible, bronze
bronze is is
stronger
stronger andand
more
moreeasily
easilyworked
worked than
than either
either ofofitsits
individual
individual AnAn
alloy
alloy
is is
a mixture
a mixture ofofmetals
metalsoror
ofof
a metal
a metal with
with
constituents,
constituents, and
and it it
remained
remained thetheprincipal
principal metal
metal a non-metal
a non-metal (such
(suchasasiron
iron
with
with
carbon
carbonininsteel).
steel).
forfor
tools
tools
andand weapons
weapons until
until thethe invention
invention ofof Many
Manymetals
metals occur
occurnaturally
naturallyinin
alloyed
alloyedform,
form,but
but
synthetic
syntheticalloys
alloys
were
were notnot
produced
produced until
untilaround
around
ironworking
ironworking around
around 1250
1250 BCEBCE. The
. The technology
technology toto THEMELTING
THE MELTINGPOINT
POINTOFOF 3000
3000
BCE , when
BCE , when copper
copper waswasmelted
meltedwith
with tintin
toto
melt
melt pure
pureiron
ironwas
was notnotinvented
invented until
until thethe
19th
19th COPPER.
COPPER.WHEN
WHENCOPPER
COPPER produce
producebronze.
bronze. The
Thetechnique
technique spread,
spread, reaching
reaching
century,
century, sosoearly
earlyiron
iron objects
objects were
were made
made bybyfirst
first Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia soon
soonafter
after3000
3000 and
and
Egypt
Egypt byby
smelting
smelting iron
ironore
oretotoanan impure
impure ironiron “bloom”,
“bloom”, then
then ISISALLOYED
ALLOYEDWITH
WITHTIN,
TIN, 2000
2000
BCE
BCEororpossibly
possibly earlier.
earlier.
BCE
BCE

separating
separating out
outthethe
ironiron pieces
pieces and and welding
welding them
them THISDROPS
THIS DROPSTO
TO950°C
950°C

c.15th century
c.15th century 1950s
1950s
700–800
700–800 Weapons
Weapons from
from
cast
cast
metal
metal Titanium
Titanium
aircraft
aircraft
Sword-making
Sword-making Cast
Castiron
iron
is is
developed.
developed. Because
Because Because
Because of of
itsits
high
high
In In
Europe,
Europe, sword-makers
sword-makers it is
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53
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 380–371 BCE 370–356 BCE

A carving showing the pharaoh Nectanebo I, founder of the 30th Dynasty, making offerings to gods, The ruins of Thebes, Greece’s
including the crocodile-headed Sobek. dominant city-state in the 360s BCE .

EGYPT HAD BROKEN AWAY FROM
Persian control after the revolt
of Amyrtaeus, who founded the
28th Dynasty in 404 BCE. However,
the Persians had not given up on
Egypt. Nectanebo I established
the 30th Egyptian Dynasty in
380 BCE. He was able to repel a
force sent by the Persians and
their Greek allies in 373 BCE.
Persia was diverted from further
attempts to bring Egypt to heel by
the Great Rebellion of the
Satraps in the 360s BCE. This
rebellion was partially aggravated
by the campaigns of Tachos, son of
Nectanebo I, in Persian-ruled
Palestine from 361–360 BCE.
Nectanebo II (r.360–343 BCE)
succeeded Nectanebo I, and
continued to meddle in the Persian
civil wars. In an ill-judged
intervention in 346 BCE, he sent
troops to aid an uprising in Sidon
(Lebanon). In response,
Artaxerxes III of Persia marched
11,000
SPARTANS
9,000
THEBANS AND
ALLIES
Battle of Leuctra
At Leuctra in central Greece, the
Thebans exploited the tendency of
the Spartans to shift right by
concentrating their attack on the left,
enabling them to defeat an enemy
with larger numbers than theirs.
150
COUPLES
FORMED
THE ELITE
MILITARY UNIT
THE SACRED
BAND OF
THEBES
into the Nile Delta region in
343 BCE, and Egypt was defeated
within two years. Now under
Persian rule, Egypt was never
again ruled by a native dynasty.
In Greece, the Spartan
occupation of Thebes, which had
begun in 382 BCE, was short-lived.
In 379 BCE, the Spartan polemarch
(governor) of Thebes was
assassinated, and the Thebans
drove out the Spartan garrison
with the aid of two Athenian
generals who arrived on their own
initiative to help. In retaliation,
the Spartans mounted an
expedition under King
Cleombrotus (r.380–371 BCE). This
expedition failed to retake Thebes,
but it so alarmed the Athenians
that they executed one general and
exiled the other, and temporarily
abandoned the alliance with
Thebes. The Spartans invaded
the region of Boeotia in 378–
377 BCE but made little headway,
although the Athenians were
alarmed enough to revive the
Theban alliance and try to
establish a Second Athenian
Confederacy in opposition to
Sparta. In 375 BCE the Thebans,
Athenians, and Spartans signed a
“Common Peace”, but it broke
down almost immediately. The
Thebans then took the offensive,
aided by a new elite force of citizen
soldiers, the Sacred Band, which
consisted of 150 male couples. The
Sacred Band supplemented the
mercenaries who largely fought
Greek city-states’ wars by this
period. Theban attempts to
conquer the region of Phocis and
retain dominance in Boeotia
rankled with Sparta, and
scuppered Athenian attempts to
broker a peace in 372 BCE. At
Leuctra in 371 BCE, the Theban
army under the general
Epaminondas fought a tactically
brilliant battle to smash the
Spartan phalanx. At Sparta’s
mercy just eight years before,
Thebes was now the dominant
power in Greece.
In Sicily, Syracuse continued to
flourish under the strong rule of
ALTHOUGH THE ATHENIANS
brokered a general peace in
Greece in 371 BCE, the Thebans did
not participate. Thebes built up a
coalition of allies and invaded
Sparta in 370–369 BCE. As a result,
Messenia was finally detached
from Spartan control, but further
Theban success was hampered by
the temporary deposition of
Epaminondas, who was tried for
allegedly sparing the city of Sparta
in exchange for a bribe. Once
Epaminondas was back in control,
Temple of Thoth
Situated at Hermopolis in Upper the Thebans won Persian backing
Egypt, the temple of Thoth dates
from the New Kingdom but was
for their anti-Spartan alliance in
367 BCE, and a further invasion of
renovated in the 4th century BCE.
the Peloponnese in 366 BCE gained
recruits for the Theban coalition.
Dionysius I (402–367 BCE), who However, Theban successes relied
fought the third in a series of wars too narrowly on the personality of
against the Carthaginians from 383 one man, and when Epaminondas
to 375 BCE. At first, the war went
badly for Dionysius, whose fleet Ancient theatre
was wrecked in a storm. The Odeon was a temple built in the
Carthaginian efforts to mount an town of Messene, which was founded
expedition to Sicily were hampered by Epaminondas of Thebes in 367 BCE.
by plague in 379 BCE and a revolt by
subject cities in Libya, so that it
was only in 377 BCE that an army
was landed. Dionysius, who had
been campaigning against
Carthage’s allies in southern Italy,
returned to Sicily and crushed
Mago’s force – 10,000 are said to
have died. Dionysius allowed the
remnants to slip away, and they
regrouped and returned the
following year under Mago’s son
Himilco to deliver a stinging defeat
to the Syracusans. Both sides were
war-weary and in 375 BCE made
peace, leaving Dionysius in
possession of most of eastern
Sicily and parts of southern Italy.

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54
 355–337 BCE

,,
,, AN ARMY OF DEER LED BY A LION
IS MORE TO BE FEARED THAN AN ARMY
OF LIONS LED BY A DEER.
Attributed to Philip II, king of Macedonia, 4th century BCE

88
was killed in battle in 362 BCE,
Theban power was rapidly eclipsed.
In India, the Nanda dynasty
began its expansion in the
370s BCE, and continued to expand
until it was able to take power from
the Shishunaga in 345 BCE. The
dynasty’s founder Mahapadma
Nanda conquered much of north
India, building up a huge army. He
operated an efficient
administrative system with
centrally appointed tax collectors
and undertook irrigation works.
However, the deposition of Dhana
Nanda in 321 BCE was followed by
the absorption of the Nanda
empire into the Mauryan empire.
The state of Chu was the most
southerly of China’s Warring
States, centred on the Middle
Yangzi river. Throughout the 5th
century BCE it annexed a number of
states, becoming the dominant
power by 380 BCE. In 366 BCE a
resounding victory by the state of
Qin against the armies of Hann and
THE AGE OF
MAGAPADMA
NANDA AT
HIS DEATH
Wei, followed by another defeat of
Wei at the battle of Shimen in
364 BCE led to Chu’s decline and the
shift eastwards of Wei’s royal
centre to Daliang. A rejuvenated
Wei was strong enough to force the
rulers of four other Warring States
to attend its court in 356 BCE. Wei’s
supremacy was short-lived, and
defeats inflicted on it by Qi armies
at Guiling in 353 BCE and Maling in
341 BCE reduced it to a Qi vassal.
IN 359 BCE PERDICCAS III OF
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA (382–336 BCE)
Macedonia died and his successor,
Philip II (r.359–336 BCE) began to
transform the position of what Philip II reformed the
had been regarded by other Macedonian army and forced
Greeks as a very minor kingdom. the Greek states to join a
In 357 BCE, he made his first major League of Corinth under
conquest, Amphipolis in Thrace. Macedonian control. After his
He became involved in the Third return to Macedonia, he took a
Sacred War (356–346 BCE), which new wife, Cleopatra, but was
was fought over perceived stabbed to death at his wedding
violations by Sparta and Phocis of
the sacred oracle at Delphi, using
feast, possibly on the orders of
his son, Alexander the Great,
this to cement his position as an who stood to lose his position
important player in the power if Cleopatra bore another heir.
politics of central Greece and the
Peloponnese. In the 340s, Philip
strengthened his position in Athenians and annihilated the advantage of Rome’s exhausted
Thessaly and became involved in Theban Sacred Band (see state to launch an attack. During
petty disputes between the 380–371 BCE). Macedonian power the first year of the war, at a battle
city-states, as rival factions in Greece was now unchallenged. near Vesuvius, the consul Publius
turned either to him or to Athens Rome’s steady expansion in Decius Mus is said to have
for support. In 340 BCE open war central Italy had caused alarm dedicated his body to the gods of
broke out between Philip and the among her neighbours. This led to the underworld and then
Athenian-Theban alliance. Just a bitter six-year struggle with the undertaken a suicidal charge
two years later, at Chaeronea in town of Tibur from 360 BCE, among against the Latin ranks which
Boeotia, Philip defeated the other conflicts. In 340 BCE, a turned the tide of battle in the
general war broke out between Roman’s favour. By 338 BCE, the
Rome and the Latins, who Romans had defeated the Latin
Mausoleum of Halicarnassus inhabited the modern region of League. The peace terms were
Mausolus was the Persian satrap Lazio around Rome. The favourable, with many Latins
(governor) of a region of south- Romans had just emerged from being granted Roman citizenship.
western Turkey. After his death in
353 BCE his wife built a tomb for a war with the Samnites, a The League was then dissolved,
him, which became one of people who inhabited the and many of the former Latin
the Seven Wonders of the central Apennines, and cities were absorbed into the
Ancient World. the Latins took Roman state, moving Rome
further towards complete
dominance of central Italy.
In Peru, the Nazca culture
began around 350 BCE. These
people created mysterious
geoglyphs, huge lines in the
desert creating animal and
abstract shapes, which cannot be
made out from the ground.

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55
336–330 BCE 329–323 BCE

Despite being heavily outnumbered at Issus, Alexander the Great, depicted here on his horse

30
Bucephalus, made brilliant use of his cavalry to win a stunning victory over King Darius III.

AFTER HIS MURDER OF DARIUS, of Macaranda (Samarkand) and

Bessus declared himself the new
king of Persia (as Artaxerxes V),
but some of the Persian satraps
submitted to Alexander instead of
Bessus. During 330–329 BCE,
Alexander pursued Bessus into
the easternmost regions of the
Persian Empire, beyond the Hindu
Kush and into Bactria. Finally,
in Sogdiana, north of the River
Oxus, the local nobles, led by the
Sogdian warlord Spitamenes,
betrayed Bessus and handed him
Ruins of Persepolis
over to Alexander. Once Alexander
had continued his march north,
AFTER THE ASSASSINATION OF The Persian ceremonial capital of however, Spitamenes revolted. It
PHILIP OF MACEDONIA in 336 BCE Persepolis was burnt to the ground took Alexander a year of bitter
(see 355–337 BCE), his 20-year-old by Alexander’s troops in 330 BCE. campaigning to relieve the siege
son Alexander (often referred to
as Alexander the Great) became army led by Darius III himself. In
Alexander the Great’s conquests
commander of the major Greek 331 BCE, the Macedonians defeated
Alexander penetrated the farthest
city states. The next year Alexander Darius III again at Gaugamela (in corners of the Persian empire. To
invaded Thrace, but a rumour that modern Iraq). The next year Darius cement his rule he founded a series
he had been killed caused a major was stabbed to death by Bessus, of new cities, almost all named after
revolt centred on the Greek city of one of his generals. Alexander himself, notably Alexandria in Egypt.
Thebes, supported by Darius III of now seemed to have acquired the
Persia (r.336–330 BCE). Alexander whole of the vast Persian Empire. CONQUEST OF ALEXANDER
reacted swiftly; the Thebans were Macedonian Empire 336-323BCE
defeated and their city razed to the Route taken by Alexander’s forces
ground. The other states soon
submitted. In 334 BCE, Alexander
hurried to Anatolia, where a SCYT
HIA
Macedonian army was already
Ca
sp
pacify Sogdiana, although the
fortress of the “Sogdian Rock”
managed to hold out against the
Macedonian forces until 327 BCE.
Alexander then crossed into the
Kabul Valley and the following
year, at the river Hydaspes, he
overcame the local ruler Porus. THE AGE OF
His plans to push further into
India were stymied by his soldiers ALEXANDER’S
who, demoralized and disease-
ridden, mutinied and demanded
FAVOURITE
to go home. Part of the army HORSE,
returned home by sea under
Nearchus, but a detachment
BUCEPHALUS,
under Alexander marched WHEN IT DIED
through the harsh Gedrosian
desert, suffering heavy losses.
His army reached central Persia advance of the Romans
early in 324 BCE, but Alexander, into Campania after
still planning new expeditions their abolition of the
into Arabia, died of a fever at Latin League
Babylon in May 323 BCE, aged 33. in 338 BCE
In central Italy, the Samnites of alarmed the
the central-southern Apennines, Samnites, and
who had lost a war against the the Roman placing
Romans in 342–340 BCE, fought of a colony in their land in
them once more in the Second 328 BCE and tensions over the
Samnite War (326–304 BCE). The control of Neapolis (Naples) led
to the outbreak of war in 326 BCE.
In 321 BCE, the Samnites defeated
Alexandria Eschate
A a Roman army at the Caudine
IAN
SOGD Forks. The Romans were

a c
Bl k Sea Alexandria ad Oxum
established, totalling perhaps humiliated by being forced to bow
ia

COLCH A h Bucephala
BACTRIdu Kus
nS

THRACE Byzantium IS Alexandria

43,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry. MACEDONIA Hin down and “pass under the yoke”
ea

Heraclea ARMENIA
Pella Troy ARACHOSIA
Gordium CAPPADOCIA Alexandria Areion
Although this figure was dwarfed HELLAS Sardis
ME
SO Nineveh Alexandria (an arch made from their captured
PARTHIA Arachoton
by the forces of the local Persian Sparta
Ephesus PISIDIA PO
TA
MEDIA
Ecbatana Quetta spears). Four years of peace
M
I
satraps (governors), Alexander’s Crete
Medite Cyprus SYRIA A B AB PERSIS
Susa Pasargadae
Nad-i-Ali followed before the Romans
rranean Sea Tyre YL
cavalry smashed the lines of the Babylon Patala renewed the war and, despite
INE

O Alexandria
Cyrene Jerusalem
ST

Persepolis
NI

satrap Arsites at the River Alexandria Gaza Pe

dogged resistance by the
A
LE

rs
ian Gwadar
PA

Arabian
Granicus in northwest Turkey. He Aristotle Memphis Peninsula
Gulf Samnites, finally emerged
SA
pushed on towards the heart of The philosopher Aristotle was HA EGYPT
R A Thebes Arabian victorious in 304 BCE.
Re

the Persian Empire. In 333 BCE, at employed by Philip of Macedonia Sea

d
Se

Issus, northern Syria, he routed an as Alexander the Great’s tutor.

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56
 ,,
322–301 BCE
,, TO THE STRONGEST!
Alexander the Great, on his deathbed in reply to a
question about who would succeed him

ALEXANDER THE GREAT had not outlying regions of the Nanda Confucian tradition. His surviving
provided for an orderly succession Empire, pushing his control as work, the Shi Ji, is written in the
after his death in 323 BCE, and his far as Gujarat and the Punjab. form of dialogues with several
most experienced generals were
also dead – except for Antipater 80,000 In 305 BCE, he began a campaign
against one of Alexander’s
contemporary kings. Meng Zi
stresses the value of de (virtue)
who had been left as regent in ANTIGONUS successors, Seleucus, which for a king and, more practically,
Macedonia. Alexander’s wife ended in a treaty in 303 BCE, by recommends lower taxes, less
Roxane was pregnant, and he which the Greeks ceded control harsh punishments, and ensuring
had a half-brother Arrhidaeus, of eastern Afghanistan and the people have enough to eat.

Samnite-style helmet
The Romans admired the Samnites
as fighters. This gladiator helmet is
based on the Samnite style of armour.
75,000
who was, unfortunately, Baluchistan to Chandragupta. He believed that if a king acted
mentally unstable. A clique of Having established the Mauryan benevolently, everyone would
generals who were present at LYSIMACHUS Empire in 307 BCE, Chandragupta want to be ruled by him, and he
Alexander’s deathbed – decided to abdicate in favour of would have no need of conquest.
Ptolemy, Cassander, his son Bindusara (r.297–272 BCE). Meng Zi’s benevolent view of
Seleucus, and Lysimachus He then retired to become a Jain human nature had a widespread
– engineered a solution by which monk, ultimately starving himself appeal, and politically his views
Battle of Ipsus
Roxane’s newborn son Alexander Although slightly outnumbered, to death. were most influential in the
IV (323–310 BCE) notionally shared Lysimachus deployed his archers In China, Meng Zi (or Mencius) time of the Song dynasty
power with Arrhidaeus, who against his enemy’s flank, causing (c.372–289 BCE) arrived at the Wei (960–1279 CE).
became Philip III. In reality, this Antigonus’s infantry to flee in panic. court around 320 BCE and rapidly
military clique carved up the earned himself a reputation as
empire between themselves and against the four remaining the “second sage” of the
four other generals. Perdiccas principal players: Cassander in
emerged as the main power in Macedonia, Ptolemy in Egypt,
the centre; Antipater and Lysimachus in Thrace, and
Craterus took Seleucus in Babylon. War between
Europe; the parties raged inconclusively
Antigonos until 311 BCE. But when it was
Monopthalmos renewed again in 308 BCE, it
(“the one-eyed”) was given looked as if Antigonus might
Phrygia; Ptolemy got Egypt; overcome all the others. Then, in
and Seleucus and Cassander 301 BCE, Lysimachus crushed the
were promoted to senior Antigonid army at Ipsus, and
military commands. annexed most of Antigonus’s
These generals, who became former territories, so cementing a
known as the Diadochoi tripartite division of Alexander’s
(“successors”), then fought a long empire between himself, Ptolemy, ALEXANDER THE GREAT (356–323 BCE)
series of wars for dominance in and Seleucus.
Alexander’s former empire, at In India, in around 320 BCE, Aged 20, Alexander inherited much of Greece from his father; by
first pitting the others against Chandragupta Maurya (r.c.320– his death just 13 years later, he had extended this to cover a vast
Perdiccas, who was assassinated 297 BCE) overthrew the last of the area from the Indus River in the east to Illyria in the west. He
in 320 BCE. Antipater rose to Nandas (see 370–356 BCE) to was a brilliant general but prone to acts of impetuous violence.
power next, but he died of natural become ruler of Magadha and the His adoption of Persian court ritual alienated many native
causes in 318 BCE, leaving Ganges plain. An energetic ruler, Macedonians, and his not naming an heir proved catastrophic.
Antigonos to make a bid for power he then gradually absorbed the

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a l l ies
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57
 300–281 BCE 280–266 BCE 265–241 BCE

,,
,, ANOTHER SUCH
VICTORY AND WE
ARE UNDONE.
Pyrrhus, king of the Greek state of Epirus, 279 BCE

The Pharos lighthouse was built under Ptolemy II in around At the Battle of Mylae, in 260 BCE ,
280 BCE . It guided ships into Alexandria harbour at night. Rome defeated the Carthaginian navy.

IN ITALY, A THIRD WAR broke Demetrius Poliorcetes (c.337– IN 281 BCE, THE APPEAL by envoys 500 20 IN INDIA, the accession of Ashoka
out between the Romans and 283 BCE), the son of Antigonus from the southern Italian city of (c.294–232 BCE) to the throne in
Samnites in 298 BCE, apparently (see 322–301 BCE), was now Tarentum for protection against 268 BCE had marked a watershed

2,0
provoked by Samnite harassment rebuilding his strength from bases the Romans provided Pyrrhus, for the Mauryan Empire. On his

of their neighbours, the Lucanians.
Despite two Roman victories in
297 BCE, the Samnites, this time
allied with the Gauls, could still
field a huge army against the
Romans at Sentinum in 295 BCE.
00
in the Aegean islands and in the king of the Greek state of 3,0 father Bindusara’s death (see
Cyprus. He was able to exploit the Epirus, with a perfect excuse 00 322–301 BCE), Ashoka had to fight
need of Seleucus, in Babylon, for for fulfilling his ambitions and a four-year civil war with his
allies against the now over-mighty intervening there. He arrived with brothers before he was enthroned.
Lysimachus. In 294 BCE, Demetrius an army more than 25,000 strong, Around eight years later, he
invaded Macedon, whose ruler including war elephants. He beat launched a campaign against
20,000

275
THE NUMBER
OF YEARS
THE
PTOLEMAIC
DYNASTY
RULED EGYPT
The equally vast Roman army – at
45,000, the largest they had ever
fielded – was threatened with
defeat until the Roman consul
Publius Decius Mus (d.295 BCE)
dedicated himself and the enemy
army as sacrificial victims to the
gods of the underworld and led a
suicidal charge that shattered the
Samnite line. A string of Roman
successes followed in 293 and
292 BCE, and two years later the
Samnites finally surrendered and
their lands were annexed. Roman
territory now stretched across the
Italian peninsula to the Adriatic Sea.
Cassander had died three years the Romans at the River Siris in Kalinga (modern Orissa), which
before, leaving his two young 280 BCE, but the Roman senate was so bloody that around 100,000
sons to engage in a bitter civil refused to make peace. Pyrrhus people are said to have died. So
war. Demetrius then attacked vanquished another Roman army KEY struck with remorse was Ashoka
Lysimachus’s Asian territories, at Asculum the next year, but his Infantry Slingers at this slaughter, that he ever after
but in 292 BCE he was brought losses were so severe that it Cavalry War elephants rejected war and promoted the
back to Greece by a revolt in seemed more like a defeat. After Archers Buddhist concept of dharma,
Aetolia. By 289 BCE, Demetrius invading Sicily, Pyrrhus retreated meaning mercy or piety. He set up
Pyrrhus's army
had suppressed the revolt, but he
had lost most of his island bases
back to Epirus in 275 BCE, nursing
huge losses in troops and having
The army that Pyrrhus took over to a series of edicts carved in rock
throughout the empire – many of
Italy included a small number of war
to Ptolemy’s Egyptian fleet. He made no territorial gains. elephants whose presence caused them on pillars topped with a lion
retreated to Asia, and died in
283 BCE, a captive of Seleucus.
The defeat and death of
Lysimachus in 281 BCE in battle
the Roman cavalry to panic and flee. – promoting his adherence to
dharma. Under his patronage the
Of Alexander’s successors, against Seleucus, and the latter’s Third Buddhist Council met at
Ptolemy inherited the weakest assassination, soon led to Pataliputra around 250 BCE, and
position. A naval defeat in 306 BCE instability on the frontier between Ashoka sought to export his ideas
by Demetrius Poliorcetes confined the Seleucid Empire (now ruled abroad, exchanging diplomatic
his ambitions temporarily to Egypt. by his son Antiochus I) and the missions with foreign rulers, such
Yet here he shrewdly chose to Egyptian ruler Ptolemy II as Antiochus II of Syria and
exploit the existing mechanisms Philadelphos. Finally, in 274 BCE Ptolemy II of Egypt. At his death
of power, establishing himself as the First Syrian War broke out in 232 BCE, the Mauryan empire
a pharaoh in the old style and between them. The Egyptians had reached its greatest extent
setting up an administration that emerged victorious, annexing and seemed securely established.
melded the best of Greek and parts of the Syrian coast and In China, Zhao Zheng succeeded
Egyptian traditions. By 295 BCE, southern Anatolia. This position his father to the throne of Qin in
Ptolemy’s naval forces had was in part reversed by Egyptian 246 BCE. From 228 BCE, ably advised
recovered and conquered much of losses in the Second Syrian War by chancellor Li Si, Zhao Zheng
the Aegean. In Egypt, Ptolemy’s (260–253 BCE) and then renewed unleashed a final war of conquest
position was sufficiently secure in the Third Syrian War (246–241 against the remaining Warring
that, at his death in 283 BCE, aged BCE), which was fought between States (see 370–356 BCE). Zhao
84, he passed the kingdom on to the Seleucid Antiochus II and and Yan soon fell to his forces, the
his son Ptolemy II Philadelphos Pyrrhus of Epirus Ptolemy III. These three Qin armies captured Wei and, in
(r.283–245 BCE), the second king Despite his many campaigns, when debilitating wars left the Seleucids 223 BCE, overcame Chu. Only Qi
of a Ptolemaic dynasty that would Pyrrhus died he ruled little more particularly vulnerable to the now still held out but, in 221 BCE, Zhao
rule Egypt until 30 BCE. than the kingdom he had inherited. growing power of Parthia. Zheng finally annexed it, leaving

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060-061_300-241BCE.indd 60 13/05/11 5:46 PM
60
58
 23
YEARS
THE LENGTH OF
THE FIRST PUNIC
WAR

little headway. However, after they Aegades Islands. This defeat

ROMAN RELIGION
had built their first ever fleet, the caused Hamilcar Barca, the
Romans’ fortunes changed. In Carthaginian general, to sue for
Early Roman religion combined 260 BCE, they won an important peace. The peace terms involved
the worship of the great gods, victory over the Carthaginians at the Carthaginians leaving Sicily.
such as Neptune (shown here), Mylae. A Roman invasion of North The two sides’ spheres of
with that of more local deities. Africa in 256 BCE failed to capture influence remained uncomfortably
There were several different Carthage only through the overlapping, creating the seeds
types of priest: haruspices ineptitude of the consul, Regulus. of two future conflicts.
made predictions from the On land, the Romans took the

,,
entrails of sacrificed animals; Carthaginian strongholds in Sicily
augures determined the divine
will from signs, such as the
flight of birds; and pontifices
one by one until, by 249 BCE, only
Drepana, in western Sicily, held
out against them. A massive
,, IF THEY WILL
NOT EAT, LET
controlled the complex Carthaginian naval victory there THEM DRINK!
calendar of religious festivals. set back the Roman cause, but
In their homes, Romans had in 241 BCE, a new Roman fleet Publius Claudius Pulcher, Roman
consul and general, ordering the
shrines to household gods and appeared off Drepana, took it,
drowning of the sacred chickens
the spirits of their ancestors. and the next year smashed when they refused to eat grain
a Carthaginian fleet at the before the Battle of Drepana, 249 BCE

him the master of all China. The expelled the nomads, but wars the nomadic Parni, led by E UR O P E Alps
same year he proclaimed himself with Egypt (280–272 BCE and Arsaces, entered Parthia in the
Tolosa
P Placentia
the “First Emperor” as Qin Shi 260–253 BCE) overstretched the mid-240s BCE. Numantia
yr
e n Narbo Massalia
ee
Huangdi, and the first ruler of the kingdom’s resources. On the Rivalry over Sicily, where the Iberian
s
Emporiae Rhodae
Pisae Ariminum

new Qin dynasty. death of Antiochus II (r.261–246 Carthaginians had possessed Peninsula
Dertosa
Tarraco
Corsica
Perusia
Ad
In Persia, the Greek Seleucid BCE), civil war broke out between colonies since the 8th century BCE, to Rome 238 Aleria ri
at
Saguntum
le a re s Ostia Rome ic
dynasty, which had inherited the the king’s widow Berenice and his was at the root of the First Punic Gades
B a Olbia
Sardinia Capua
Se
a
region after Alexander the Great’s former wife Laodice. This led to War (264–241 BCE), a conflict Tingis
Malaca
Mediterra
to Rome 238 Tarentum
nea Carales
death in 323 BCE, faced a series of the breakaway of Bactria under between Rome and the North Cartenna n Panormus Thurii
Rusaddir Se 260BCE Croton
nomad incursions Diodotus and Parthia African power of Carthage. In 264 Iol
Saldae
a 241BCE Mylae
Utica Agrigentum Rhegium
after 280 BCE. under Andragoras. BCE, the Romans sent an army to Carthage Ecnomus
Syracuse
Antiochus I (reign Taking advantage help the Mamertines – a group Hadrumetum
256BCE
Sicily
c.292–261 BCE) of this instability, of south-Italian mercenaries to Rome 241

occupying the Sicilian city of

Messana – in their conflict with A F R I CA
the city of Syracuse, which was Leptis Magna

in turn aided by Carthage. The

Carthaginian’s resistance was so Charax

stubborn that the Romans made

KEY
The First Punic War
Carthaginian Empire in 264 BCE
Great Stupa at Sanchi The two decades of fighting was
This Buddhist stupa in central India Roman gains by 264 BCE concentrated around Sicily, but
was begun by the Mauryan ruler Roman gains by 238 BCE also saw Roman invasions of
Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. Roman victory North Africa and Sardinia.

ac ar
u L ver ); ion in
E
se n f A d Ri nam 207
BC
in us as tory at ay
s
an val i sm ds asty nW s
s u inia ild o w v
in ri s l n i S r i u n r i a an
an u ate Re ie t i
t n s no
m
an er de
fe an nia um
n i
ag t n
a f dh sf
o dyn Sy en cids m ory at
m thag to b St d in rn V Vie an r
m ove f Eco om agi bae ao d ird etwe leu Ro vict ge
o
R ar el an
s E e e m o o m an t s in
i R h a rth ns a a i ss o Bu ace ian) h e E l a
BC
sh od a R ry of R in nd t y C a T t s h T tb 1 B va rth ds
C
C d om sica 7 ar Lil m pan Ar art dS
E
ing erts
E
BC
1 red m et o R 25 tabli in m by N CE o
6 B l vict ian
s CE g
5 B rtha ica
e BC
50 to C d of
CE
9 B t Ro Dre P
CE
6 B s ou s an 24 n na t Ca lan
6 r E K nv
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2 ptu as fle CE o es sin ( ded 5 n 5 r . 2 l 4 BC or 4 k i s I s
0B e C 2 va gi 2 Ca Af c ge ho 2 fe a of 6 B co
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of etw and Qi Chi ds E
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24 be offe
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Pu
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Sh rul
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S
61
59
 240–220 BCE 219–211 BCE

36
THE NUMBER OF
COMMANDERIES
(REGIONS) SET UP
BY EMPEROR QIN
SHI HUANGDI

This rendition of Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps is attributed to Italian artist

Jacopo Ripanda. Amazingly, all 37 elephants survived the mountain passage.

IN 221 BCE, QIN SHI HUANGDI, the In the aftermath of the First Second Punic War
AT L A N T I C
first emperor of China, divided his Punic War (see 264–241 BCE), with There were three principal theatres OCEAN EUROPE
empire into 36 commanderies on Sicily and Sardinia lost, Carthage of conflict: Spain, Italy, and North
the advice of his minister Li Ssu. turned its attention to Spain. In Africa. By 203 BCE, the Carthaginians
ALPS
were confined to Africa.
The dispossessed aristocrats and 238 BCE, Hamilcar was sent there, P
Tolosa Placentia
Numantia yr Trebia 218 20
nobles of Qin’s former enemies and he soon conquered almost the e n Narbo
ee Massalia 7
Ariminum
Iberian 20 8 s Pisae
10
were moved to the capital Xianyang whole of southern Spain. He died Penins ula Tarraco 2 1 8 Rhodae 2
River Metaurus 207
Emporiae Corsica Perusia
to keep them under close control. in battle against the Oretani, a Aleria
Lake Trasimene 217
Ad
Baecula 208 Saguntum Dertosa Rome S e riat
To further encourage a sense of Celtic tribe, in 229 BCE, but by then Ilipa 206 Ostia a ic
209 Olbia
unity, Li Ssu commissioned a he had won both a new empire THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Gades Baleares
Capua
Sardinia
Cannae 216

single script and a standardized for Carthage and a strong power 218–202 BCE Tingis Malaca Carthago Medite Carales
Tarentum
Nova rra Thurii
system of weights and measures base for his family, the Barcids. Carthaginian Empire 281BCE Carthaginian victory
Rusaddir
ne
an Croton
Cartenna Iol Messina
Motya
for China. Further conquests were Despite their victory in the First Carthaginian territory 200BCE Roman victory Saldae Mylae Utica
Rhegium
204
made to the north and south in Punic War, the Romans’ position Roman territory 218BCE Hannibal (219–202)
Sicily Agrigentum
Zama 202 Carthage
219 and 214 BCE, and thousands of in northern Italy was still weak. In Roman gains by 200BCE Hasdrubal (208–207 203
Syracuse
THE SECOND PUNIC WAR Hadrumetum
colonists were sent to the new 225 BCE , the Celtic
218–202 BCE Insubres and Massalian territory 218BCE Scipio Africanus (210–206
Melita

S
e
territories. Shi Huangdi dealt Boii tribes tried to drive them out. and 204–202)

a
Carthaginian Empire 281BCE Carthaginian victory
AFRICA
firmly with opposition. In 213 BCE, At the Battle of Telamon,
Carthaginian the200
territory Celts
BCE Roman victory
he ordered the “burning of the were trappedRomanbetween twoBCE
territory 218 Roman Hannibal (219–202)
Leptis Magna

books”, by which the writings of armies and routed.

Roman gainsAlthough
by 200BCE the Hasdrubal (208–207
Charax
philosophers opposed to the Qin Boii accepted defeat
Massalian in 224218
territory BCE and
BCE Scipio Africanus (210–206
state were burnt, and in 212 BCE the Insubres sued for peace two and 204–202)
he had many intellectuals who years later, the Romans rebuffed
opposed him brutally killed. them and pushed on for total ALARMED AT CARTHAGINIAN marched with 50,000 infantry, the consuls. Faced with many
victory. The king of the Boii was EXPANSION IN SPAIN, in 226 BCE 9,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants defections among the allied
killed in single combat against a the Romans sent an embassy to into northern Spain, across the cities, the Romans turned to
Roman consul, and their capital Hasdrubal – son of Hamilcar and Pyrenees, through southern delaying tactics to hold Hannibal
Mediolanum (Milan) captured. the new Barcid commander there Gaul and – to the Romans’ at bay. But this was a temporary
The Romans established colonies – and secured an agreement that astonishment – crossed the measure, and the Romans
in the Celtic territories in 218 BCE, the Carthaginians would not move Alps. Although he now had only suffered one of their worst ever
including at Piacenza. north of the Ebro River. In return, around half the force he had defeats at Cannae in 216 BCE, when
A revolt led by Arsaces (see the Romans pledged not to move started with, his presence Hannibal’s army massacred up to
265–241 BCE) in Parthava – a south – although they did forge encouraged the north Italian
former satrapy in the northeast of alliances with cities in the south, Celts to revolt and, at Trebia in 100
such as Saguntum. In 221 BCE, late 218 BCE, he routed a Roman 50,000 casualties
the Seleucid Empire – could not
FORCES IN THOUSANDS

be quelled by Seleucus II (r.246– Hasdrubal was assassinated; army. The following year he 80
225 BCE), and a separate Parthian two years later, Hannibal, his smashed another large Roman 6,000
kingdom emerged in the region brother and successor, attacked force at Lake Trasimene, killing 60 casualties
of modern Iran. The Parthians Saguntum, rapidly leading to the 15,000 Romans – including one of
40
gradually annexed more territory Second Punic War (219–201 BCE).
to the west, especially under With the prospect of the 20
Suppressing opposition Battle of Canae
This watercolour-on-silk painting Mithridates I (r.171–138 BCE). By Romans sending one army to Some 35,000 Romans survived the
shows Shi Huangdi, China’s first the early 1st century BCE, only a Spain and another via Sicily to battle of Cannae, but half of those 0
emperor, overseeing the burning of small area of Syria was under invade North Africa, Hannibal were captured by the Carthaginians, Roman Carthaginian
books and the execution of scholars. Seleucid control. decided to strike first. He and many were sold into slavery. TROOPS

d n
ar es ate d s ria en led tor, s ns
t II
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62
60
 210–201 BCE

After his death, the First Qin Emperor was buried in a vast mausoleum, in which
an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors, each around 2 m (6 ft 6 in) tall, was placed.

HANNIBAL (247–182 BCE)
A brilliant tactician, Hannibal’s
string of victories against the
Romans from 218 BCE was
not matched by the strategic
judgement to convert them
into final victory. Following
the surrender of Carthage in
201 BCE, Hannibal served
as the city’s suffete (chief
magistrate) until the Romans
had him exiled in 195 BCE. He
then offered his service to a
succession of Rome’s
enemies before poisoning
himself in Bithynia.
50,000 of them. But Hannibal
did not march immediately on
Rome, and his campaign lost
momentum. Although Hannibal
captured much of southern Italy,
including the key city of Capua in
211 BCE, by 212 BCE the Romans
had raised 25 fresh legions and
stood ready to carry the war back
to the Carthaginians.
WHEN THE FIRST QIN EMPEROR position there. The Roman senate at Utica in North Africa, the fleet was reduced to a mere 10
DIED IN 210 BCE, resentment sent the young general Publius Carthaginians recalled Hannibal ships; they were not allowed to
against his autocratic rule erupted Cornelius Scipio (c.236–183 BCE) to head off a threat to Carthage make war outside Africa at all,
in a series of peasant revolts. A to Spain, where he captured the itself. The Romans offered and inside it they needed Roman
number of new kingdoms broke Carthaginian capital of Carthage relatively lenient peace terms, but permission to do so. An annual
away from the centre, while the Nova. In 206 BCE, he crushed a the Carthaginians rejected them, tribute of 10,000 talents payable
anti-Qin forces found a talented large Carthaginian force at Illipa. and Scipio captured their towns to the Romans completed the
military leader in Xiang Yu. In In 207 BCE, Hannibal’s brother one by one. Aided by the Numidian humiliation of what had once
208 BCE, Li Ssu was executed and Hasdrubal was defeated and prince, Massinissa, Scipio been Rome’s greatest enemy.
a new army, led by Liu Bang, a killed at the River Metaurus in defeated Hannibal’s last army at
man of peasant origins, emerged northern Italy, denying Hannibal Zama in 202 BCE. The peace terms
The Continence of Scipio
to challenge the Qin. By 206 BCE, crucial reinforcements. By 204 BCE, the Carthaginians now had to Scipio was noted for his mercy. In
the Qin Empire was fragmented many of Hannibal’s south-Italian accept were much harsher. All of this 19th-century painting, he is
and Xiang Yu and Liu Bang were at allies had deserted him, and when their territory was forfeit save a seen handing back a captured
war with one another. In 202 BCE, Scipio landed with a Roman army band around Carthage itself; their Carthaginian woman to her fiancé.
Xiang Yu committed suicide after
being defeated at Gaixia. With no
one left to oppose him, Liu Bang
had himself declared emperor as
Gaozu, the first ruler of the Han
dynasty (see 200–171 BCE).
With Hannibal making little
headway in southern Italy, the
Romans embarked on a policy of
picking off the allies of Carthage.
Their first target was Philip V of
Macedonia, whose attacks on
Illyria in 215 BCE had provoked the
First Macedonian War (215–205
BCE) with Rome. In 211 BCE, the
Romans allied with the Aetolians,
who fought the Macedonians on
land while the Romans launched
naval attacks. Philip’s invasion
of Aetolia in 207 BCE forced the
Aetolians to sue for peace the next
year, and though the Romans sent
fresh forces in 205 BCE, the war
ended with a recognition of the
status quo between the two sides.
In Spain, the Romans had
retaken Saguntum in 212 BCE, but
a disastrous defeat the following
year in which both consuls died
looked set to destroy the Roman

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63
61
 700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE T H E C L A S S I CA L A G E

owl, the sacred

bird of Athena

crescent symbol in
post-490 BCE coins

Athenian coin
The Athenian
silver tetradrachm
has an image of an
owl on one side and
a helmeted head on
the other. It was also
stamped with the Greek
letters for “ATHE” to identify
the city of its origin.

1200 BCE
Shells as money
Beginning from the
Maldives, the use
of cowrie shells
as money spreads
throughout the Pacific,
and, by the 19th century,
into Africa.
465–454 BCE
Greek coins
Almost every Greek city-state
issues its own coinage, often with
the name of the state inscribed on
it. Silver replaces electrum as the
Cowrie shells main metal used.

Prehistory 1000–500 BCE c.640–630 BCE Lydian coins 27 BCE–14 CE

Cattle as capital Tool money
Prehistoric people In China, common
use cattle as money, tools are cast in
with animals such as metal, punched
sheep or chickens with holes (for
sometimes acting Cattle stringing several
as small change. together), and
used as money.
First true coins Augustan aureus
The state of Lydia Emperor Augustus
produces the first true reforms the Roman
coins, made of electrum coinage system and
(an alloy of gold and issues a new version of
silver) and stamped with the standard gold coin,
Knife an image of a lion or stag. Gold the aureus, worth
money aureus 25 silver denarii.

64

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 T H E S TO R Y O F M O N E Y

THE STORY OF
MONEYTHE ADOPTION OF MONEY ENABLED EARLY SOCIETIES TO FLOURISH AND GROW INTO COMPLEX CIVILIZATIONS

As societies became more complex, a need arose for a uniform medium of

exchange to acquire goods. Money was created to fulfil this role, and it evolved
from cattle to precious metals, and finally, to coins and notes. Today, money
is exchanged more abstractly, through credit cards or electronic transfers.

The earliest forms of money – used in ritual
exchanges (for example, as a dowry) and in paying
fines – included physical items such as cattle.
In the 4th millennium BCE, the growth of trade in
Egypt and Mesopotamia led to more compact and
portable forms of money. For thousands of years,
precious metals were used, often in the forms of
bars and ingots. Babylonian king Hammurabi’s law
100
90
80
PERCENTAGE OF SILVER
code mentions loans paid in silver. In 640 BCE,
in the kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor, the
development of money went a stage further with
the invention of coinage, which later spread to
the Greek world. By the Roman era, a tri-metallic
system had been adopted, with coins of gold,
silver, and bronze (of least value) circulating across
the empire. All had the head of the ruler stamped
on them, for propaganda as well as fiscal use.
EXCHANGE NOTES
In 1189, paper money came into use in China during

70
Jin rule. Notes could express larger denominations
60
and, therefore, were more convenient than coins.
50
Gradually, government-backed banks began to issue TRADE AND PAPER MONEY
40
notes, which were, in theory, exchangeable for an
30
equivalent amount in bullion (a system known as The growth in paper money in Europe after
20 the Middle Ages was fuelled by the needs of
the Gold Standard). However, the economic crisis
10 merchants. Traders would deposit funds in a
following World War I forced countries to abandon
0 bank in one city and receive a promissory note,
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 the Gold Standard. Subsequently, the “real” value of
which allowed them to withdraw the amount
YEAR notes and coins became nominal, relying instead on in any other city where the bank had a branch.
The debasement of Roman coins a sense of trust that they could be exchanged for Great Italian banking houses, such as the Medici,
Due to inflation, excessive expenditure, and weak control goods. The growth of credit cards from 1950 took were rich enough to fund the military campaigns
of minting, the purity of the Roman denarius fell from of European kings through their loans.
around 90 per cent silver under Marcus Aurelius this a stage further, as the purchaser passed on
(r.161–180) to 4 per cent during Gallienus’s rule (r.260–268). nothing save the promise of payment at a later date.

806–821 1519 1694 1949

Paper money Thalers
In China, Emperor Coin minted from
Xianzong issues the silver found in the
earliest bank notes during Joachimsthal mine,
a period of copper Bohemia, becomes
shortage. The Jin dynasty Song standard in the
issues the first true bank dynasty Spanish and Austrian
notes around 1189. note Habsburg empires.
First bank note
The Bank of England
is founded to fund
England’s growing
national debt. It issues
its first bank notes,
Joachimsthal backed by the bank’s
thaler own gold reserves.
Credit and debit cards
The first credit cards
appear in the US in
1949. By the 1980s,
debit cards, which
operate as electronic
cash (without deferred
payment) appear. Credit cards

1158 17th century 1862

Making change Modern cheque First dollar bill
Henry II of England By the 17th century, the use The US Treasury
creates high-quality of cheques, often backed issues the first
coinage, based on a by goldsmiths, becomes dollar bills for
silver penny, with widespread in national circulation.
a cross design that Europe. These are known
will last over the next British cheque as “greenbacks”
100 years. Henricus penny from 1659 for their vivid green colour. First one dollar bill

65

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 200–171 BCE 170–147 BCE

The royal entourage of Gaozu, the first emperor of the Han, depicted in the mountains of China. This wall painting shows Judah
Gaozu was one of the few Chinese rulers to come from a peasant background. Maccabee’s revolt in Jerusalem.

THE FIRST HAN EMPEROR OF the beginnings of political Mauryan general, assassinated including the Satavahanas, the THE THIRD MACEDONIAN WAR
CHINA, GAOZU, died in 195 BCE, consolidation in central Japan, the last Mauryan ruler (see Kalingas, and the Indo-Greek ended In 168 BCE, when Paullus
when his successor, Hui Ti, was especially around the lower Nara 265 BCE). He is said to have kingdoms of Bactria. defeated Perseus at the Battle of
just 15. Hui Ti fell under the sway basin (near Osaka). persecuted Buddhists, marking Bactria (in modern Afghanistan) Pydna. A purge of anti-Roman
of his mother, the empress Lu, In India, the Sunga dynasty the beginning of the religion’s had broken away from Seleucid elements swept through the
who took power for herself on his took power in Magadha in 185 BCE, decline in its Indian homeland. He control around 275 BCE, but a Greek cities, and Macedonia was
premature death in 188 BCE. when its founder Pusyamitra also fought a long series of wars series of Greek kings continued broken up into four republics to
Under her rule China was Sunga (r.185–151 BCE), a former with Magadha’s neighbours, to rule there, starting with prevent it recovering its strength.
invaded by the Hsiung-nu from Diodotus around 250 BCE. Another In 150 BCE, Spartan attempts
the north and the kingdom of Indo-Greek dynasty emerged in to get the Romans to intervene
Nan-yueh to the south, and it India, and became powerful in a quarrel with the Achaean
was only under Gaozu’s grandson under Menander I (c.165– League (a group of Greek

13
130 BCE), an important patron of city-states) coincided with an
Buddhism. Under the Indo-Greek anti-Roman revolt in Macedonia.
geometrical kings, a new school of art By 148 BCE, the Macedonians had
patterns emerged around Gandhara, which been defeated and the Romans
and shapes fused Buddhist iconography and turned their attention to the
Greek naturalism. Gradually, Achaeans. The Roman consul
these easternmost Greeks came L. Mummius quickly routed the
under pressure from Scythian Archaeans and took Corinth,
and Yuezhi nomads and in 125 BCE which he razed to the ground. The
Bactria collapsed. The last various leagues of Greek cities
THE NUMBER Indo-Greek kingdom of the were dissolved and Greece lost
OF REGIONS Punjab survived until 10 CE.
The Roman victory against
its independence, becoming the
Roman province of Achaea.
THAT MADE UP Philip V of Macedon (see
HAN CHINA 210 BCE) in the Second
Macedonian War (200–197 BCE)
50
Total

NUMBER OF SOLIDERS (IN 1000S)

did not lead to permanent
40 Total
Wen Ti (r.180–157 BCE) that acquisitions in Greece,
stability was restored. and the Romans withdrew Captured
30
By 143 BCE, the number of their army in 194 BCE.
commanderies (regions) After the death of Philip V
under central Han control had in 179 BCE, his son Perseus 20
risen from 13 to a total of 40. presided over worsening
Killed
In Japan, the Middle Yayoi relations with Rome, and 10
period (c.200–100 BCE) saw an in 171 BCE a Third Macedonian Killed
increase in population – possibly War broke out. Initial Roman 0
to as high as 600,000 people – and campaigning achieved little Romans Macedonians
except the alienation of their COMBATANTS
Greek allies, but a more
Yayoi vase Battle of Pydna
The Yayoi period in Japanese history disciplined approach under The Macedonian army led by
(c.300 BCE to 250 CE) is named for the the consul Aemilius Paullus Perseus was destroyed at the Battle
site near Tokyo where its pottery (see 170 BCE) yielded better of Pydna. The Romans killed 20,000
was first found. results. Macedonians and captured 11,000.

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64
 146–131 BCE

The ruins of Carthage, which was burnt and ritually cursed after its capture in
146 BCE . A new Roman town was founded near the city around 48 BCE .

After the end of the Second Punic the Elder, who made a series of ,,I SHUDDER TO THINK

,,
War, in 202 BCE, the Romans had speeches to the Senate calling for
allowed their ally King Massinissa
of Numidia to encroach on
the destruction of Carthage.
The first two years of the Third
THAT ONE DAY SOMEONE
Carthaginian territory. The peace
conditions that ended the war
Punic war saw ineffective Roman
attacks on towns around Carthage.
MAY GIVE THE SAME ORDER
forbade the Carthaginians to wage In 147 BCE, a new commander was
appointed, Scipio Aemilianus,
FOR ROME.

,,
,, who transformed Rome’s fortunes Scipio Aemilianus, Roman general and consul, on giving the order
CARTHAGE in the war within a year. to burn Carthage, from Plutarch’s Apophthegmata
In 167 BCE, the Seleucid ruler
MUST BE Carthaginean tophet
A memorial stone from the tophet Antiochus IV outlawed Jewish
DESTROYED. (cemetery) at Carthage, showing religious practices in Judaea, IN CHINA, RAIDS BY NOMADIC capital, under which a Jewish
Tanit, the goddess of the heavens. leading to the revolt of Judah HSIUNG-NU TRIBES from 177 BCE dynasty ruled until Jerusalem was
Cato the Elder, Roman statesman Maccabee and his brothers in gravely threatened the Han captured by the Romans in 63 BCE.
made to pay an annual fine 164 BCE. Judah Maccabee entered dynasty’s northern borders. In In the Iberian Peninsula, the
of 500 talents. In 151 BCE, the Jerusalem, reconsecrated the 139 BCE the imperial envoy, Zhang Romans had conquered most of
war without Roman approval. Carthaginian government sent a temple, and re-established Qian, set out to Central Asia to southern Spain and parts of
Unable to act, the Carthaginians military force to relieve a town that Judaism. The Seleucid kingdom seek out possible allies against Portugal (where the Lusitanians
were reduced to sending had been besieged by Massinissa, then continued to decline (see the Hsiung-nu. His epic journey vigorously resisted them) by
embassies to Rome to protest at and the Romans reacted by also 280 BCE), with the overthrow helped scout the way for Chinese 174 BCE. A revolt by the Lusitanian
Massinissa’s behaviour. However, declaring war. This was the Third of its ruler Demetrius I in 150 BCE expansion as far as Dunhuang, and leader Viriathus from 147 BCE was
Rome sided with its ally, and one Punic War (149–146 BCE). Rome’s by Alexander Balas rapidly leading the foundation of a number of new joined by several Celtiberian
Carthaginian embassy in 162 BCE war was encouraged by the to the loss of the key satrapies Central Asian commanderies by tribes in 144 BCE. This rebellion
even resulted in Carthage being anti-Carthaginian senator Cato (provinces) of Media and Susiana. 104 BCE. Zhang Qian was held petered out after Viriathus was
captive by the Hsiung-nu for some murdered in 140 BCE. In 133 BCE,
years during his journey before he Numantia, the main centre of the
was able to make an escape. revolt, finally fell to the Romans
Under emperor Wu (141–87 BCE) after a bitter siege. Its population
the Chinese launched several was sold into slavery and Rome
offensives against the Hsiung-nu, was left in control of all of Iberia,
particularly in 121 BCE and 119 BCE, except the far north of Spain.
after which the frontier was quiet The Third Punic War came to
for almost 20 years. an end when Scipio Aemilianus
In the Near East, the shrunken blocked Carthage’s harbour then
and near-helpless Seleucid launched a successful attack on
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC realm (see 170 BCE) was riven by the city itself in spring 146 BCE.
civil wars and prey to interference The last Carthaginian defenders
After the overthrow of the last king in 507 BCE, orders. Later elections for the consulate became from the Parthians, the died in an inferno in the city’s
Rome became a republic, ruled by two annually bitterly contested as the office provided great Hasmonaeans, and, increasingly, main temple. The defeat of
elected consuls. Over time the consuls came potential for enrichment and personal and family the Romans. In 142 BCE, the Carthage brought its 118-year
to be supported by other magistrates (praetors glory. After Augustus became emperor in 27 BCE Maccabees succeeded in wresting struggle against Rome to an end.
and quaestors), and tribunes of the plebs who had the office of consul lost any real power, being Jerusalem from Seleucid control The Romans burnt the whole city
a special role in protecting the rights of the lower increasingly awarded to imperial favourites. and established a Hasmonaean and deported its population to
kingdom, with Jerusalem as its prevent any Carthaginian revival.

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 130–111 BCE 110–91 BCE

,,
,,HOWEVER MUCH YOU MAY
TRY TO DELAY, YOU ARE FATED TO
MEET THE SAME DEATH AS I DID.
Tiberius Gracchus, Roman official, speaking in a dream to his
brother Gaius; from an account by Cicero

This 17th-century silk painting from a history of Chinese emperors

shows the Emperor Wudi greeting a scholar.

SAKA (SCYTHIAN) TRIBESMEN

invaded Punjab, northern India,
in about 125 BCE. They gradually
In southern and central India,
the Satavahanas began their
rise to power after the breakup of
IN PALESTINE, THE HASMONEAN
KINGDOM (see 146–131 BCE) had
continued its expansion until the
In North Africa, the Romans
faced a serious challenge when
Micipsa, the son of their former
,, YOU DO
WELL TO
occupied more territory, ending
a brief period of Indo-Greek unity
the Mauryan Empire in the 2nd
century BCE (see 200–171 BCE).
fall of Jerusalem to the Seleucid
Antiochus VII in 131 BCE. However,
ally Massinissa of Numidia (see
170–147 BCE), died in 118 BCE. The
CONSIDER
THE OFFICE

(see 200–171 BCE) under the reign From his capital in the Deccan, the
of Antialcidas around 110 BCE. Led third Satavahana king, Satakarni,
by King Maues, the Sakas took extended his sway considerably
the kingdom of Gandhara and its around 50 BCE, although he and
capital Taxila in about 80 BCE. later Satavahana rulers struggled
After Maues died (c.60 BCE), the to contain the Saka and Kushan
Saka kingdom collapsed, but it threats from the northwest.
was revived under his son Azes I In Rome, social turmoil had
(r.58–c.30 BCE), who conquered erupted over the distribution of
much of northwest India. The public land held by the Senate.
Sakas held this region until the Tiberius Gracchus, who was
rise of the Kushan Empire during tribune of the plebs in 133 BCE,
the 1st century CE. sought to ensure that plots of this
land would be handed over to
poorer families. When the Senate
obstructed his plans, he tried to
extend his tribunate so that he
could pursue his aim. A mob
organized by senators opposed
to the plans beat him to death in
the Forum. Tiberius’s brother
Gaius became tribune in 123 BCE
and tried to carry on his brother’s
work. He also reduced the
Senate’s role in dispensing justice,
and pushed through a law to allow
the sale of subsidized grain to the
poor. In 122 BCE, the Senate
declared Gaius an enemy of the
state, due to his plans to extend
Roman citizenship more widely in
Italy. He killed himself, and
thousands of his political
supporters were executed.
Amravati relief carving
This carving depicts the life of the
Buddha. It comes from Amravati in
Andra Pradesh, southeast India, one
of the capitals of the Satavahanas.
,,
during the reign of John Hyrcanus Romans ordered the kingdom be
(r.134–104 BCE) it recovered much divided between Micipsa’s nephew YOUR OWN,
of the ground that had been lost. Jugurtha and his sons. Jugurtha
Alexander Jannaeus (r.103–76 rejected this, killing one cousin FOR YOU
BCE) enlarged the kingdom until it and attacking the other, Adherbal, BOUGHT IT.
occupied most of modern Israel who fled to Rome. After a brief
and the West Bank. After defeats division of Numidia between Julius Caesar’s father chastising
the future dictator Sulla for having
by the Nabataean king Aretas III in Jugurtha and Adherbal, Jugurtha
corruptly bought office in 94 BCE;
84 BCE and internal strife following renewed his attack on his cousin from Lives by Plutarch
Alexander’s death, the and the Romans became involved.
Hasmoneans were
increasingly vulnerable Following several disastrous
to Roman interference. years of campaigning from
111 BCE, the Romans sent Quintus
Caecilius Metellus, who captured
Jugurtha’s strongholds one by
one. In 108 BCE, Gaius Marius
replaced Metellus. Finally,
trapped in the far west of his
territory, Jugurtha was handed to
the Romans by his father-in-law
Bocchus of Mauretania.
In Gaul, two Germanic tribes,
the Cimbri and Teutones, had
been defeating the Romans since
107 BCE, notably at Arausio in
105 BCE, where Roman losses
reached 80,000. Marius took
command of the defence against
ROMAN MILITARY REFORMS the Germans on his return from
North Africa, and in 102 BCE
By the late 2nd century BCE, the Roman army was experiencing vanquished the Teutones at Aquae
difficulty recruiting from the traditional propertied classes. Gaius Sextiae in Gaul. He next crushed
Marius changed this by opening the army to those who fell below the Cimbri at the Battle of
the normal property qualification. The eagle became the universal Vercellae in 101 BCE. He was
legionary standard for the first time, and the legions themselves rewarded with an unprecedented
were reformed as a heavy infantry force. From this point onward sixth consulship in 100 BCE.
Roman light infantry and cavalry were organized into “auxiliary” In China, Emperor Wudi
units, which were recruited from non-citizens. (r.141–87 BCE) strengthened the
Han Empire’s administrative

ain in
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68
66
 90–71 BCE

Maiden Castle hill-fort in Britain underwent several phases of rebuilding after

it was begun around 600 BCE , reaching its final form about 500 years later.

AFTER HIS VICTORY AT VERCELLAE, Senate had voted to put Marius in

Captured in stone
The Danzante carvings at Monte
Alban, Mexico, were once thought
to be of dancers, but they are now
believed to represent the mutilated
bodies of enemies captured in war.
system by beginning civil service
examinations. Official positions
for academics had been
established in 136 BCE,
consolidating the ruling house’s
stranglehold on the intellectual
life of China. In 106 BCE, Wudi
appointed 13 regional
inspectors to monitor the
behaviour of government officials,
raised taxes, and forbade private
coin-minting. His armies pushed
deep into Central Asia. By 108 BCE,
the Han Empire had reached its
largest extent.
In Mexico, the population of
Monte Albán had reached about
17,000 by around 100 BCE. Monte
Albán’s control began to reach
beyond the immediate vicinity of
the Valley of Oaxaca, and many
large stone platforms and public
monuments were built in the city.
(see 110–91 BCE) Marius became
Rome’s dominant politician, but
the brutal behaviour of his ally
Saturninus, tribune of the plebs,
provoked the Senate. Political
violence flared, and in 100 BCE
Marius had to march an army into
Rome. Saturninus was killed in the
ensuing riot. As Marius’s power
waned, discontent rose among
Italians without Roman citizenship.
In 91 BCE, this erupted into the
Social War. A protégé of Marius,
Lucius Sulla (c.138–78 BCE), took a
key role in suppressing the revolt,
which was largely over by 88 BCE,
albeit with some concessions
offered by Rome to the rebels.
Sulla was elected consul in 88
BCE. That same year, while waiting
to sail with his army to Greece to
counter the threat posed by the
king of Pontus, Mithridates VI
(134–63 BCE), Sulla heard that the
70,000
SPARTACAN
REBELS
6,000
spartican rebels
crucified
The rebellion by Spartacus
Crassus crucified slaves along the
Appian Way, which led to Rome, as
a warning to any others who might
plan a similar insurrection.
charge of the campaign. Enraged,
Sulla entered Rome with his troops
and siezed power. He moved
against Mithridates in 89 BCE, and
had driven him out of Greece by
84 BCE. Sulla returned to Rome,
defeated his remaining opponents
(including the aged Marius), and
was appointed dictator in 82 BCE.
Sulla took savage revenge on the
Marians, packed the Senate with
his supporters, and curtailed the
powers of the tribunes. Anti-Sullan
forces regrouped around Quintus
Sertorius, who had fled to Spain.
After Sulla died in 78 BCE, the
Senate sent Pompey to deal with
Sertorius. His military efforts were
ineffective; only the assassination
of Sertorius allowed Pompey to
return victorious to Italy in 71 BCE.
In 73 BCE, a slave revolt led by
the gladiator Spartacus, broke
out near Naples and grew into the
most serious revolt Rome had ever
faced. Eventually, the rebel slaves
were trapped in southern Italy and
defeated by the Roman General
Marcus Licinius Crassus in 71 BCE.
By the 1st century BCE, the Celtic
peoples of southern Britain had
started to expand their existing
hill-forts into oppida (“towns”)
that were defended by extensive
fortifications. The greatest oppida
were formidable obstacles to
attackers and some were royal
capitals, complete with palaces.
Sacred offering
This 1st-century BCE British Celtic
shield was discovered in the River
Thames, where it had probably been
thrown as an offering to a river god.

l la ia
ica ul f th lt
lit s lS eo ar y vo
Po are m su urg ts f P rs m
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co e p en I o e ’s o ka i ns ian an s;
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th s a
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o
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068-069_130_71BCE.indd 69 R 12/05/11 2:00 PM
69
67
 70–61 BCE 60–51 BCE

Mound City, Ohio, USA, contains a cluster of more than A reconstruction of the Roman ramparts at Alesia,
20 Hopewell earthwork burial mounds. where Caesar forced Vercingetorix to surrender.

3
AFTER POMPEY’S RETURN TO ITALY
(see 90–71 BCE), he was elected
consul for the year, despite still
being below the legal minimum
age. When war broke out with
Mithridates of Pontus again, the
Romans, under general Lucullus,
forced Mithridates to retreat to
Armenia, which was ruled by his
son-in-law Tigranes. However,
Lucullus’s troops mutinied in
68 BCE, and Pompey was sent to
replace him. Tigranes surrendered
and Mithridates retired north of the
Black Sea. Having achieved his
aim, Pompey entered Syria, where
he deposed the last Seleucid king,
and then captured Jerusalem.
In China, the Han Dynasty
retreated from modernizing
policies under Zhaodi (r.87–74 BCE)
and Xuandi (r.74–49 BCE). The Huo
family, which had dominated the
government for decades was
removed from power, and its
leading members executed.
Government expenditure was
cut, and aggressive expeditions
Hopewell bird
Clay pipes, often in
the shape of birds,
are one of the most
characteristic products
of the Hopewell culture.
THE NUMBER
OF MILITARY
TRIUMPHS
AWARDED
TO POMPEY
in Central Asia were replaced by
the establishment of small,
permanent colonies.
In Mexico, the city of Cuiculco in
the south of the Valley of Mexico
was destroyed by a volcano some
time in the 1st century BCE. Its
disappearance opened the way for
Teotihuacán, to assert its control
over the whole valley and become
Mexico’s dominant power for
more than 500 years.
By the end of the 1st century
BCE, the Adena peoples of Ohio,
in eastern North America, were
beginning to develop into the
Hopewell culture. These people
lived by hunting and gathering,
but they also built large,
elaborate burial mounds
for their chieftains.
GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR BECAME area of southern Gaul. He took
CONSUL OF ROME for the first time advantage of the migration of the
in 59 BCE. Having served a term as Germanic Helvetii across Gaul
governor of Spain, he was popular towards Italy to cross over the
among the equestrians (wealthy Alps and defeat Ariovistus, the
non-senators), but resistance to Helvetian king. Caesar returned to
him from the Senate (and the Rome, but his deputy, Labienus,
obstructiveness of his co-consul stayed in Gaul and the following
Bibulus) led him to join with year he pressed on to conquer the
Pompey and Crassus, Belgae of northwestern Gaul. By
and the three 55 BCE, Caesar had subdued most
dominated Rome
until 53 BCE
of Gaul and had acquired a vast
new province for Rome, without
as the “First ever receiving any approval
Triumvirate”. from the Senate.
In 58 BCE, In 56 BCE, an anti-Roman revolt
Caesar was broke out among the Veneti of
appointed northern Gaul, apparently
governor of supported by the Celtic tribes of
Narbonensis, Britain. Caesar responded by
the Roman- crossing over to Britain in 55 BCE
occupied with two legions. A storm
Caesar at
the Louvre
Wearing the laurel
wreath of a victorious
general, this statue is
part of Caesar’s cult of
personality.

ia y em
l pe sal ea he
rth er es ne
ra om eru uda st e he
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or wit
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068-069_130_71BCE.indd 68 pr Eb 12/05/11 2:00 PM
70
68
 50–44 BCE

,,
,, …[CAESAR] DREAMT THAT HE WAS FLYING
ABOVE THE CLOUDS, AND NOW THAT HE WAS
CLASPING THE HAND OF JUPITER.
Suetonius, recounting Julius Caesar’s dream the night before his
murder in the Senate House in 44 BCE; from Lives of the Caesars

prevented the arrival of KEY just before a session of the

reinforcements, causing him to Caesar’s movements Senate. If they had hoped to seize
retreat, but he returned the next E U R OP E Siege power, the conspirators were
Gallia
year with five legions (around Transalpina Gallia Caesar’s victories disappointed: Mark Antony, one
Cisalpina
30,000 men). The Britons did not of Caesar’s leading supporters,
49B

Massilia Black Sea

resist at first, but later, led by came to the fore in Rome, while
CE

47BCE
ia Rome
Cassivelaunus, chief of the an Tarraco
Zela Caesar’s great-nephew and
sp 47BCE
Hi 45BCE Carthago PARTHIAN
Catuvellauni, they vigorously Nova CE Brundisium Pharsalus EMPIRE adoptive son Octavian received
45B Ephesus
E

opposed the Romans all the Gades 48BCE widespread support in a bid to
BC

47BC
Munda Athenae Antioch
Roman Civil Wars
46

Sicily Syria
way to the River Thames. When MA Carthage Me 48 take up the mantle of his father.

Cassivelaunus’s stronghold at
Wheathampstead fell, he sued for
peace, and Caesar returned to
Rome with hostages and the
promise of tribute.
At the end of 54 BCE, shortly after
Caesar’s second expedition to
Britain, another revolt in Gaul, this
time led by the Senones, wiped out
much of the Roman force there.
After putting down the revolt,
Caesar’s attentions were diverted
to Rome, where political violence
had resulted in the murder of his
former ally Clodius, and where
Pompey had been elected sole
consul in 52 BCE, rupturing the
Triumvirate. Emboldened by the
turmoil in Rome, the Carnutes
revolted in Gaul. They were
joined by the Averni, led by
Vercingetorix, who won several
skirmishes against Labienus.
UR E TA NIA
AF RI CA
CAESAR ENDED THE GALLIC REVOLT
by the end of 51 BCE, but by this
point the Triumvirate had ended:
Pompey’s supporters had turned
against Caesar, and Crassus had
been killed in battle in 53 BCE. The
Senate ordered Caesar to disband
his army or be declared an enemy
of the state. Instead, he crossed
the Rubicon River into Italy with
his troops in 49 BCE. This was
illegal, constituting a declaration
of war against the Senate.
As Caesar marched towards
Rome, town after town submitted
to him. Fearing Caesar, Pompey
left Rome and fled to Greece.
Caesar turned first to Spain,
E
Thapsus dite BC Cyprus Caesar won Italy easily, but he had
rran
46BCE ean Sea E
to fight hard to overcome Pompey In India, Kalinga (modern
Hierosolyma
Cyrene
in his Greek stronghold, and then Orissa), which had been a client
Alexandria
kingdom of the Mauryas (see
Cyrenaica
PTOLEMAIC KINGDOM Pompey’s sons and remaining
OF EGYPT supporters in Africa and Spain. 200–171 BCE), rose to prominence
under Kharavela in the mid-1st
49 BCE, he forced the Pompeians March 45 BCE he defeated Gnaeus century BCE. Kharavela expanded
there to surrender. In December, Pompey at Munda, effectively Kalinga far to the north and east,
Caesar set off for Greece in ending the civil war. conquering the Sunga capital of
pursuit of Pompey. A military Caesar was now all-powerful. Pataliputra in Magadha. A strong
engagement at Dyrrachium in He was made dictator in 48 BCE, patron of the Indian religion of
July went against Caesar, but he and in 44 BCE he was given the Jainism, Kharavela established
fought back before Pompey’s office for life. Concerns over trading contacts as far afield
support could grow, and won a Caesar’s power – in particular, as southeast Asia.
resounding victory at Pharsalus. fears that he planned to make
Pompey took refuge in Egypt, himself king – led a group of about
Murder of Caesar
where he was murdered on the 60 conspirators to form around Conspirators struck Caesar down
orders of Ptolemy XIII, who senators Cassius and Marcus with daggers. As he fell, Caesar saw
hoped (in vain) to ingratiate Brutus. They murdered Caesar Marcus Brutus, a former protégé,
himself with Caesar. on the Ides of March (15 March) and cried out “you too, child?”.
After a short time in Egypt,
Caesar returned to Rome,
where he raised money by
confiscating property from the

Vercingetorix also defeated Caesar
himself at Gergovia, but was then
trapped at Alesia in September
52 BCE. The Romans constructed
an encircling rampart around the
Gauls’ position and managed to
beat off a Gaulish relief force. With
no hope left, Vercingetorix
surrendered and was taken back
to Rome, where he was strangled
in 46 BCE after appearing in
Caesar’s triumphal parade.
,,
where seven legions had supporters of Pompey. In late
declared for Pompey. In August 47 BCE, Caesar set sail for Africa,
where he defeated a new
Pompeian army at Thapsus
,, THE DIE
IS CAST.
(in modern Tunisia). Pompey’s
sons Gnaeus and Sextus escaped
to Spain to continue the
resistance from there, and
Caesar annexed the kingdom of
Julius Caesar to his troops on
King Juba of Mauretania, who
crossing the Rubicon in 49 BCE; had supported them. Caesar then
from Plutarch’s Parallel Lives proceeded to Spain, where in

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43–28 BCE 27–20 BCE

This 18th-century painting shows Mark Antony fleeing from the battle scene at Actium Augustus built a new Forum at Rome,
in 31 BCE. Many of his supporters defected to Octavian’s side as a result. with an imposing new temple to Mars.

10
IN ROME, THE PERIOD AFTER THE agreed, with Mark Antony ruling 500 HAVING DEFEATED HIS ENEMIES,
ASSASSINATION of Julius Caesar the east and Octavian governing Octavian did not take on the title
saw rising tensions between Mark the west; Lepidus had to make do 400 of dictator, as Julius Caesar had.

NUMBER OF WARSHIPS
Antony and Octavian, whom many with Africa. The Triumvirate was He instead ruled informally as the
viewed as Caesar’s rightful heir. renewed in 38 BCE for a further 350 princeps – the first man of the
The two almost came to blows THE NUMBER five years, but it was clear that state. Having acquired control of
early in 43 BCE, when Octavian conflict between Octavian and Antony’s legions, he now had an
marched to raise the siege of OF YEARS Mark Antony could not long
200
army of about 500,000 men. He
Mutina (Modena, Italy), where Mark
Antony was besieging Decimus
THE SECOND be postponed.
However, Mark Antony was 100
disbanded more than half of these,
retaining 28 legions (about 150,000
Brutus, one of Caesar’s assassins. TRIUMVIRATE occupied with a war against soldiers), settling the remainder
Mark Antony was forced to retreat
to Gaul. When the Senate voted
RULED ROME the Parthians, who allied with
remnants of Cassius’s army and
0
Octavian Anthony and
in colonies in Italy and abroad. In
27 BCE, Octavian gave up all his
Cleopatra
to transfer Octavian’s legions to attacked Syria in 39 BCE. In powers, ostensibly restoring the
Battle of Actium
Decimus Brutus, Octavian realized them at Philippi, in northern 36 BCE, Mark Antony invaded Octavian’s fleet outnumbered that of
Republic. The Senate responded
he was being sidelined and formed Greece, after which Cassius Parthia itself – ostensibly to Mark Antony and Cleopatra, with by granting him personal control
a three-way alliance with Mark committed suicide. Three weeks recover the legionary eagles smaller more manoeuvrable ships, of Egypt, Gaul, Germany, Spain,
Antony and Marcus Lepidus, the later, they destroyed the remnants captured by the Parthians at the and fresher, better trained crews. and Syria. He was also given the
governor of Transalpine Gaul. This of Marcus Brutus’s army. Mark Battle of Carrhae (see 53 BCE) title “Augustus” and, cementing
became the Second Triumvirate. Antony stayed in the east until – and advanced to the capital sufficient resources to besiege it. his position further, he was consul
The Triumvirate conducted a war 40 BCE, when he returned to Italy to Phraata, but he did not have In 33 BCE, the Triumvirate each year from 27 to 23 BCE. Over
against Cassius and Marcus try to undermine the expired and Octavian had the time, the Senate voted Augustus
Brutus, two more of Caesar’s growing power of Senate declare Mark Antony a further powers, including that of
Suicide of Cleopatra
assassins, who had seized much Octavian. Their two This 19th-century painting depicts public enemy. The latter had lost imperium maius in 23 BCE, which
of the territory in the east. armies refused to fight, the death of Cleopatra, who killed popularity through his relationship gave him supreme authority in the
In 42 BCE, Mark Antony and a de facto division herself to avoid being captured by with Cleopatra, the Egyptian provinces he had not previously
and Octavian defeated of the Roman world was Octavian and taken to Rome. queen, and Octavian quickly governed, and the permanent
rallied public opinion to himself. powers of a tribune of the plebs
A fleet was rapidly assembled, in 23 BCE. Although the Senate was,
and this destroyed Mark Antony’s in theory, the supreme authority
naval force at Actium, off western in Rome, in practice no-one could
Greece, in September 31 BCE. match Augustus’s power, and he is
Mark Antony’s land army then seen as the first Roman emperor.
defected to Octavian, and Antony North Africa had been a centre
and Cleopatra fled to Greece, of strong resistance to both Julius
where Octavian caught up with Caesar and Augustus, who settled
them in the summer of 30 BCE. many army veterans there. In
The Roman warlord and the 25 BCE, Augustus gave Mauretania
Egyptian queen both committed (western North Africa) to Juba II
suicide, and Egypt was annexed to of Numidia. Juba, whose wife
the Roman empire. Octavian was was the daughter of Mark Antony
now the unchallenged master of and Cleopatra, proved a reliable
the whole Roman world. Roman ally. Augustus still sent a
legion to garrison North Africa,
where it stayed for over 300 years.

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72
70
 20–10 BCE 9–1 BCE

,,
,, THOSE WHO SLEW MY FATHER
I DROVE INTO EXILE… AND…
DEFEATED THEM IN BATTLE.
Augustus, from the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, the testament
of Augustus, in Ankara, Turkey

La Maison Carré, in Nîmes, southern France, is one of the finest surviving

Roman temples. It was built around 16 BCE by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.

In western Asia, the ruler of ,, HE COULD JUSTLY BY 9 BCE, DRUSUS HAD DEFEATED

Galilee, Herod I, was allowed to
retain his position by Octavian,
even though he had supported
Mark Antony. He was even given
extra territories, including parts
of Syria and Gaza. Herod had been
appointed by Mark Antony in 42 BCE,
and by 37 BCE he had conquered
the remains of the Hasmonean
kingdom (see 146–131 BCE).
Herod remained a reliable ally
of Rome until his death in 4 BCE.
Emperor Augustus
Augustus, seen here dressed as a
priest, acquired the title of pontifex
maximus (chief priest) on the death
of Lepidus in 12 BCE.
BOAST THAT HE HAD FOUND
IT BUILT OF BRICK AND
LEFT IT IN MARBLE.
Suetonius, on Augustus’s embellishment of the
city of Rome; from Lives of the Caesars
AUGUSTUS’S MILITARY AND
POLITICAL SUCCESSES had relied
largely on the abilities of Marcus
Vipsanius Agrippa, who rose from
a minor family to become consul in
37, 28, and 27 BCE. After Agrippa
had married Augustus’s daughter
Julia, he received numerous
promotions, including tribune of
the plebs in 18 BCE. Augustus’s own
appointed heir had died in 25 BCE,
so he adopted Agrippa’s children,
renaming them Gaius and Lucius
Caesar. Agrippa seemed likely to
succeed Augustus, but in 12 BCE he
died unexpectedly, throwing open
the question of succession.
By threatening to invade Parthia
in 20 BCE, Augustus had engineered
the return of legionary standards
captured by the Parthians at
Carrhae (see 53 BCE). In 16 BCE, the
Roman governor of Macedonia
began pushing towards the River
Danube, and from 12 BCE Tiberius,
Augustus’s stepson, the son of his
second wife Livia, moved north
from Illyria to create the Roman
province of Pannonia (modern
Austria and Hungary). Tiberius’s
brother Drusus pushed Roman
control across the Rhine towards
the Elbe between 12 and 9 BCE,
,,
when he died. Around this time,
the Romans annexed the provinces
of Raetia (in modern Switzerland)
and Noricum (between the Alps
and the Danube), moving the
empire’s frontiers almost to a line
along the Rhine and the Danube.
Supporters of Tiberius, now the
most high-profile general, tried
to have him displace Lucius and
Gaius Caesar as Augustus’s heir.
Augustus himself did little to
resolve the question of succession.
ROMAN LITERATURE AT THE TIME OF AUGUSTUS
The end of the Republic and
the reign of Augustus saw a
golden age in Latin literature.
The orator Cicero and the
historian Sallust marked the
height of late Republican
literature. After Augustus’s
rise to power, the poets Virgil
(right; 70–19 BCE), author of
the Eclogues and the epic
poem The Aeneid, and Horace
(65–8 BCE), author of the
Odes and Carmen Saeculare,
both flourished under the
patronage of Maecenas, a
close confidant of Augustus.
THE MAIN GERMAN TRIBES and
had reached the River Elbe. After
his death, Augustus appointed
Tiberius to replace him. Tiberius
won a series of victories in 8 BCE,
but then mysteriously resigned
his offices and went into exile in
Rhodes. This left Gaius and Lucius
Caesar (both underage) as heirs
apparent to the Roman Empire.
In China, the reign of Yuandi
(49–33 BCE) saw the economic
retrenchment begun under Xuandi
(see 70–61 BCE) continue. Some
semi-independent kingdoms that
the early Han had suppressed
began to reappear. Yuandi and his
successors Chengdi (r.33–7 BCE)
and Aidi (r.7–1 BCE) also created
numerous marquisates, many of
which were granted to the sons of
the new kings, weakening the
state’s central control. Chengdi
lacked a male heir, resulting in
Khazneh at Petra
The Khazneh is one of Petra’s finest
monuments. Carved out of a sheer
cliff-face, it was probably a royal tomb
– perhaps of Aretas IV (c.9 BCE–40 CE).
the succession of his half-nephew
Aidi in 7 BCE. This caused dissent
among nobles whose candidates
for the throne had been overlooked.
The Nabataean kingdom of
northern Arabia grew rich on its
control of the spice trade from
southern Arabia, reaching its
height in the mid-1st century BCE
under Malichos I (c.59–c.30 BCE).
It then faced a growing threat on
its northern borders from Herod I.
A disputed succession in 9/8 BCE
between Aretas IV and his chief
minister Syllaeus led the Romans
to take an interest in the area. An
expedition led by Gaius, grandson
of Augustus, may even have
briefly annexed Nabataea in
3–1 BCE, but the Romans pulled
back, allowing Nabataea another
century of independence.

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072-073_41_1BCE.indd 73 ha 24/05/2011 17:50
73
71
 700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

THE RISE OF THE

ROMAN EMPIRE
FROM CITY, TO REPUBLIC, TO DOMINANT EUROPEAN EMPIRE

AT L A N T I C
Soon after its foundation in 753 BCE, the city of Rome began fighting its OCEAN
neighbours to gain new territory. Gradually the Romans became entangled
in campaigns in the Italian Peninsula and beyond. By the 1st century CE,
the Roman Empire had become the largest Europe had ever seen.

The early growth of Roman territories was slow, with wars their military successes to bolster their position in Rome. A
RR

T
against neighbours often threatening the survival of Rome itself. It was in this period that Pompey
ompey annexed Syria and Julius AC
By 290 BCE the Romans dominated central Italy, taly, and began Caesar conquered much of Gaul, between 58 and 51 BCE. ON
expanding into the Italian Peninsula. RRivalry with Carthage led The
he collapse of the Roman R Republic and the accession of
to the three P
Punic
unic Wars between 264 and 146 BC BCE E, but victories the first emperor, Augustus, in 27 BCE did not end the empire’s
brought the acquisition of territory in Sicily, Sardinia,
ardinia, Spain, and expansion. Thehe quest for security along the existing frontiers LU S I TAN I A
Olisipo
then North
orth Africa itself. resulted in the frontiers being pushed even further forward. Toletum
Emerita
In the early 2nd century BC
BCEE the R
Romans
omans fought campaigns in Rome's
ome's final large-scale acquisitions were made in the reigns Augusta

,,
the Balkans, leading to the annexation of most of Greece in of Claudius, who oversaw the invasion of Britain in 43 CE, and
B AE TI CA
146 BCE. TThe pace of acquisition quickened in the later years of Trajan,
rajan, who conquered new provinces in Dacia (modern
the Republic,
epublic, as generals competed for political power and used Romania)
omania) and Mesopotamia between 106 and 117 CE.
Tingis

,,TO THE ROMANS I SET

BOUNDARIES IN
BOUNDA N TIME
SE NO
ME OR SPACE.
MAU R E TAN I A
TI N G I TAN A

Virgil, Roman poet (70–19 BCE), the god Jupiter, prophesying the future
greatness of Rome, from the Aeneid
ION
MI 4.5
LL

100 CE
By around 100 CE, the Mediterranean had

7:1
Roman population become a Roman “lake”, and the acquisition
Around 1 CE, the Roman of territories in northwest and Central Europe
KEY had brought the northern Roman frontier as
Empire contained just
under one seventh of the world’s population Roman territory far as the Rhine and the Danube.
– 45 million out of 300 million people.
45
MILLION

An empire of non-citizens A GROWING EMPIRE

In 1 CE, only a tenth of the
Roman population were full
5,000,000 km²
citizens. The rest were slaves
or had limited civic rights.
117 CE
Expanding empire
2,750,000 km² Between the accession of Augustus and
25 BCE the death of Trajan, the Roman Empire
almost doubled in size, acquiring vast
new territories in northwestern Europe
and western Asia.
It took the Romans nearly 500
years to complete the conquest
of Italy, but only half that time to
enlarge their territories to include
Spain, Gaul, parts of Germany,
most of the Balkans, much of North
Africa, and large parts of western
Asia. Over the following 100 years
they acquired Morocco, Britain, and 240 BCE The Romans dominated most of
the Italian Peninsula. Victory in the First
Dacia, and made small advances
Punic War (264–241 BCE) brought new
into western Asia, but the empire territory in Sicily, but the Romans still faced
began to contract after 250 CE. resistance to their rule in northern Italy.

72
 ia
Caledon

North
Sea
10,000
ia

a
rn

Se
be

Eburacum l tic KILOMETRES

Ba
Lindum Camulodunum THE APPROXIMATE LENGTH
BRITANNIA G OF THE ROMAN FRONTIERS
Colonia e r dians
Londinium Agrippina m Burgun AT THEIR MAXIMUM EXTENT
a
GERMANIA Augusta n
INFERIOR ia
Treverorum
Durocortorum Mogontiacum S a r m a t i a n s
Marcomanni
BE

LUGDUNEN GERMANIA Quadi

SIS
LG

SUPERIOR Vindobona Carnuntum MOSIA

ICA

BOSPORAN
A

Lugdunum M Brigetio INFERIOR

TI

KINGDOM

AE CU
ORI
P EN O N I A

R N Virunun Aquineum Apulum

R IOR

AQUI TANI A Aquileia ni

Mediolanum N
PANNONIA
INFERIOR x ola
PAS U Ro
ck Sea
DACIA Durostorum
Bla
ALPS GRAIAE ALPS COTTIAE
ET POENINAE
Ravenna Sirmium
RBONE
D

Viminacium
NA SI L Trapezus
S
A

ENS
ALPS
M MODESIA
IS MARITIMAE
A SUPERIOR Byzantium
Massilia T Philippopolis PONTUS
IA

ET
Rome I
Corsica THRACIA

A
A
YN Ancyra

CI
Aleria ITALIA BIT H D O Samosata
s Thessalonica
eare PA
Bal MACED
ON AP
Sardinia IA C
ASIA Zeugma
Carales EPIRUS
Valentia Messana GALATIA I A
Ephesus
Carthago Nova Delphi LC
Me Corinth Miletus LYCIA IL Antioch
Utica C
di Sicilia
M AU RE TANI A te ACHAIA Cyprus SYRIA
CA E S ARI E NSI S Carthage r r Syracuse Sparta
Athens
Thugga
an Damascus
ea Creta Tyrus
n S
ea JUDEA
Sabratha Jerusalem
Bostra
A

R Ptolemais
Leptis Magna
F

IC Alexandria
S IA
A Cyrene AB Petra
CYRENE
Memphis
AR

a ET CRETA

h AEGYPTUS
a
Re

r S
d

ea
a

200 BCE The Roman defeat of Carthage
in the Second Punic War brought new
possessions in Spain and Sardinia. By
200 BCE, a toehold had also been gained
in northwestern Greece.
120 BCE Most of Spain had fallen
into Roman possession, as well as
Carthaginian territory in North Africa.
Greece and parts of western Anatolia
were also acquired.
60 BCE New North African territories
were gained in 96 BCE, and in 63 BCE Syria
and parts of Palestine were annexed.
The frontiers in Anatolia were also
pushed forward.
14 CE The Roman borders had expanded
to include Gaul beyond the Alps, as well
as new provinces in Raetia and Noricum
(Switzerland, south Germany, and
Austria), and Pannonia (Hungary).

73
 1–23
,, QUINCTILIUS VARUS, GIVE
ME BACK MY LEGIONS.
Emperor Augustus, on hearing of the Roman defeat in the Teutoberg Forest, 9 CE
WANG MANG WAS IN CHARGE OF
BOTH THE CHINESE ARMY and the
government under Emperor Ping
Di (r.1 BCE–6 CE). He strengthened
his influence by marrying his
daughter to the young emperor.
On Ping Di’s death, many of the
24–40
,,
(China’s administrative regions), Consolidating ruler GENGSHI’S REIGN AS CHINESE
and reimposed several state Rather than extending EMPEROR WAS SHORT. He
monopolies. Serious floods on the Roman territory through foreign alienated the Red Eyebrows and
Yellow River in 4–11 led to famine conquests, Tiberius concentrated on angered many of China’s nobility
strengthening the existing empire.
and revolts in rural areas. In 23, and bureaucrats by moving the
the peasant rebels called the “Red capital from Luoyang back to
Eyebrows” joined forces with Han When Emperor Augustus (see Chang’an. Much of China had
loyalists and overwhelmed Wang 20–2 BCE) died in 14, Tiberius was already slipped from Gengshi’s

28
THE NUMBER
OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF COIN
ISSUED BY
WANG MANG
nobility rejected Wang Mang’s
choice of successor and rose up
in revolt. Wang Mang easily put
them down, and in 9 he took the
title of first Xin emperor. He
reissued the currency, forbade
the selling of private slaves,
reorganized the commanderies
Mang’s armies. When the capital
Chang’an fell, Gengshi became
the first emperor of the restored
Han dynasty. One of his first acts
was to make Luoyang his capital.
In Europe, Tiberius (see 20–2
BCE) returned to Germany in 4 to
subdue the tribes there. The
Marcomanni resisted, but a
planned attack on them in 6 was
postponed because of a revolt in
Pannonia, which took three years
to quell. A new Roman commander,
Quinctilius Varus, was sent to
Germany, but his corrupt rule
angered the German tribes. In 9,
Varus was ambushed in the
Teutoberg Forest, and his three
legions were annihilated. Augustus
then ordered a withdrawal to the
Rhine, where the Roman frontier
remained for the next 400 years.
his obvious heir (Lucius and Gaius grasp by 25, when Chang’an was
Caesar having died). Tiberius sacked by the Red Eyebrows. The
already possessed most of emperor was deposed and
Augustus’s powers and had the replaced by Guang Wudi (25–57),
loyalty of the Praetorian Guard who is regarded as the first
– the elite army unit based in
Rome, which Augustus had
Eastern Han emperor. The new
ruler had first to face a civil war;
established. Although there were by 27, he had defeated the Red
moves in the senate to restore
the Republic, Tiberius rapidly
Eyebrows, but it took him until 36
to overcome the last of the
squashed them. His reign (to 37) warlords who opposed him. In 37,
was quiet at home. Germanicus,
Tiberius’s nephew, campaigned Guard, took day-to-day power, but
he abolished all except three of
the kingdoms that had sprung up
extensively in Germany up to 16, his rule was tyrannical and in 31
but his efforts led to no permanent Tiberius suddenly reasserted
MONGOLIA
reacquisition of territory beyond himself and had Sejanus executed. Sea
of
the Rhine and he died of poisoning Gobi Japan
JAPAN
in 19. After Drusus, Tiberius’s son, Pingchang KOREA
Ponte di Tiberio, Rimini, Italy
died in 23, the emperor tired of Completed in the reign of Tiberius,
Luoyang
Chang’an Gaixia
public life and retired to the this bridge carried the Via Aemilia Mawangdui
East
China
island of Capri, off Naples. (which ran from Riminia to Piacenza) Sea
Sejanus, head of the Praetorian across the River Marecchia.
Guanzhou Taiwan

South
China
Sea

KEY
Qin China in 206BCE
Territory added by Former
Han Dynasty 206BCE–9CE
Great Wall under the Han

Chinese Han Empire

When Guang Wudi began the
Eastern Han Dynasty in 25, Chinese
control extended deep into Central
Asia. Much of this territory had been
won under the Western Han Dynasty.

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76
74
 41–50

This ornamental brick from China’s Eastern Han period shows

a procession that includes horse-drawn carriages.

IN INDIA, GROUPS OF YUEZHI Colchester, the capital of the

JESUS CHRIST (c.4 BCE–33 CE)
Jesus, a carpenter from
Nazareth, began his ministry in
his early 30s . He taught in the
Jewish tradition, calling for
the reform of the Temple and
for the love of one’s neighbour
to take precedence over the
strict observance of religious
law. Jesus gathered a group of
twelve disciples around him,
but was targeted by Jewish
conservatives afraid of his
growing influence. In 33, the
Roman authorities in Judaea
executed Jesus by crucifixion,
but the disciples, convinced
that Jesus had risen from the
dead, continued his teaching.
under his predecessors, and
reinstated Luoyang as the capital.
He faced renewed tension with
the Hsiung-nu on China’s
northern frontier, but failed to take
advantage of their split into two
rival chiefdoms in 49.
The Roman Empire once again
faced an unclear succession at
the death of Tiberius in 37. He had
named two heirs, but Gemellus
was soon pushed aside because
Gaius, nicknamed Caligula (“little
boots”), was popular with the
senate and the army. Caligula’s
behaviour as emperor became
increasingly erratic – he had
Gemellus executed, and had many
of Tiberius’s supporters killed.
He also had his sister’s husband –
his heir apparent – condemned to
death. After visiting the Rhineland
legions in 39, Caligula marched
them to the coast opposite Britain
to launch an invasion; when they
got there, he merely had them
collect seashells along the beach.
Independent Jewish kingdoms
in Palestine collapsed as Roman
power grew, creating a powerful
ferment of religious change.
John the Baptist preached in
the 20s, followed in around 30
by a new preacher, Jesus. After
Jesus’s death in 33, his disciples
began to spread his message
more widely. By around 50,
communities of Christians,
as Jesus’s followers were known,
would be established throughout
Western Asia, with particularly
large groups in Antioch and
the first appearance of
Christians in Rome.
NOMADS occupying land in Bactria
united under Kujula Kadphises
(30–80), who founded the Kushan
Empire and conquered parts of
Gandhara. Although few details
of Kujula’s reign are known, he
minted coins in imitation of both
Greek and Roman models,
demonstrating that Bactria and
northwestern India remained very
much a cultural crossroads.
In northwestern Europe, a group
of disgruntled officers of Rome’s
Praetorian Guard assassinated
Caligula in January 41, tired of
his cruel and irrational behaviour
(see 24–40). In 43, the new
emperor, Claudius (r.41–54), sent
an invasion force of four legions
led by Aulus Plautius, governor
of Pannonia, to conquer Britain.
The Romans landed unopposed
at Richborough, pushed on to
London, and then captured
Christian catacomb, Rome
At first, Roman Christians did not
have their own cemeteries. Later,
they buried their dead in underground
complexes called catacombs.
principal British resistance leader,
Caractacus. Claudius himself
made a brief appearance at the
fall of Colchester, before returning
to Rome to bask in the glory of
having acquired a new province.
In 47, the Romans paused briefly
in their conquest of Britain, having
reached a line roughly between
the River Humber in the east and
the River Severn in the west. They
began establishing legionary
fortresses in their new province,
including at Exeter and Lincoln.
Aulus Plautius’s replacement, EMPEROR CLAUDIUS
Ostorius Scapula invaded Wales, (10 BCE–54 CE)
where Caractacus was continuing
the resistance. In 50, he defeated Caligula’s uncle, Claudius,
an army of Silurian and Ordovician was an unlikely candidate for
tribesmen, and Caractacus fled Roman emperor. However, he
to the imagined safety of the turned out to be intelligent
Brigantes tribe in northern and forceful, putting down
England. However, the Brigantian two revolts in 42, after which
queen, Cartimandua, handed he executed more than 300
Caractacus over to the Romans, senators. He was unfortunate
and Roman Britain remained in his choice of wives: he had
relatively trouble free during the his wife Messalina executed
following decade. after she had an affair, and
The 40s saw a struggle in the her successor Agrippina
early Christian community (Caligula’s sister) is reputed
between those who wanted to to have poisoned him.
remain within the Jewish tradition
and those, led by Paul, who
favoured the inclusion of gentiles the Jews within the Roman
(non-Jews) in the Christian church. empire, Paul ensured that
Paul began a series of missionary Christianity spread sufficiently
journeys in 46 which led him to help it weather the storms of
through Anatolia and Greece to persecution that began under the
Rome, where he was martyred Emperor Nero in 64. By the late
around 62. A charismatic preacher, 4th century, Christianity would be
Paul also wrote a powerful series the majority religion within the
of epistles (letters) to various Roman Empire .
fledgling Christian groups. In
appealing to a wider group than

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t
se
t
77
75
 51–61 62–72

70
THOUSAND
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE KILLED
BY BOUDICCA’S ARMY DURING
THE ICENI REVOLT

The ruins at Masada, the last outpost of the Jewish revolt against the Romans,
which began in 66.

WHEN CLAUDIUS DIED IN 54, the Roman procurator (chief Britain, was away on campaign in IN THE EAST, Rome faced further After Nero’s suicide, four men
the Roman imperial throne fell to financial official) ruled that Wales, and by the time he troubles with Parthia over the became emperor in rapid
Nero (37–68), his adopted son and Boudicca could not inherit her returned, Camulodunum had border region of Armenia, where succession, making 69 the “Year
son-in-law. The young emperor’s lands, and that they would be been sacked by the Iceni. The the Parthian king had installed of the Four Emperors”. First,
reign began well when he annexed by Rome. rebels then burnt Londinium his own candidate, Tiridates, as the praetorian guard recognized
promised the senate he would Boudicca raised an (London) and Verulamium (St king in 53. A Roman force invaded Galba (3 BCE–69 CE) as emperor,
avoid making any arbitrary army and marched on Albans) before they were finally Armenia in 59, took its capital but he made himself unpopular
measures. However, the first sign Camulodunum trapped and defeated by cities of Artaxata and by refusing to give the praetorians
of Nero’s tyranny surfaced in 59, (Colchester). Paullinus. It is said the Iceni lost Tigranocerta and put in place a the donative, a customary bonus
when he had his mother Suetonius Paullinus, 80,000 warriors and pro-Roman king, Tigranes VI. His payable on the accession of a
Agrippina (15–59) murdered. In the governor of Boudicca herself was ill-advised invasion of a Parthian new emperor. In January 69, the
62, a new praetorian prefect captured, though she ally in 61 led to his removal, and governor of Upper Germany,
(commander of the imperial died, possibly poisoned, Tiridates was restored. A new Aulus Vitellius, revolted, and
bodyguard), Tigellinus (c.10–69), soon after. Roman army was then roundly one of Galba’s former supporters,
took office. Tigellinus pandered to beaten by the Parthians in 62, and Salvius Otho (32–69), angered
the less desirable side of only a Roman push into Armenia when Galba recognized another
Nero’s personality, the following year ended the war. senator as his heir, had the
whose rule became Boudicca Tiridates was allowed to keep emperor murdered and took the
This statue of Boudicca
increasingly the throne, as long as he throne. In April 69, the armies of
stands outside the
despotic. Following a Houses of travelled to Rome to seek Otho and Vitellius clashed at
fire that destroyed Parliament in Nero’s approval, which he Bedriacum near Cremona in
much of Rome in 64, London, a city eventually did in 66. northern Italy, and the Vitellian
Nero is said to have that the Iceni Nero’s position as emperor army won. Otho committed
taken terrible queen razed to became increasingly precarious suicide, but Vitellius soon faced
retribution on Rome’s the ground. when Calpurnius Piso led a a further conspiracy when
small Christian conspiracy in 64, which prompted T. Flavius Vespasianus
population, who proved Nero to order further
convenient scapegoats. executions, including those of
Later, during the many senators. In early 68, a
reconstruction of Rome, revolt broke out, led by
Nero alienated senators Gaius Julius Vindex,
by seizing their land to
build himself a new
governor of Gallia
Lugdunensis.
960
palace. He also ordered Shortly after the COMMITED
SUICIDE
additional taxes in revolt of Vindex, the
Palestine, which sparked legion based in Spain
a Jewish revolt in 66. proclaimed the
In Britain, the Romans governor, Sulpicius 7
faced a serious Iceni Galba, as emperor. Vindex’s
revolt in 60. When the revolt was put down by Verginius Survivors
king of the Iceni died, Rufus, the governor of Germany,
Roman invasion
he left his lands to his but Nero panicked and When the Romans finally breached
queen, Boudicca. committed suicide, believing the walls of Masada, all except seven
The revolt was Rufus would be the next to try to defenders committed suicide rather
triggered when claim his throne. than fall into Roman hands.

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76
 73–90

A fresco from Pompei – many of Pompei’s elaborate frescoes survived for

nearly 2,000 years buried under the ash.

Jewish revolts between BY THE MID-70S, CIVILIS’S REVOLT destroyed by a volcanic eruption. far into Scotland, until a final
66 and 74 Ptolemais had fizzled out and the rest of Showers of ash came raining defeat of the Caledonii at Mons
Although the Jewish GALILEE
Sea of Vespasian’s reign was largely down from Vesuvius, and those Graupius (possibly near
Galilee
rebels of 66 initially who did not escape in time were Aberdeen) made it likely the whole
n S ea

Nazareth peaceful. With a reputation for

managed to gain control Caesarea frugality, he restored the empire’s overwhelmed by the pyroclastic of Scotland would be annexed.
of a large part of
anea

DECA PO

Palestine, by 69 they had finances, imposing levies on a flow (a fast-moving mass of hot But emperor Domitian (81–96)
SAMARIA number of provinces, including gases, ash, and debris) from the was facing trouble on the Danube
iterr

lost control of all but the

Egypt. By the time he died in 79, volcano. Perhaps a tenth of the and a legion was withdrawn from
LIS

area around Jerusalem. J U DA E A

Med

Beth
Gadara stability had been restored to population of 20,000 died, Britain around 86, leaving an
KEY Emmaus
Horton such an extent that the succession including the naturalist Pliny the insufficient force to garrison
Jericho
Area of major revolt 66 Jerusalem of his eldest son, Titus (r.79–81), Elder, who was commanding a northern Scotland, which was
Bethlehem 70 CE
Area of revolt in 69 was unopposed. naval unit nearby and perished in evacuated.
S ea

Gaza
Siege Machaerus Two months after the accession a failed rescue attempt. Domitian had managed to fend
Dead

Jewish victory of Titus as Roman emperor, on 25 In Britain, the Roman- off the threat from the
Masada
74 CE August 79 the city of Pompeii, controlled area continued to Sarmatians, Marcomanni, and
(Vespasian) (9–79) – the near modern Naples, was expand, with governor Petillius Quadi along the Danube by 84,
general in charge of Cerialis (71–74) occupying the but war then erupted with the
suppressing the Jewish northern English kingdom of Dacians (of modern Romania)
revolt – set himself up as yet Jewish laws caused great Brigantia. Julius Frontinus who crossed the Danube and
another rival emperor. The whole discontent. In 60, the rebuilding (74–77) completed the subjugation killed the governor of Roman
of the East and the Balkans of the Temple that Herod had of Wales, defeating the Silures, Moesia. By 86, Domitian had
defected immediately to ordered built decades before was but it was left to Julius Agricola defeated the Dacians, under their
Vespasian. At a second battle finished, and 20,000 unemployed (77–83/4) to send Roman armies new king, Decebalus. Dacia was
near Cremona in October, workmen added to the rising not occupied by Rome, leaving
Vitellius’s forces were crushed. tension. The Roman procurator Decebalus in place to cause the
ii
By December Vespasian’s army of Judaea aggravated these on Romans further trouble.
C ale d
had taken Rome and Vitellius feelings with his heavy-handed Inchtuthil
was executed shortly afterwards. rule, and in 66 an uprising broke
Rome had an unchallenged out. Although the commanders of Du m n o n ii Vo North KEY
ruler once again. the uprising were competent, it vae
lgo Sea Atrebates, absorbed 70s
ta

Se
din

Vespasian moved quickly to lacked political leadership and

i

Novanta e Iceni, conquered 60–61

re-establish the loyalty of the the Jewish strongholds were Brigantes, conquered 69–74
army, dismissing Vitellius’s gradually reduced, first by Stanwick Roman expansion 43–47
praetorian guard and recruiting Vespasian and then by his son a ntes
Brig Roman expansion 47–50
Eboracum
another. He also had to face a Titus (39–81). In 70, Jerusalem Irish Sea Roman expansion 69–74
serious revolt along the Rhine, came under siege, and in late Anglesey ni Roman expansion 79–84
rita
where Julius Civilis, a noble of August the city fell and the Deva
C or Co Lindum
Or n ovii
the Batavian people, joined forces Temple was destroyed. Perhaps do
vic
es Virconium Ca
tu Iceni
with dissident legionaries and as many as 200,000 people died, Dob
ve
lla
es unn un
te
s
almost established an many sacred Jewish treasures Si
r
lu Burrium Glevum
i i
ov
an
independent Gallic empire. were taken to Rome, and Trin Camulodunum Romans in Britain
Figure from Pompeii Isca Verulamium By 74, Roman legions
Judaea had been under direct thousands of Jews were The bodies of those who died in the Calleva
Londinium
Cantiaci
had reached the north
Roman rule since the death of enslaved. Resistance continued Pompeii eruption were coated in Dumnonii
Durotriges
of England. They then
King Agrippa I in 44. Foreign rule at Masada until 74, when it fell volcanic ash, which then solidified, Isca Dumnoniorum
Hengistbury
Noviomagus
pushed north into
and Roman insensitivity towards after a two-year siege. leaving their outlines behind.
Maiden Castle Gallia Scotland until 83.

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 91–100 101–117
,,[AN EMPEROR] UNDER

,,
WHOM EVERYBODY WAS
PERMITTED TO DO
EVERYTHING.
Fronto, Roman orator, on Emperor Nerva, from Cassius Dio’s
History of Rome

Trajan’s Column, in Rome, gives a visual account of Trajan’s campaigns

against Decebalus in the Dacian Wars.

DOMITIAN (51–96) BECAME ROMAN
EMPEROR after the unexpected
death of his brother, Titus (39–81).
Domitian had never commanded
armies and was unprepared for
the exercise of supreme
power. He had some success
in his early campaigns, but
he over-extended himself
against the Dacians, and in
putting down a legionary
revolt led by Saturninus,
the governor of Germania
Superior. This distraction
allowed Decebalus, King of
the Dacians (r.87–106), to renew
his war against Rome, and
Domitian was forced to pay off the
Dacians with an annual subsidy.
The conspiracy of Saturninus
led Domitian to become
paranoid and he had many
senators executed for treason.
In September 96, he was
murdered in a palace conspiracy
and the Senate chose the aged
M. Cocceius Nerva (30–98) to
replace him. The Senate then
voted to destroy all statues of
Domitian and to recall those he
had exiled. However, in 97 Nerva
faced a mutiny of the praetorian
guard, who demanded the
punishment of Domitian’s
murderers. Nerva was forced
to give in, weakening his
authority. His position was
further diminished by his lack
of an heir. To rectify this he
adopted M. Ulpius Traianus
(Trajan), the governor of Upper
Germany, a man with a strong
military backing. Nerva died
soon afterwards and Trajan
became emperor.
Emperor Domitian
Domitian’s reign began well, but
his descent into tyranny proved too
much for his opponents, who had
him assassinated.
In Central Asia, the northern
Hsiung-nu confederation (see
146–131 BCE) collapsed in 89,
allowing the Han to make large
gains in the region, led by general
Ban Chao (32–102). Ban Chao
became protector-general of the
Western Regions in 92, and
re-established control over the
key oases along the Silk Route.
By the time he retired in 102
the Han controlled most of the
Tarim Basin. Chinese state
organization became very
complicated under the Han. Three
supreme officials supervised
large, complex departments. Each
of these was subdivided into nine
ministries. Governors oversaw
each region, with regions divided
into over 1,000 counties, each
supervised by a magistrate.
Eunuchs became increasingly
influential at the Han court.
EMPEROR TRAJAN (98–117) WAS
FROM A ROMAN FAMILY who had
settled in Spain – he was the first
emperor to come from a Roman
province rather than Italy. Having
returned to Rome from Germany
in 100 to claim his throne, he
started a new Dacian War against
Decebalus in 101. From a base at
Viminacium (in modern Serbia),
he pushed into central Dacia, and
fought a major engagement at
Tapae, in which both sides
suffered serious losses. When
Trajan’s legions neared the Dacian
royal capital at Sarmizegetusa
Regia, Decebalus sued for peace,
agreeing to give up his army’s
weapons and siege equipment,
and to demolish his remaining
forts. The Roman army did not
withdraw totally, establishing a
legionary base near the
Sacred city
This ruined temple is in the Dacian
capital, Sarmizegetusa Regia (in
modern-day Romania). It contained
the kingdom’s most sacred shrines.
mountains and building a bridge
across the Danube at Drobeta to
allow easier access across the
river. Three years later, in 105, the
Senate declared that Decebalus 331,000 kg
had violated the treaty, and Trajan SILVER
embarked on his Second Dacian
War. This time the legions
reached, and took, Sarmizegetusa
in 106. Decebalus fled and then
committed suicide to avoid 165,500 kg
GOLD
capture. The Romans acquired an
enormous amount of treasure in
Dacia, which allowed Trajan to
embark on a building spree,
The Dacian Fortune
including the construction of a The large amount of treasure Trajan
new Forum in Rome. Dacia was acquired in Dacia allowed him to
annexed as Rome’s first province build impressive monuments to
across the Danube. It remained in commemorate his Dacian victory.
imperial hands for over 160 years.
Some time around 106 the campaign against Parthia itself
Roman governor of Syria annexed that gave him greater success in
the Nabataean kingdom, which the east than any previous Roman
became the Roman province of emperor. By late 114 the
Arabia. It was not Trajan’s last Armenians had submitted to him,
acquisition in the east – in 113 he and he pushed into Mesopotamia,
set off on a campaign against capturing the Parthian capital of
Parthia. He began by attacking Ctesiphon. By the end of 115,
Armenia in 113–114, but it was his Trajan had reached the Persian

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080-081_91_135.indd 80 a Te pr 26/05/2011 16:59
80
78
 118–135

The remains of Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. The central portion of the
wall occupies a high position that vastly enhances its defensive value.

Gulf near modern Basra, Iraq,
where he is said to have remarked
that, had he been younger, he
might have pressed on to India.
The newly conquered territories
were organized as the provinces
of Mesopotamia and Assyria, but
they were already in revolt when
Trajan returned home in 117. The
Parthians rejected Trajan’s puppet
king Parthamaspates, and by the
time Trajan died in August 117
almost all of his gains in the east
had been lost. On his death-bed
Trajan adopted Publius Aelius
Hadrianus (Hadrian), the governor
of Syria, effectively appointing
Hadrian as his successor.
In 109, Trajan appointed the
historian Pliny the Younger
(61–c.112) as his personal
representative to govern Bithynia-
Pontus on the Black Sea coast of
Anatolia. This was a controversial
move, as Bithynia-Pontus was
theoretically a senatorial province.
The provinces of the empire had
been divided between the emperor
and the senate at the accession of
Augustus in 27 BCE, with the
emperor receiving only the
provinces that held legionary
garrisons. This division of the
provinces persisted into the time
of Trajan. Pliny stayed in Bithynia-
Pontus for at least two years,
trying to sort out the finances of
the main cities, which had fallen
into confusion. His letters to Trajan
are an invaluable insight into the
imperial government of the time.
985
TRAJAN’S SUCCESSOR HADRIAN are found from the Oxus river in slaughter, after which the revolt
(r.117–135) rejected his Afghanistan to as far south as petered out. Hadrian proceeded
predecessor’s policy of expansion Varanasi and Sanchi. He was a with his plan to outlaw Judaism
and concentrated on better strong patron of Buddhism and in Palestine, and many of the
defence of the imperial presided over the fourth Jews who had survived the
frontiers. In 122, Hadrian visited THE NUMBER Buddhist Council, as well as rebellion fled abroad.
Britain, where there had been building a great stupa
frontier troubles. He ordered the OF VILLAGES at his capital
building of a huge barrier from
the Solway Firth in the west to
RAZED Purushapura
(Peshawar).
the River Tyne in the east. It took DURING THE Hadrian’s ban on
governor Aulus Platorius Nepos
two years to complete Hadrian’s
BAR-KOCHBA circumcision, his
plan to turn
Wall (part in stone, and part in REVOLT Jerusalem into the
turf), which ran 76 Roman miles Roman town of Aelia
(113 kilometres), and was III (r.105–147) who ruled the Capitolina, and his
equipped with a series of forts eastern portion, and Osroes intent to ban Jewish
and milecastles for its garrison. (r.117–129) then Mithridates religious practices in
Hadrian’s Wall acted as the IV (r.129–140) in the west. Jerusalem caused a
northern frontier line of Roman There was no further conflict furious revolt in
Britain for the next 40 years. between Parthia and Rome for Jerusalem in 132, as
The Parthian kingdom was left the time being. religious Jews rose up
in some confusion by the In India, the Kushan empire against religious
campaigns of Trajan. His puppet expanded enormously under reforms. Led by Shimon
king, Parthamaspates, was Kanishka (127–140), who Bar Kochba, the rebels
expelled in 117, but the Parthian conquered Magadha and had early successes
kingdom then seems to have campaigned against the Chinese against Rome. They set
been divided between Vologeses in Central Asia; his inscriptions up the beginnings of an
independent government
HADRIAN (76–138) and minted their own coins.
In response, Hadrian
Hadrian came from a Spanish summoned Julius Severus,
background and was the the governor of Britain, to
adopted son of his predecessor, conduct a war against the
Trajan. He was mocked by rebels. Severus commanded
some for his grecophile an army formed of
tendencies, and was the first detachments from 12
emperor to sport a beard – a legions. The rebels had no
Greek fashion. Hadrian was the large towns under their
first emperor to travel widely control, and so adopted
throughout the Roman empire, guerrilla warfare while still
Treasured goblet
giving him first-hand attempting to defend the smaller This beautiful vase was found in
knowledge of the provinces, forts they held. In 135, the rebel’s Kapisa (Bagram) near Kabul, which
from Britain to North Africa. last main stronghold at Bethar was the Kushan summer capital in
was captured amid great the 1st century.

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080-081_91_135.indd11 81 M b 26/05/2011 16:59
81
79
136–160 161–170

200
THOUSAND
THE TOTAL
POPULATION OF
TEOTIHUACÁN
AT ITS PEAK

The Pyramid of the Sun at The ruins of Hatra, which was

Teotihuacán in modern Mexico. a Parthian-controlled city.

THE CITY OF TEOTIHUACÁN famed for his moderation MARCUS AURELIUS SUCCEEDED
IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO and rarely left Rome. TO THE ROMAN THRONE jointly
experienced massive Disturbances in Dacia (in with Lucius Verus in 161. Marcus
growth during the 1st and present-day Romania) was the more capable of the two,
2nd centuries, with its around 140 and an uprising but it was Lucius who was sent,
population reaching over in North Africa in 145 did in 162, to rescue the situation in
80,000 before 200. The city not unduly disturb the the east after the governor of
was planned on a grid, empire’s calm. Antoninus Cappadocia was defeated and
with two huge extended the frontier in killed by the Persians following a
pyramids – of the both Scotland and Upper disastrous invasion of Armenia.
Moon and the Sun – at Germany, ordering the By 163–164 Lucius had brought
either end of the main construction of a new Armenia back under Roman
street. The Teotihuacán turf barrier around control, and renamed its capital
II phase of the city 160km (100 miles) to the Kaine Polis (“New City”). A new
(0–350) saw the building north of Hadrian’s Wall pro-Roman king was installed
of the enormous (see 188–135 BCE) in there before the legions moved
Temple of Quetzalcoatl Britain. This Antonine on, pushing deeper into Persian
and the acquisition of an Wall was 63km (35 miles)
empire, with Teotihuacán in length. The Hadrian’s ,,
dominating vast areas of Wall garrison was moved IF IT IS NOT
Mexico and overseeing north to a new set of forts, but
RIGHT, DO NOT

,,
client kingdoms as far south their stay was short – Marcus
as Guatemala. Aurelius, Antoninus Pius’s DO IT: IF IT IS
Hadrian had adopted Antoninus
Pius (86–161) as his son and
successor, ordered a pull-back
to Hadrian’s Wall around 161,
NOT TRUE, DO
successor, a stop-gap until where the Roman frontier NOT SAY IT.
Antoninus’s relative, Marcus of Britain remained until the
Aurelius (121–80), was old enough 5th century. Emperor Marcus Aurelius, from
Meditations, 161–180
to rule, but Antoninus survived As Christianity grew, so did the
Hadrian by 23 years, and became problem of defining a single
Roman emperor in 138. He was doctrine. Among the alternative territory, taking Edessa in
doctrines that sprang up in the Mesopotamia, and reaching the

63
2nd century was Marcionism, Parthian capital of Ctesiphon in
turquoise
which taught that the God of 165. The Roman general Avidius
mosaic pieces
Christians was distinct from the Cassius (c.130–175) burnt the
Jewish God of the Old Testament Parthian palace and then turned
and that Jesus Christ did not have back westward. A swathe of
a human nature. Justin Martyr Parthian territory down the
KILOMETRES (c.103–165) argued that Euphrates River was annexed as
THE LENGTH OF Mexican mask
This sumptuous
Christianity was the fulfilment of
Jewish prophecy and that
far east as Dura Europos (in
southeastern Syria). However,
THE ANTONINE mask from Teotihuacán
bears the smooth, flat
necklace made
from coral beads
Christians were the new chosen victory celebrations were
WALL IN features that are
characteristic of work
people. Justin also wrote to
Marcus Aurelius, seeking to
short-lived, for the troops
brought the plague back to
SCOTLAND from the city. explain Christian doctrine. Rome and by 167 it had spread

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82
80
 171–180

A painted stucco of the Moche’s most important god, Al Apaec, who is often
depicted with the fangs of a snake.

widely throughout the THE MOCHE CULTURE EMERGED

Mediterranean.
Barely had the Parthian War
ended than the Marcomannic
War began. In early 167, a group
of Germanic warriors from the
Langobardi and Obii tribes
crossed the Danube to attack the
Roman province of Pannonia.
They were pushed back
fairly easily, but in spring
168 Marcus Aurelius
resolved to visit the region
to assess the situation.
Two more Germanic tribes,
the Marcomanni and
Quadi were threatening to
force their way across the
frontier unless they were
admitted to settle in the
empire, but Marcus’s
presence deterred them.
However, the expedition
was cut short by the death
of Lucius Verus from
plague in early 169. Marcus
returned to Italy, but was back in
Pannonia later in the year to
launch a massive offensive
across the Danube. It was a
disaster, with the Romans
suffering around 20,000 dead and
the Marcomanni and Quadi
pouring into Italy, where they laid
siege to Aquileia. Far from
providing an easy victory for
Marcus, the war dragged on for
another 10 years.
In China, the eunuch faction at
court had become increasingly
powerful and had even engineered
the murder of the emperor Shaodi
in 125. Under Emperor Huandi
(146–68) a series of natural
disasters weakened the authority
Marcus Aurelius
This statue shows Marcus Aurelius
adopting a pose of victory, something
he claimed but never quite achieved
in his Marcomannic Wars.
of the central government, and the
emperor relinquished active
control of government to the
eunuchs. In 168, an attempt by
Dou Miao, regent for the 12-year-
old emperor Lingdi (r.168–89),
to have the eunuchs massacred
failed – the plot was betrayed
and Dou Miao was forced to
commit suicide. Several hundred
of Dou Miao’s supporters were
executed and, with its enemies
now dead, the eunuch faction
was able to exercise power
almost unopposed.
ON THE COAST OF NORTHERN
PERU between 100 and 200. From
their bases in the Peruvian
valleys of Moche, Chicama, and
Virú, these people spread to
dominate almost the whole
northern coastline. A warlike
people, they sacrificed those
whom they captured to their
deities, including Al Apaec
(“the decapitator”). They were
skilled workers in gold and their
pottery has an extraordinarily
realistic quality.
The Roman Empire was in
crisis in 170 – the
Marcomanni and Quadi had
occupied parts of northern Italy,
and an invasion by the Iazyges
and Costobocci had overun large
parts of the Balkans. The Romans
trapped the Marcomanni as they
returned across the Danube and
killed many of them. The Quadi
sued for peace later in 171, but
the Marcommani remained
recalcitrant, forcing a new
offensive in 172. The forces of
Marcus Aurelius could never
quite strike the killer blow, and
by 175 the war had
reached a
stalemate.
In May that
year, rumours
that Marcus
Moche stirrup jar
This jar has a typical
Moche “stirrup” attached
to the back of it. The
realism of the paddling
figure is characteristic of
the culture’s ceramics.
THE GERMANIC TRIBES
The Romans had faced Germanic tribes ever since they had
reached the Rhine at the time of Julius Caesar. German groups
across the Danube, such as the Quadi and Marcomanni, proved
troublesome in the 2nd century, but by the late 3rd century new
and more dangerous confederations of Germanic tribes arose,
such as the Franks, Alamanns, and Goths, who overran much of
the Roman Empire by the mid-5th century.
Aurelius had died while on governor of Cappadocia, whom he
campaign prompted a revolt by had fought alongside during
Avidius Cassius, the governor of the Parthian War.
Syria. Avidius was declared As Martius’s army approached,
emperor in Egypt, and received the loyalty of the usurper’s troops
support in Arabia, as well as in his wavered, and in July Avidius
own province of Syria. Critically, Cassius was murdered by a
however, he failed to disaffected centurion, putting an
secure the support of end to his short-lived but
Martius Verus, the dangerous rebellion. There
were suggestions that Marcus’s
wife Faustina encouraged
Avidius, as she feared for her
husband’s health and worried
her own son Commodus was
unfit to rule.
Free from the distraction of
Avidius’s revolt, Marcus
Aurelius returned to the
Danube in 177. In the winter
of 179–80, the Roman army
occupied positions deep
across the Danube, and it
looked as if Marcus might
be able to create two new
Roman provinces –
Marcomannia and
Samartia. However,
Marcus was old and tired
– he died in March 180.
His son Commodus brought
the war to a rapid conclusion,
allowing him to return to Rome.

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17 reli e vi man nna
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( se him i
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81
 700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

Gold dolphin earrings decorative Plumb line

Earrings adorned with female head This bronze weighted
animal-head motifs were plumb line was attached
especially popular in the to a groma, an instrument
eastern Roman empire. used by the Romans to
This pair bears a symbol survey straight lines.
of the sea god Neptune.

Precious necklace
This necklace, made up
of gold and red garnets,
seems to form the shape
of a spectacular fruit tree.

garnet shaped like

a fruit or berry

Bone pin
This flat, thin blade or pin is topped bronze
gold in the form by a female head, an ornamental weight
of a leaf touch for an otherwise humdrum
household item.

ANCIENT ROME
cart carrying
worshippers

THE ROMANS SPREAD A RICH MATERIAL CULTURE THROUGHOUT THEIR VAST EMPIRE

As Roman political control steadily expanded outside Italy, in its wake came
Bronze dividers and foot-rule
the Roman way of life. Roman surveyors laid out new cities, local elites took Dividers allowed engineers to
up Roman practices, and the masses attended gladiatorial spectacles. On copy scale plans or models at
twice or half their size – the
a domestic level, Roman fashions in clothing and accessories also spread. gap between the lower points
is always twice that between
the upper points. The rule,
Although many of the territories that the Romans conquered initially resisted, the populations of central which was one Roman foot
these provinces, particularly the former ruling classes, gradually adopted many Roman customs. pivot long (29.6cm/11.7in), folded
for easy carrying.
Influential men became Roman citizens, towns were given new public buildings such as baths and
courthouses, Roman legionary garrisons were established in strategic places, and new trade routes
brought luxury goods from Rome. As a result, similar Roman artefacts have been found across Europe,
metal crest to
the Middle East, and North Africa, dating from around the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE. deflect blows

head of
Oceanus
lower
cursive point
letter forms

Ocean baths Wooden tablet

The most important Roman
baths were adorned with
lavish mosaics, such as
this one of Oceanus, the
ocean god, from Sabratha
in Libya.
This type of tablet, made from
very thin wood, was used by
the Roman military for foot-rule
everyday letters and record-
keeping. This one was found
at Vindolanda in England.

82
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084_085_Ancient_Rome.indd 84
84 20/05/2011 14:33
26/05/2011 13:03
 ANCIENT ROME

Procession bowl
This lekane, a type of shallow
dish, is decorated with
a scene of half-man,
half-goat satyrs
in a procession in
honour of Bacchus,
the god of wine.

modern-
looking grater

flask
containing oil
Ancient grater
Cheese played an important
part in the Roman diet. Graters strigil for
such as this one were invented scraping
to allow cheese to be used as
a topping on other foodstuffs.
Amphora Bathing tools
The Romans transported liquid At the baths, a Roman’s skin
goods such as oil and wine was oiled and then scraped to
in amphoras, a type of large, remove sweat and dirt. A ring
double-handled storage jar. was used to transport the tools.
Short sword
The Roman military sword, or gladius, had a
short blade – ideal for attacks at close range. short blade
It was used by soldiers and some gladiators. ivory grip

satyr carrying
cymbals

Military javelin
Each Roman legionary carried two of these pila (javelins). long iron handle shaped for
The javelin’s iron head was designed to bend on impact to shank throwing
prevent an opponent from removing it from shields or wounds.

Imperial coins
Coins bearing the head of the Latin
current emperor (here Augustus text
and Claudius) acted as powerful
propaganda tools across the
empire, showing even the masses
an image of their ruler.

Proof of citizenship
Non-citizens who served 25 years
in the Roman army were awarded
citizenship and given bronze
diplomas such as this one to
record the grant.

extended
neck-plate

Sling pellets
Roman legionaries normally
relied on their swords, but
auxiliary light infantry used
other weapons to devastating
effect, such as these metal
gridded visor sling pellets.
to protect face
small size would
have offered little
protection

Gladiator helmet Bronze gladiator shield

Roman gladiators bore a variety of arms
and armour. This sort of helmet was
worn by a Thracian, a type of gladiator
whose equipment was modelled on
that of ancient Thracian warriors.
Thracian gladiators – a class of lightly
armed gladiator – carried lightweight,
round shields such as this one for
defence, and a scimitar, with a short,
curved blade, to attack their opponents.

83
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13:04
 181–192 193–211

In this engraving by Giovanni Stradano, Emperor Commodus shoots an arrow The Severan arch in Leptis Magna (in modern Libya) commemorates a visit
to subdue a leopard. Fighting in the arena as a gladiator was his great passion. by the North African emperor to his home town.

IN CHINA, INCREASING DISSENT Commodus (r.180–92), Marcus ,,BE HARMONIOUS WITH

caused by the corruption of the
eunuchs at the court of Han
Emperor Lindi (r.168–89) and a
succession of natural disasters
led to the outbreak in 184 of a
major insurrection, named the
Yellow Turban revolt for the
colour of its supporters’ headgear.
Up to 400,000 rebels swept
westward towards the capital.
Another uprising fuelled by the
Five Pecks of Rice sect then
succeeded in taking over Sichuan
in the southwest. Although the
Yellow Turbans had been largely
crushed by early 185, the control
of the Han emperor was ever
weakening. After Lingdi died in
189, he was replaced by his
younger half-brother Xiandi
(r.189–220) but he never exercised
real power. Instead, control of the
empire fell to Han general Cao
Cao, who contended for 30 years
with a series of rival warlords,
notably Liu Bei in the southwest
and Sun Quan in the south.
,,
Aurelius’s son, was the first
Roman emperor to succeed his
father for 90 years but he proved to EACH OTHER, ENRICH
be a disastrous choice. In 182,
after an assassination attempt on
THE SOLDIERS, IGNORE
him, apparently organized by his
sister Lucilla, Commodus became
ALL OTHERS…
increasingly despotic. Many Septimius Severus, dying words as quoted in Book 77 of Roman historian
senators who were implicated in Dio Cassius’s Roman History, 211
the plot were executed and control
of the government fell into the
hands of Tigidius Perennis, the IN 193, AFTER THE MURDER OF his reign was short, as almost
praetorian prefect (the COMMODUS, Helvius Pertinax immediately the frontier armies JULIA DOMNA (170–217)
commander of the imperial (126–93), the prefect of the city, rebelled: that on the Danube
bodyguard). There were minor was declared emperor but he was proclaimed Septimius Severus The daughter of a Syrian high
wars in Britain and in Dacia (much murdered after three months. This (c.145–211) emperor, while the priest, Julia Domna married
of modern Romania), but in 185 was followed by rival claimants to Syrian legions raised their Septimius Severus in 187. A
Perennis was suspected of a plot the throne engaging in an auction commander Pescennius Niger prophecy had predicted that
to make his own son emperor and outside the praetorian camp to (c.135–94) to the imperial throne. she would wed an emperor
was executed by his troops. decide who would be emperor. Severus reached Rome first and, and so it turned out. Forceful
Commodus increasingly devoted Didius Julianus (133–93) won, but after granting the title of Caesar and intelligent, she failed to
himself to fighting in the arena as (junior emperor) to Clodius mediate between her sons
a gladiator, while the imperial Money offered to each Albinus, governor of Britain, he Caracalla and Geta after
chamberlain Cleander dominated soldier by Didius Julianus turned east where, in spring 194, their father’s death and to
government and sold public offices his armies defeated Niger at the prevent Geta’s murder. When
to the highest bidder. The man in Battle of Issus in Syria. Severus Caracalla was killed she
charge of the grain supply, stayed in the east and in 195 deliberately starved herself
25,000

18
Papirius Dionysius, engineered a attacked the Parthian Empire. But to death in protest, a move
shortage that led to Cleander’s
SESTERCES
he was forced to return west to that rallied support for the
downfall. This did not result in a deal with Albinus who had remaining Severan family.
more stable government as his revolted, and who was killed near
replacement only lasted a short Lugdunum (modern Lyon, France)
time before being murdered. in 197. Severus then returned to but they soon broke the peace and
Commodus increasingly identified 20,000 Parthia, this time occupying the a new campaign was launched in
himself with Hercules (the Greek SESTERCES capital Ctesiphon in 197. He 210. Severus was by now very ill,
hero) and renamed Rome after pushed the line of Roman control and his son Caracalla took over.
himself – colonia Commodiana. towards the Tigris and created the In February 211 Severus died in
THE AGE At the end of 192, the praetorian new province of Mesopotamia. Eboracum (modern York, England)
AT WHICH prefect Laetus was convinced that
Commodus was planning to have
Money offered to each soldier
by Flavius Sulpicianus
Trouble in Britain brought the
ageing emperor to the province in
and handed succession jointly to
sons Caracalla and Geta. After the
COMMODUS him killed and on New Year’s Day Buying loyalty 208. A large-scale Roman Scottish war both rushed back to
BECAME SOLE 193 took the initiative and had the
emperor poisoned and, when that
The larger bribes offered to the
troops by Didius Julianus meant that
advance forced the Caledonians
and Maetae north of the provincial
Rome, but their joint rule was
short-lived: Caracalla had Geta
EMPEROR did not work, strangled. he won the auction to be emperor. frontier to come to terms in 209, murdered in December 211.

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84
 212–230

A carving of the Buddha from Sarnath in North India, where a school of

Buddhist art flourished under the Kushans.

IN INDIA, THE AREA CONTROLLED
BY THE KUSHAN DYNASTY began
to shrink after the death of King
Kanishka in 140, and particularly
severe territorial losses were
suffered under Huvishka
(r.160–90). Kushan rule finally
collapsed under Vasudeva
(r.190–225) when Persian invaders
swept through northwestern
India. Although Kushan kings
continued to rule a much-reduced
realm for a further century, their
influence was purely local and
their heyday was at an end.
In Rome, Caracalla’s
government was unpopular.
Among his measures was the
Antonine Constitution of 212, by
2,000
which citizenship was granted to
almost all free males in the
empire. After a successful
campaign on the Rhine (in 213),
Caracalla ventured further afield,
arriving in Egypt in 215. For some
unknown reason, he became
enraged and ordered the
massacre of the citizens of
Alexandria. The next year he
launched an invasion of Parthia.
His praetorian prefect Opellius
Macrinus came to suspect that
Caracalla wanted him dead, so he
persuaded a disaffected soldier to
murder the emperor. After
Caracalla’s murder, the army
declared Macrinus emperor.
There was much residual loyalty
Arch of Caracalla
Originally the arch
was topped by a
figure of the
emperor riding in a
chariot. It stands in
THE NUMBER Volubilis, the main
town of Roman
OF BATHERS Mauretania Tingitana
(in modern Morocco).
THAT COULD
USE THE BATHS divided into two
OF CARACALLA when Vologeses
VI’s brother set
himself up as a
towards the Severan family, and a rival king,
revolt broke out in Syria, which Artabanus V; and a further Persia was temporarily weakened
aimed to put Elagabalus (203–22), Roman invasion in 216 ravaged by a civil war, the Sasanians
grandson of Julia Domna’s sister much of the province of Media. proved to be much tougher
Julia Maesa, on the throne. Taking advantage of this disorder, adversaries to the Romans than
Macrinus lost support and in June the ruler of the southwestern the Parthians ever had been.
218 he fled to Cappadocia where province of Pars, Ardashir, In China in 220, Cao Cao’s son
he was killed. In 221, Elagabalus expanded his territory and finally Cao Pi forced Xiandi to abdicate.
adopted as his heir his cousin defeated Artabanus V c.224. Within two years Cao Pi, Liu Bei,
Alexanius. When the two fell Ardashir I was then declared king and Sun Quan would each declare
out in 222, the army backed (r.224–42) as the first ruler of the himself emperor. The Han dynasty
Alexianus and Elagabalus Sasanian dynasty. Although and China’s unity were at an end.
was murdered. Alexianus
Black Sea
became Emperor Cau
cas

Ca
us
Alexander Severus Byzantium

spi
(Constantinople)
an
aged 13. ARMENIA Balkh s

h
ROM A N EM PIRE S ea
Merv BACTRIA Ku
In Persia, Parthian rule du Taxila
Antioch Nishapur Hin Kabul
had been weakened, Cyprus Barbalissus Ecbatana KHURASAN
both by plague and by Mediterranean Dura Europos
Sea
Jalula
SYRIA ASURISTAN Nehavend SASAN I AN
the effects of successive Damascus Seleucia Ctesiphon
Babylon Susa E MP I R E
MESHAN KHUZISTAN
Roman invasions. In 207, Alexandria Jerusalem
L a Al Qadisiya Dhu Qar FARSPersepolis
the kingdom had been khm
ids
KERMAN
Pe

Arabian ia MAKRAN
rs

Peninsula n
Gul
f
Bronze diploma BAHRAIN Arabian Sea
MAZUN
Diplomas were issued to
auxiliary soldiers in the The Sasanian Empire in Persia
Roman army, granting After rapidly acquiring the former
KEY
them citizenship.This Parthian Empire, the Sasanians
practice ceased after the fought a series of wars with the Sasanian Empire at greatest extent
Antonine Constitution. Romans over control of Mesopotamia. East Roman Empire in 3rd century

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 231–244 245–260

25
THE NUMBER OF
ROMAN EMPERORS
THAT RULED
BETWEEN
235 AND 284

Roman emperor Gordian III A mural of St Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage at the height of the Decian
succeeded his father and grandfather. persecution. He was martyred in 257 during a campaign under Valerian.

IN CHINA, THE FINAL COLLAPSE OF
THE HAN DYNASTY IN 220 was
followed by 350 years of instability.
The Three Kingdoms period
(220–80) saw China divided into the
Wei kingdom of the north; (initially
under Wei Wendi (r.220–26); the
Shu Han kingdom in the west
whose first ruler was Shu Han
Xuande (r.221–23); and the
southern Wu kingdom under Wu
Wudi (r.222–52). Wei Wendi was a
capable ruler, but his successors
struggled to contain attacks by
northern tribesmen.
In 235, the Roman
emperor Alexander
Severus and his
mother Julia Mamaea
were murdered by
mutinous troops,
putting an end to the
Severan dynasty. The
uprising’s ringleader,
Maximinus Thrax
(r.235–38), an officer from
a humble background, was
proclaimed emperor, but he
spent most of his reign raising
funds to reward his troops for
their support. This time marks
the start of a period of “military
anarchy” in which Rome had
dozens of emperors, most of them
short-lived rulers who were
raised up by the frontier armies
and just as quickly deposed and
killed. A rebellion in 238 in North
Art from the Three Kingdoms
High artistic achievements, such as
this fine statue, were a feature of the
late Han dynasty. Its collapse in 220
did not result in an equivalent
decline in China’s artistic output.
Africa proclaimed the province’s PERSIA ATTAINED A POSITION OF in disarray and Shapur’s armies
G OBI DESERT
elderly governor as Emperor RENEWED STRENGTH under advanced as far as Iconium
Gordian I, but he was quickly and Shapur I (r.241–72). In 244, he won (modern Konya, Turkey).
W EI Yellow
brutally put down. The Senate Chang’an Luoyang Sea a decisive battle against Gordian III The western part of the Roman
declared Maximinus deposed and Jiankang
at Misiche near Ctesiphon. Shortly Empire also faced increasing
proposed Pupienus and Balbinus Chengdu after, Gordian III was killed and pressure. The Romans suffered
SH U WU
as candidates. Popular sentiment H AN replaced by his army commander invasions of Dacia (much of
favoured Gordian I’s grandson Taiwan Philip (or Philip “the Arab”). modern Romania) by the Carpi
Philip made peace with Shapur people from c.214. The Carpi,
South
China but had to pay a large ransom to together with a new group, the
Hainan Sea escape Sasanian territory. His Goths, took part in a raid across
successors broke the terms of the the Danube in 239–40. In 248,
KEY
agreement, so in 256 Shapur I Emperor Philip withdrew an
Wei, 220–225 Wu, 222–280
invaded Syria and captured the annual tribute he had been
Shu Han, 221–263
towns of Dura Europos and paying the Carpi and the Goths,
China under the Three Kingdoms Antioch. Valerian, who by then prompting them to pour into
Although the Wei kingdom faced the was emperor (r.253–60), soon Moesia (modern Bulgaria). Philip
greatest challenges among the three retook Antioch. But, in 260, he fell sent Quintus Decius to deal with
kingdoms, it would eventually into a trap and was imprisoned the invasion; he was so successful
conquer the Wu and the Shu Han. by Shapur. The Romans were left that his troops declared him
emperor. Early in 249, Decius
Gordian III (r.238–44), so all marched to Rome and defeated
Relief of Shapur I
three briefly shared the and killed Philip. Hearing of the
In this relief, Shapur I triumphs over
throne. Balbinus and the Roman emperors Gordian III and Roman civil war, the Goths
Pupienus were Valerian. After Valerian’s capture, invaded again, causing Decius to
killed soon after, Shapur is said to have used him as a return to the Balkans in 250.
leaving Gordian III to footstool for mounting his horse. Under their warleader Cniva, the
rule alone. His
six-year reign briefly
restored some semblance of
stability to the empire, but he
was killed while leading an
invasion of Persia in 243–44.
Compounding the Roman
Empire’s difficulties was the
appearance of barbarian
confederacies among
the Germanic peoples
of the Rhine and
Danube frontiers.
Principal among these
were the Alemanni. In
213, Caracalla campaigned
against them; by 260 they
were able to invade Italy itself.

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86
 261–275

The main colonnade at Palmyra, which grew rich on tariffs paid by merchants
who plied the desert route that passed through the Syrian city.

VALERIAN’S CAPTURE BY THE
PERSIANS in 260 proved
disastrous for the western part of
the Roman Empire as well as the
east. Valerian’s son Gallienus
(r.260–68), struggling to contain
an invasion of Italy by the
Germanic Iuthungi had no
resources to reinforce the Rhine
frontier, which was being
SHAPUR I (d.272) breached by Alemmanic and
Frankish raiders. The Governor
Shapur’s early leadership of Germania Inferior, Marcus
experience came in a role Postumus, revolted and killed
assisting his father, Ardashir, Gallienus’s son Saloninus, who
in mopping up support for had been left in charge of Gaul and
the Parthian Arsacid dynasty.
Shapur’s defeats of Gordian
The Gallic Empire
III in 244 and of Valerian in Postumus began the Gallic Empire
260 established a temporary in control of Gaul, Germany, Britain,
Persian dominance in Syria and Spain. By its collapse in 274, the
and Mesopotamia. He used last ruler, Tetricus, had lost Spain.
the many Roman prisoners
captured in 256 at Antioch to
build the new town of Veh
Antiok Shapur (“Shapur’s KEY
town, better than Antioch”). Gallic Empire under
Postumus, 260–68
Germany. Postumus declared Balkans to deal with Gaul. Only
himself emperor, but unlike under Aurelian (r.270–74) was the
previous usurpers did not march Roman Empire strong enough,
on Rome, instead setting up a and by then the Gallic Empire was
separate Gallic Empire; this weakened, with its last ruler,
initially controlled Britain, Spain, Tetricus (r.270–74), facing splits in
parts of western Germany, and the army. In 274, Tetricus was
Gaul. He established a form of captured near Châlons, and the
government that mirrored that of Gallic Empire was reabsorbed.
the official empire, complete with In the east, a serious challenge
its own Senate. In 269, Postumus to Roman rule emerged after 260.
was murdered by his own troops The city of Palmyra (in Syria)
and replaced by his praetorian proved Rome’s only reliable ally
prefect Victorinus. Gallienus – against the Sasanian advances of
faced with Gothic invasions and Persia. Its ruler Septimius
the revolt of Zenobia of Palmyra Odaenathus (c.220–67) received a
in the east – was never strong number of Roman titles, including
Sepulchral relief from Palmyra
enough to put an end to the Gallic Corrector Totius Orientis (“Marshal
The Palmyrenes buried their dead
Empire. In 268 he was murdered of the entire East”), and invaded with exquisite and realistic personal
by the army and replaced by the Sasanian Empire in 262 and portrayals; the dead were interred in
Claudius II Gothicus (r.268–70), 266. Odaenathus died in 267; and tower tombs outside the city.
who was too busy fighting in the his wife Zenobia (r.267–73) created
an empire of her own. By 269, her In China, Yuandi (r.260–64)
North
armies had taken Syria and Egypt, restored Wei’s fortunes by
Eburacum
Sea and in 271 she declared her son conquering the Shu Han. But
BRITANNIA Vaballathus emperor. Aurelian soon after he was overthrown by
S a xo n s Lom marched east and soon rolled back one of his own generals, Sima
F b a rd
s the Palmyrene gains, besieging Yuan, who founded the Western
ra

dians Palmyra in spring 272. Zenobia Jin dynasty and took the title
nks

Gallic Empire under Colonia Agrippina

un
urg
Alem

Goths ravaged the province of Tetricus, 270–74 Mogontiacum B was captured while trying to Wudi (r.265–89). His armies
Durocortorum Marcomann i
Moesia, laying siege to the main Roman Empire, 260 escape, and Palmyra was sacked crushed and annexed the Wu
an

Augusta Iut
town of Nicopolis (modern hun in 273 when it tried to throw off kingdom in 280, thus briefly
ni

Treverorum
gi
Nikopol, Bulgaria). The campaign GALLIA Roman rule again. reuniting China.
went badly for the Romans, ending Burdigala Lugdunum
P
Vienna
in defeat and Decius’s death at the Mediolanum
,,
A

VI EN N EN S I S
N

Battle of Abrittus in 251. YOU DEMAND MY SURRENDER

NO

Ravenna
I T

In Japan, the Yamato kingdom

NI

HISPAN IA Narbo
AS THOUGH YOU WERE NOT AWARE

,,
Emerita
A

emerged on the plain of Nara (in

A

Augusta Tarraco
Corsica
THAT CLEOPATRA PREFERRED TO
L

central Japan) around 250. Its res Rome A

I

Corduba
Balea
rulers were interred in large burial
mounds, and its armies conquered
Gades
Tingis
Sardinia
Tarentum
DIE A QUEEN RATHER THAN
most of central Japan. Much of Caesarea
Medit
erra
nea
n S
REMAIN ALIVE.
what is known comes from M A U R E TA N I e a
Chinese sources, who name the A Carthage
Syracuse Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, to Aurelian Augustus
Queen of Yamato in 238 as Himiko. from Historia Augusta c.375–400

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 276–283 284–300

,,
,, PROBUS WAS ALMOST A
SECOND HANNIBAL BECAUSE OF
HIS KNOWLEDGE OF WARFARE…
Aurelius Victor, Roman historian and official, in
De Caesaribus, c.360

The Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán (near modern Mexico City) was built some time after 200 at one end of
the city’s Avenue of the Dead; the Pyramid of the Sun sits at the other end.

IN CHINA, THE FIRST EMPEROR OF
THE WESTERN JIN DYNASTY, Wudi
(r.265–89), was a strong ruler who
secured trade routes to the West
and built a bridge over the Yellow
River to improve communications.
However, the wars of the Three
Kingdoms period (see 231–244)
had impoverished the state and as
the tax burden rose, many
peasants fled to landowners for
protection, resulting in the rise of
private armies.
In the Roman Empire, Emperor
Aurelian – who was murdered in
275 – was followed by two
Jin sitting bear sculpture
The first half of the Jin dynasty
under Wudi gave China a
period of comparative
peace and stability,
which allowed the
arts to flourish.
short-lived emperors – Tacitus
and Florianus – before Probus
took power in 276. Within two
years, Probus had defeated the
Goths on the Danube and pushed
back the Franks from the Rhine.
A planned campaign against
Persia was frustrated in 281 by
the revolt of two usurpers in the
West: Bonosus and Proculus.
Despite his military successes, in
282 Probus was murdered by his
own troops, who were resentful
at being forced to work on civil
engineering projects near
Sirmium (in modern Serbia).
IN 284, THE ROMAN ARMY IN ASIA
MINOR PROCLAIMED DIOCLES, the
former commander of the
imperial bodyguard, Emperor
Diocletian (r.284–305). In 285, he
defeated Carinus (the then
emperor of the Western Empire)
and started a radical
reorganization of the empire,
reforming the army, and
subdividing provinces. The
challenges on the frontier were
too great to be faced alone; in 285,
he appointed Maximian (250–310)
to rule alongside him, first as
Caesar (junior emperor) then as
Augustus (senior emperor). Other
problems with Britain’s break
from the empire under Carausius
in 286, convinced Diocletian that
more changes were necessary. In
293, he and Maximian appointed
two Caesars: Constantius
Chlorus (r.293–306) to assist Persian frieze
Diocletian in the Western Empire The Paikuli frieze celebrates the to the Romans. He launched a
and Galerius (r.293–311) to be victories of Narseh in Armenia and major invasion in 296, defeating
Maximian’s junior in the East. This justifies his deposition of the Caesar Galerius in 297. The
predecessor Vahram III.
tetrarchy (four emperor system) next year, however, Galerius
enjoyed early successes in Britain smashed Narseh’s army in
(296) and in Egypt (298). In 294, After the death of Shapur I in Armenia and captured the Persian
Diocletian reformed the coinage, 272 Persia faced a period of ruler’s family. Galerius marched
reissuing new bronze and silver political instability. In 293, as far as Ctesiphon, which he
coins, and in 301 he issued an Narseh (r.293–302) ascended to captured in 298. Narseh was
Edict on Maximum Prices to try the Persian throne. He resolved to forced to make peace (Treaty of
to curb rising inflation. Unlike his recover land in Armenia and Nisibis). Persia remained at peace
other measures, this one failed. Mesopotamia that had been lost with the Romans for 40 years.

30
In the Valley of Mexico, the city of
Teotihuacán reached the peak of
SQUARE its power around 300. Its main
street – the Avenue of the Dead –
KILOMETRES ran between the Pyramid of the
THE AREA OF Moon and the Ciudadela (which
may have been the palace of the
TEOTIHUACAN CITY ruler) and was lined with the
AT ITS PEAK residences of the lords of the city.

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88
 301–319

This early 16th-century fresco of the Battle of Milvian Bridge is in the Apostolic Palace in the Vatican. Before the battle,
the emperor Constantine is said to have seen a Christian monogram in a dream predicting his victory.

SINCE PERSECUTIONS IN THE 250S In 311, Galerius died and over the Eastern provinces. The
AND 260S, THE CHRISTIAN Maximin became Augustus in alliance between Constantine and
COMMUNITY had experienced the East. He ordered renewed Licinius broke down in 316; they
some 40 years of tranquillity in
the Roman Empire. All this 75,000 measures against Christians.
Constantine, meanwhile, invaded
patched up a peace in 317, and for
six years the Roman Empire
changed in 303 when Diocletian MAXENTIUS Italy and in October 312 defeated relapsed into an uneasy calm.
issued an edict ordering the and killed Maxentius at the Battle In China, Wudi’s successor Huidi
destruction of churches and the of Milvian Bridge. Before the (r.290–306) was mentally disabled
handing over and burning of battle, Constantine is said to have and so a succession of regents
Christian books. A sterner edict
followed, calling for the arrest of
50,000 dreamt of the Chi-Rho symbol
and ordered his troops to mark it
contended for imperial control.
Huidi’s brother Huaidi (r.307–12)
CONSTANTINE
Christian clergy, and one in 304 on their shields. invited the northern Xiongnu
ordered that all Christians offer Licinius and Constantine met at tribesmen to help him against
a sacrifice to the pagan gods. Mediolanum (modern Milan) in the competing Chinese factions,
Devout Christians could not 313, where they agreed to share but they took him prisoner. The
Battle numbers at Milvian Bridge
accede to these demands, and power and issued the Edict of last Western Jin emperor Mindi
Maxentius’s forces outnumbered
many of them were martyred. those of Constantine, but his army Milan, which granted toleration to (r.313–16) saw the Xiongnu sack
Chi-Rho symbol
In 304, Diocletian fell seriously became trapped between all forms of worship, in effect the capital of Chang’an (modern The monogram of Chi-Rho, the first
ill, and in 305 he announced that Constantine’s men and the river. legalizing Christianity. Licinius Xi’an); the Jin moved south, where two letters of Christ’s name in
he and Maximian would abdicate. then turned East and defeated Yuandi (r.317–23) became the Greek, became an important early
Constantius Chlorus and (Galerius’s army colleague). The Maximin Daia, securing control first Eastern Jin emperor in 317. symbol of Christianity.
Galerius would take over as new tetrarchy soon unravelled.
Augusti, while the new Caesars Constantius died in Eboracum
were to be Maximinus (Galerius’s (modern York, England) in July Colonia EUROPE Caspian
Londinium Agrippina
nephew) and Flavius Severus 306 and the troops there Sea
proclaimed his son Constantine Augusta
Treverorum
the new Augustus. By October, Black Sea
Aguontum Poetovio Amisus
Maxentius (r.306–12), the son of AT L A N T I C Augustodunum
Lugdunum
Aquileia Sirmium Sinope
Neocaesarea
Maximian, was crowned emperor OC E A N Mediolanum Chalcedon Amasia
Vienna Ravenna Salonae Constantinople Caesarea
Burdigala Valentia Nicomedia Cappadociae
in Rome. Severus was killed trying Nemausus Pisa
Florentia Philippi Nyssa
Stobi Nicaea Edessa
to retake Rome from Maxentius, Biterrae Massilia Rome Thessalonica Troas Cyzicus
Anazarbus
Tarsus
and Maximian restored himself to Barcino Neapolis Nicopolis
Sardes
Ephesus
Hierapolis Antioch Dura-Europos
Myra Seleucia Palmyra
the position of Augustus. In 308, Athens Miletus
Salamis Tripolis
Carales Rhegium Corinth Cos Paphos Damascus
the Conference of Carnuntum Messina Rhodes Tyre Berytus
Corduba Carthago Hippo Sidon
was called to settle the disputes, Nova Regius Carthage
Syracusa
Jerusalem
Hispalis a
presided over by Diocletian, who Tipasa Melita
Mediterranean Se Bethlehem
Illiberris Petra
Sicca Veneria
came out of retirement. Tingis
Ptolemais Cyrene
Alexandria

Constantine accepted a demotion Leptis Magna

Palace of Diocletian
Diocletian built the great palace at
Split, Croatia, for his retirement
after his abdication in 305. Here,
he tended his cabbages.
to Caesar in the West, with
Licinius as Augustus (r.308–24), AFRICA Coptus
while Maximin Daia became
Galerius’s Caesar in the East Early spread of Christianity
(r.310–13). This new arrangement Christianity spread in the 2nd and 3rd centuries until there
was no more succesful than were strong Christian communities in Anatolia, southern KEY
the old one. Gaul, Italy, Egypt, and the province of Africa (Tunisia). Areas strongly Christian by 325

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89
320–330 331–355

,,
,,IN OTHER MEN... TASTE FOR SLAUGHTER
SOMETIMES LOSES ITS FORCE... IN
CONSTANTIUS IT BECAME MORE VIOLENT.
Ammianus Marcellinus (d.c.330) writing on the character of the Emperor
Constantius II in The Later Roman Empire

It was largely Eastern Church leaders who gathered at the Council of Nicaea
(depicted here) in 325; only eight Western bishops made the journey there.

CHANDRAGUPTA I ASCENDED TO
THE THRONE of a small kingdom
in the western Ganges Plain in
320. Through an advantageous
marriage to Princess Kumaradevi
of the powerful Liccachevi dynasty
and by conquest, he expanded his
realm to include most of the
central Ganges, from Magadha
(in southern Bihar) to Prayaga (in
Uttar Pradesh). His descendants,
the Guptas, ruled northern India
for almost 150 years.
8
Having taken up the cause of governed the Eastern Empire. Augustodunum in southern Gaul
Christianity in 313, the Roman Their reigns began with a (modern Autun, France) and
Emperor Constantine (r.280–337) massacre at Constantinople in Constans was killed. Distracted
found that Christians themselves which almost all of their father’s by a war against Persia,
were far from united in doctrine other male relatives were killed in Constantius II tolerated the
or organization. Constantine order to remove any possible upstart initially, but in 351 he
called a church council at Nicaea rivals. Constantine II, who was the moved against him. Since
in western Asia Minor in 325 to THE NUMBER eldest, tried to assert his seniority, Constantius II had no heir, he
establish (and impose) orthodoxy but died during an invasion of promoted his cousin Gallus – one
in the face of a division over OF TYPES OF Italy in 340. Constans then took of the few survivors of the
Arianism (the theology of Arius,
who held that Jesus Christ was
PURE-GOLD control of the entire Western
Empire, where he was faced with
massacre of 337 – to the rank of
Caesar in 351 and left him in
subordinate to God the Father). As COINS ISSUED a series of hard-fought campaigns charge in the East, while he
well as Constantine, about 300
church leaders attended, and
BY SAMUDRA- against Frankish invaders in
Gaul, and problems in Britain,
campaigned against Magnentius
in the West. Magnentius’s army
Arius’s views were condemned. GUPTA which led him to visit the far-flung was defeated at Mursa (in

14
The Column of Constantine
The sole surviving monument from
the forum that Constantine built for
his new city is this column, which
sits in central Istanbul today.
THE NUMBER OF
DISTRICTS IN
CONSTANTINOPLE
After defeating Licinius (r.308–24)
in 324, Constantine founded a
new capital for the Eastern
Roman Empire at the ancient city
of Byzantium, strategically sited
between Europe and Asia. He
demolished pagan temples and
built new churches, such as Hagia
Sophia, providing public buildings
to rival those of Rome. The city of
Constantinople (modern Istanbul)
was publicly dedicated on 2 April
330. It was the seat of the Eastern
Emperors for over 1,000 years.
province (the last undisputed present-day Croatia); Italy and
IN 335, SAMUDRAGUPTA (r.335–75) Roman Emperor to do so) in 343. North Africa were rapidly
SUCCEEDED HIS FATHER Disputes between the two recovered, and in 353 Magnentius
Chandragupta I as ruler of the surviving brothers, particularly committed suicide in Gaul.
Gupta domains in northern India. one over the status of Athanasius, For the next seven years
An inscription he set up in Bishop of Alexandria (whom Constantius II ruled the empire
Prayaga survives, recounting a Constantius II had exiled, but alone, mainly preoccupied with
series of campaigns he fought in Constans wanted restored), Frankish incursions into Gaul, the
Uttar Pradesh and Mathura, soured all relations between revolt of the usurper Silvanus in
both of which were annexed to the them. In 350, a senior military 355, and a series of church
Gupta kingdom. He also made officer, Magnentius, revolted at councils that sought to resolve
conquests down the east coast of doctrinal disputes (Constantius II
India, as far as Madras, and favoured Arianism over the
subdued West Bengal as well as traditional orthodoxy).
parts of Rajasthan and the In the end, Gallus proved too
Punjab. Various other regions ambitious and in 354 he was
acknowledged his suzerainty, deposed and executed.
making him the most powerful Constantius II turned instead to
Indian ruler since the Mauryas. Gallus’s brother Julian, a studious
Constantine died in 337, having youth with a penchant for pagan
accepted Christian baptism only philosophy. In 355, after Silvanus’s
on his deathbed. He had made no revolt, Julian was despatched to
definite provision for succession, Gaul as Caesar, where he proved
leaving his sons to divide the surprisingly effective at combating
empire between them: Frankish raiders.
Gold Gupta coin
Constantine II (r.337–40) held Many Gupta coins contain images
Spain, Gaul, and Britain; of horses, a possible reference to
Constans (r.337–50) ruled Italy, the ritual horse sacrifice performed
and Constantius II (r.337–61) by some Gupta rulers.

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90
 356–360

The acropolis at Tikal, one of the greatest surviving series of

ruins in the Mayan world.

IN ETHIOPIA, THE KINGDOM OF Shapur II hunts a stag began to push across the Rhine,
AKSUM became one of the Sasanian rulers commissioned lavish and in the early 350s they overran
earliest states to embrace silver items depicting themselves part of the Rhine frontier,
Christianity outside the Roman hunting wild beast as a display occupying some old Roman
Empire. The Syrian Christian of their royal power. fortresses. Caesar Julian
missionary Frumentius engaged in a series of campaigns
converted the king, palace complexes set in a against the Franks (356–59) and
Ezana (r.320–60) to central “acropolis”. The drove them from most of the
Monophysitism (a Mayans developed a territory they had taken.
doctrine emphasizing hieroglyphic form of In the East, conflict broke
a single nature of writing which survives out again between the Romans
Christ, the divine). on many of the stelae and the Persians, under Shapur
A letter from (carved stone slabs) II (r.309–79), who took advantage
Constantius II to they set up to of the political turmoil in the
Ezana in 357 has commemorate Roman Empire in the 350s. In
survived, urging important events; in 359, Shapur II advanced further
Ezana to shift his Tikal the first such west and took the great Roman
allegiance to dated monument is fortress of Amida (modern
Arianism and to from 292. The first Diyarbakir, Turkey). Other towns
replace Frumentius named king of Tikal is were captured and their
with an Arian bishop – Siyaj Chan K’awiil I populations deported to Persia,
evidence that the (c.305), and by the reign of threatening the Roman position
Roman emperors took Chak Tok Ich’aak I (r.360– in the East.
seriously the religious 78), Tikal was by far the
loyalties of their neighbours. largest and most powerful of
Ezana conducted military the Classic Maya cities.
campaigns beyond his borders; The Roman Empire faced
an inscription speaks of invasions on both its western and

16
its eastern borders in the 340s
and 350s. In the West, the Franks
o
xic NO R TH ER N M AYA
Me
f of
Gul
KEY Yucatan
expeditions against neighbouring some time in 200–300, with Northern Maya
Peninsula

e an Sea
“Gaze, then the Agame, and the populations declining and Central Maya C ENTR A L
Siguene”, and it seems his building activity ceasing. But the Southern Maya Palenque
M AYA

armies may have occupied Meroë region soon recovered, with the Tikal

ri bb
Mayan site
city (in northern Sudan). Enriched emergence of a new phase in Peten

Ca
Trade route
by such conquests and the control Maya civilization, the Classic
SQUARE of trade from sub-Saharan Africa period (300–900), in which a
KILOMETRES and Arabia, Aksum would
dominate the region until the
series of powerful kingdoms
emerged. Their great urban Maya kingdoms SOUTHERN MAYA

THE AREA Classic Maya culture

PA

7th century. centres, such as those at Tikal (in originated in lowland cities,
CI

IC
OF THE CITY The pre-Classic Maya Guatemala) and Palenque (in
F

such as Uaxactun and Tikal, OC

kingdoms of Guatemala and Mexico), are characterized by but spread to the highlands EA

OF TIKAL c.400
N
Mexico underwent a collapse huge pyramidal temples and and the Yucatán peninsula.

I
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361–375 376–382

Here Emperor Julian is seen in religious debate. He attempted to sow discord among The church of Hagia Eirene in

16
Christians by decreeing the return of those who had been exiled for religious reasons. Istanbul was built by Constantine I.

IN CHINA, THE EASTERN JIN

DYNASTY (317–420) brought
comparative stability to the south
Constantius to meet
immediately. He
died in November
but he ceded key border
provinces to Persia, which
lost him popularity, and
,, … THE
BARBARIANS,
of the country. Although many of 361 as he was he died (probably
the emperors were short-lived, finally marching murdered) within
[ARE] LIKE BEASTS
the bureaucracy in the southern west to deal with the months. An officer of the … BROKEN
capital of Nanjing functioned revolt. Now sole imperial bodyguard,
LOOSE… OVER

,,
efficiently and the period saw emperor, Julian Valentinian (r.364–75), was
a cultural flowering. Artists such THE NUMBER immediately set about then raised to the throne, and THE VAST
as Gu Kaizhi (c.345–406) painted
masterpieces such as the OF KINGDOMS
restoring the role of
paganism in the Roman
he selected his brother Valens
(r.364–78) to be his co-ruler.
EXTENT…
Admonitions of the Instructress to IN CHINA Empire, trying to Valentinian spent much of his OF COUNTRY.
the Palace Ladies, as well as establish a kind of pagan reign along the Rhine dealing
producing works on the theory of FROM 304 orthodoxy and an official with Frankish and Alemannic Ammianus Marcellinus, on the
Gothic invasion of the Balkans c.390
painting. Northern China, on the
other hand, was highly unstable,
TO 439 pagan hierarchy of priests
to counter Christianity’s
invaders. He died in 375 after
suffering some type of fit,
divided between the Sixteen strengths. He reopened brought on by his anger at IN 376, LARGE GROUPS OF GOTHS
Kingdoms, most of them ruled by (under Xiaouwudi) would be pagan barbarian Quadi ARRIVED AT THE DANUBE
nomadic groups. The Eastern Jin forced to repel a major invasion temples, envoys thought to FRONTIER, pressing to be admitted
emperors alternated between a in the north of the country. and have insulted him. to the Roman Empire. The Huns, a
defensive stance towards the In the Roman Empire, Julian restored the The Western new nomadic group from Central
Sixteen Kingdoms and aggressive was proclaimed Augustus by his right to sacrifice. Roman Asia, were at their rear, and the
campaigns, notably under Mudi troops in 360, so he was a direct In 363, Julian set Empire Goths feared being squeezed
(r.345–61) who retook Sichuan and challenge to Constantius. The out on a campaign was then between them and the imperial
Luoyang. All these gains were threat from the Persians, who against Persia, subdivided between frontier. Emperor Valens did not
lost, however, under Emperor Aidi were advancing through Asia planning to punish Valentinian’s two sons wait for reinforcements before
(r.362–65). In 383, the Eastern Jin Minor, was too great for its leader, Shapur II, Gratian (r.375–83) and marching out to meet the Gothic
for his attacks on the Valentinian II (r.375–92). army. On 9 August 378, near
JULIAN THE APOSTATE (331–63) empire in 359–60. He In the Eastern Empire, Adrianople, the Romans met the
reached Ctesiphon, Valens was forced to Goths, under Fritigern. Misled by
The nephew of Constantine I, but was then forced spend most of the early the temporary absence of the
Julian was educated as a to retreat up the 370s in Syria to contain Gothic cavalry, Valens attacked but
Christian but c.351 became a Tigris River. Being the Persian threat, but his army was surrounded by the
pagan under the influence of short of supplies, the growing trouble with returning barbarian horsemen.
Maximus of Ephesus. When Roman army barbarians along the Valens was killed and the Eastern
Julian unexpectedly became suffered constant Danube later forced him army destroyed, leaving the
emperor in 363, he tried to harassment from to turn to the Balkans. Balkans open to the Goths.
restore paganism in the the Persians and, in Gratian reacted by turning to
empire, including banning one such skirmish, Theodosius, a Spanish military
Christians from teaching Julian was killed. Sarmatian dagger officer, who he appointed as his
This dagger belonged to
literature. He became known The pagan reaction imperial colleague. For the next
the Sarmatians, a tribe
by Christian writers as “the was over. of Iranian origin who three years Theodosius patiently
Apostate” for his perceived On Julian’s death the specialized in horseback negotiated, bought off some
betrayal of Christianity. army chose Jovian fighting, and were defeated groups, and struck militarily
(r.363–64) as emperor, by Valentinian I. where he could. In 382, the two

s
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92
 383–391 392–400

,,
,, THE THICKER
THE HAY, THE EASIER
IT IS MOWED.
Alaric the Goth, speaking of his enemies c.400

St Jerome (c.347–420) completed the Vulgate, the first definitive

translation of the Bible into Latin, c.405.

sides agreed a truce, whereby the
Goths were allowed to settle in
the empire in return for providing
troops for the Roman army.
The Gupta Empire continued to
expand under Chandragupta II
(r.375–415) in northern India. He
fought against the Sakas,
annexing much of northwestern
India. He also made an astute
marriage alliance that extended
his realm to the southwest.
IN CENTRAL AMERICA, THE MAYAN
CITY OF TIKAL had reached the
peak of its influence in the late 4th
century. In 378, a foreign lord
called Siyaj Kak arrived in the city,
possibly from Teotihuacán. His
arrival, which may represent a
military conquest, led to the death
of Tikal’s ruler Chak Tok Ich’aak
and the destruction of most of
Tikal’s public monuments. Siyaj
Kak installed a new dynasty on the
throne of Tikal, possibly drawn
from the ruling house of
Teotihuacán, with Yax Nuun Ayiin
(“Curl Snout”; r.379–404) as the
first ruler. Monuments depict him
in northern Mexican, rather than
Mayan, dress. Under his rule,
Tikal’s direct influence extended
some 50 km (30 miles) away.
In the Western Roman Empire,
Gratian had spent much of his
time since the Battle of
Adrianople (378) in northern Italy,
where he continued to act
against pagans in Rome,
ordering the removal of the Altar
of Victory from the Senate House
in 382. In 383, he led an army
St Ambrose
A Roman nobleman by birth,
Ambrose was Bishop of Milan from
374 to 397. He exercised a powerful
influence over Theodosius I.
freed Theodosius to react when
Maximus invaded Italy in 387. In
August 388, he marched swiftly
into northern Italy, capturing
Maximus near Aquileia, and
having him executed.
As well as campaigning against
the Goths and Maximus,
Theodosius was preoccupied with
IN 392, VALENTINIAN II, WHO HAD
CONTINUED TO RULE OVER ITALY,
was found hanged. His military
commander Arbogast – suspected
by some of Valentinian’s murder
– promptly made Flavius
Eugenius, a middle-ranking
official, emperor. Theodosius
refused to recognize Eugenius,
and in 393 he invaded Italy. To
gain support in the Senate –
where paganism was still strong
– the Christian Eugenius revoked
all of Theodosius’s anti-pagan
laws. But, in August 394, he was
defeated by the Theodosian army
at the River Frigidus near
Aquileia. Theodosius did not enjoy
his rule as sole emperor long,
dying in January 395. The empire
was then divided between his two
sons: the older, Arcadius, taking
the eastern part and his younger
brother, Honorius, taking the
North
Sea
BRITANNIA
Fr
AT L A N T I C
Alem
an
OC E A N
GALLIA
western one. Although there was
no clear intention to do so, this
split marked a permanent
division; after 395 no one emperor
ruled the whole empire again.
The Goths had taken part on
Theodosius’s side at the Battle of
the River Frigidus and felt they
had not been sufficiently rewarded
for their losses. In 395, they rose
up, led by Alaric (r.395–410).
Despite an attempt by Stilicho
(c.365–408), the half-Vandal
commander of the Western
Roman army, to suppress them,
the Goths escaped and marauded
throughout Greece in 396. Stilicho
moved against Alaric again in 397,
but once more failed to defeat
him. A brief halt to the Gothic
rampage came after Alaric’s
appointment by the Eastern
Roman government to magister
militum (a senior general).
ndians
ks rgu
Bu
a
nn
Iuth
ung o t hs
i i O s trog
li

ns
P ru

Iazyges

Ala
G epid a e He
north to face an invasion of Gaul the imposition of Orthodox

s
A

th
VIENNENSIS
N

go
NO

by the Alemanni, but was then Christianity. He moved against Vi

I TA

si
HISPANIA
NIA
Corsica Black Sea
LI

THRACIA
faced with a revolt in Britain, the Arians, deposing the Bishop of Bal
eares Rome
A

MOE

P O NTUS

EMP NIAN
Sardinia
where the legions declared their Constantinople in 380 and calling

IRE
Med Byzantium
SIA

ite (Constantinople)
commander Magnus Maximus a council in 381 in the capital,

A
MAUR ET rr

SAS
ANIA a Sicilia A SI A NA
emperor. Many of Gratian’s which reaffirmed the anti-Arian Be e
n

r be a n

Arab E N S
commanders defected and in decisions of the Council of Nicaea rs S e a Creta Cyprus
Syrian
LI
(see 325). He connived in the
I
August 383 he was captured and BY
OR

s
A Desert
S
executed by Maximus, who had destruction of many pagan a h
a
AE

r a
crossed over to Gaul. Theodosius, temples, including the great
GY

Re
P TU

fearful of trouble with Persia or a temple of Serapis in Alexandria,

d
S

Se

Iron pillar of Delhi

a

This iron pillar at Qutb complex on
the outskirts of Delhi is said to have
been erected on the orders of
Chandragupta II.
Gothic revolt in the Balkans if he
moved west, recognized
Maximus as his colleague. A
peace with Persia in 386, however,
and in 391 he forbade all pagan Divided in two
sacrifices throughout the empire. KEY
The split of the Roman Empire into Eastern and
Western divisions in 395 was permanent. By 476, Eastern Roman Empire
its Western part would be overrun by barbarians. Western Roman Empire

s s hi
siu rn ign es nd ans s an o ler
do ste ern s s : giv e us y g a ans r I e r
ro die ap ch ru
eo Ea est u m n a I th pe n II fJ ili er d
gir sian
h d i
os th s g xi r b ) ni K e pt st o lf- l St rul e e
9 T te y W an od Go xcha
n
Ma pero 388 mi s at bord gu gain E m ia to
a d a a d e r siv ng
37 poin or b rati e s r ra 2
39 lent )
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h th e e nu m (to e in
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Em per rI 38 ace and y se 3 M aim Bri 85 ltin o–Z 8 C ucts
V 37
3 T n S or 3 nda es ter co 0 o ac
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8
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094-095_361_400CE.indd 95 n eN
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95
93
 700 BCE – 5 9 9 CE THE CLASSICAL AGE

CLASSICAL TRADE

a
FLOURISHING TRADE BETWEEN CONTINENTS A WORLD APART

les
Se

op
c
BRITAIN North l

ti
Ba

Pe
Sea
c
lti

lts
The growth of Roman power in the Mediterranean, the unification of China Ba

Ce
under the Qin and Han, and the establishment of the Parthian Empire in Iran E U R O P E
GERMANY
created three large political blocs, which provided stable conditions under Augusta

N
Treverorum

which very long-distance trade routes could flourish.

E A
GA UL Aquileia
M A
R O lps N
DACI A

O C
Massilia A Byzantium
The expansion of Han power westward in the 2nd that lay on them were able to exact heavy tolls E
M THRACE
century BCE brought the Chinese into contact with from merchants, which they used to build I BER I A Rome P
new powers they called An-hsi (Persia) and spectacular public monuments.
Ostia I
R

T I C
E
Li-chien (Rome). A Chinese embassy reached the Further west, in the Mediterranean, expensive
Carthage
court of Mithridates II of Parthia around 115 BCE. In goods such as fine wine were carried by sea; Gades Caesarea

A N
GREECE
the wake of diplomats came merchants, carrying in general land transportation was expensive, Tingis M
ed Crete
the Chinese silk for which both Parthia and Rome and bulky, low-value products tended to be NIA ins ite
E TA u n t a

A T L
UR rra
had an insatiable appetite. The main Silk Route produced and consumed locally. M A
s
M o
Leptis
nean Sea
la Magna Cyrene
ran from China through Central Asia, down into At
Sijilmassa
Persia and then across Roman-controlled Syria
towards the ports of the Mediterranean.
13,000 Garam
ante
s Alexandria

s
A thriving trade also spanned the Indian Ocean,

er
S a h a r a
KILOMETRES

rb
transporting spices from the East Indies and

Be
EGYPT
southern India to ports in Africa and southern
Arabia; from here a land route led up through
THE LENGTH OF THE Ahaggar
Murzuk

Petra, in present-day Jordan, to Syria. Control of TRADE ROUTE FROM Tamanrasset

these trade routes was very lucrative, and towns CHANG’AN TO ROME Tibesti

S
A F R I C A
a h
ROMAN TRADE e l
The expansion of the Roman Empire to cover much of Europe, C h a d i
a n s
western Asia, and North Africa created largely peaceful conditions
in which both internal and external trade could flourish.

Amomum

Balsam of Judea

Cardamom

Cinnamon (uncultivated)
S
SL

AL
AV

A R S-
IM

Cassia (Chinese cinnamon)

W

W AS
E

E
IN
AN
S

GL
E

Daphnitis FOO
(high-grade cinnamon) D ES
SP IC
Malabathrum
(finest cinnamon leaf)
Frankincense (first quality) C OT D OLI
SIL
K TON GOL VE O
IL
Ginger
SE

SILVER
I VO
EN

Myrrh (Ethiopian) The price of spice

RY
INC

According to the Roman author Pliny, the finest

Nard (Indian)
grade of spices such as cinnamon could fetch
Nutmeg 300 denarii a Roman pound (340g/12oz), which
was nearly enough to purchase a male slave. Roman imports Roman exports
Pepper The Romans imported huge quantities The Romans paid for their imports
of raw materials, including luxury with precious metal and coins, and
0 50 100 150 200 250 250 300 350 400 450 500 goods such as gold and ivory and exported products such as wine
PRICE IN DENARII cheaper goods such as food. and glassware.

96

94
096-097_Silk_route.indd 96 07/06/2011 12:54
 s

Se J
A
(E a o P
as f
t

AA
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Lake

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SS

NN
Baikal

nn
KOR
a EA
i
Ye
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u llo
w
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I

SS
b i o i

eeaa
X b

Ea
i o Kaifeng

st
U

G
U rr aa

P
S Alta i Mountains

Ch
Wuwei Hangzhou

A
ll M

Luoyang

ina
A Anxi
M oo uu nn

Ningbo

C
Chang’an
IA Kitai

Sea
AR

I
Hankou
Lake U NG

F
tt aa ii nn ss

Balkhash DZ Turfan Jiaohei Dunhuang

I
Fuzhou
Kuldja n

C
h
a
A NG HA N Quanzhou
S KI Chengdu
IN n
Aksu S a k a

O
E M P IR E

nn
I A M P

ii ee
T H Aral la rt h
Y FE RG HAN
FERG HA N A k il

C
e
t i a n s Ta

TT
C To c h a r i s
Sea De ip
m a
S an Kashgar Nanhai
s Plateau p
a r

E
s Yarkand (Guang-
s i
S an Khotan of Tibet Kunming zhou)

A
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nn
BOSPORAN
BOSPORAN
a

ee
KINGDOM I r Pa

N
mirs

II ss
Marakanda Cattigara
Panticapaeum K
Tibetans

ll aa
Ca U SOGDIANA
(Kerch) S
H A

nn d
Bactra sh

d
N u
sspp

Caucasus s

ss
E Merv H i m a l a y a

na Sea
iiaa

KK

M Taxila
nn

Black Sea Ch
uu

RME
A RM NIA
ENI P BACTRIA Begram
I
SS ee

nn dd

Trapezus R Pataliputra Mon a

aa

E Nalanda
HH ii

-Kh
Alexandria me

m
Hecatompylos Mathura MAGADHA rp Moluccas
PA R T H I A Areion eo

s
Tamluk

th Chi
AS
A SII A M
MII N
NOOR PA H LAVA S Thaton ple
Ir an i an Bay of s
ee rrtt

Ecbatana Kandahar
Ctesiphon Plateau Bengal Oc Eo
eess

Antioch

SS

l a y s
TThh aarr DD

i a
Za P e r s i a

NAA
gro

So u
N
Tyre s M SHAKAS d

HAA
Cyprus
I n
Damascus
ou ntains

H
VVAA
Barbaricon Ce

ss
SYRIA Babylon Persepolis leb
Charax Barygaza Andaman

HAA

M a

ii ee
Jerusalem er
PP

(Broach)
H
sia Islands Trang

eess
Asabon

M
Gaza n G MEEGG

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ulf Mandagora
A--M Masulipatam M Borneo
Bo rn e o

II n
n
Petra a
SATAVAHANAS la
HA

Nicobar ys
MAAH

Gerra
Islands
M

Myos Hormus Java

Ommana Poduca Sea
Arabian S u t
m
Leucecome A a a s
Peninsula Arabian OL t r E
PA CH
Berenice ND a
A r a b s YA Colchi
Sea Muziris Taprobane va
Zenobia Ja
RR
ee
dd

I N D I A N O C E A N
SS

Dongola a
ee

Sana
Cana
KUSH Y E M E N Socotra
Meroe Adulis
Emporion
Aksum Aden
Ade
n World trade
of Aromata Trade routes c.1 CE criss-crossed the whole
AKSUM G ulf HAN TRADE
Sennar Avalites of the classical world. The means of
transport used depended on location – The establishment of Chinese control in Central Asia
Ho r n of Bactrian camels were used in Central Asia, from the late 3rd century BCE opened up a series of
Ethiopian Afr
A fr ica while horses, bullocks, and yaks were used
Highlands
routes through Persia to the Mediterranean, which
elsewhere. Maritime trade was also
extensive – there was an active trading became collectively known as the Silk Route. However, it
Maji network around the Indian Ocean. also involved the Han emperors in continuous and costly
Sarapion
Juba defence of their new territories.
Kushites

30,000
25,000
SILK
QUANTITY

20,000
HO
KEY 15,000 RS
IC ES
ES
SP
Roman Empire 10,000
and client states 5000
Han Empire 0
50 40 30 20 10 0
PRECIOUS

Trade routes Goods traded

STONES

YEAR (BCE)
Roman gold olive oil LACQUERWARE
Trans–Saharan silver amber KEY
(rudimentary route) tin precious Silk floss Silk fabric
Indian Ocean tortoiseshell stones (catties) (pieces)

ivory silk Han imports Han exports

Silk Route
clothing Buying safety The Han valued spices as much as Knowledge of silk in China
China animals
incense
To guarantee security on their frontiers the Romans did, but they also sent goes back to at least 2600 BCE,
East Africa horses and along trade routes, the Han were trade expeditions to Ferghana in but under the Han it became
slaves
Amber grain forced to pay large bribes in silk to Central Asia in search of what a staple export item, alongside
spices barbarian groups such as the Hsiung-nu. they called “heavenly horses”. lacquerware.
Incense
timber
Other
(rudimentary route) wine

97

95
096-097_Silk_route.indd 97 25/05/2011 16:20
 401–423 424–433
,, SO THE VANDALS, HAVING

,,
WRESTED LIBYA FROM THE
ROMANS IN THIS WAY, MADE
IT THEIR OWN...
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from
History of the Wars, III iv 1, c.500–550

Around 200 stone heads decorated Tiwanaku’s Semi-subterranean temple. They may represent
the group that founded the city – their flat head-dresses denote high status.

ALTHOUGH THE WESTERN ROMAN THE BARBARIANS WHO HAD On the other side of the
EMPIRE SEEMED RELATIVELY INITIALLY CROSSED THE RHINE IN Mediterranean in 429, Boniface,
SECURE IN 400, within a decade it 401 had gone on to sack a number the Roman Governor of North
had suffered a series of disasters. of cities before moving southwest Africa, revolted against his
Gothic raids in 401 and again in into Aquitania and then crossing long-term adversary Aëtius, and
405 ravaged northern Italy. Then the Pyrenees into Spain, where called on the Siling Vandals for
on the last day of 406, hordes of they occupied large swathes of help. The Vandal king, Gaiseric
Vandals, joined by two other Roman territory. In 416–18, the (r.428–77), crossed over the
barbarian groups, the Alans and Roman army commander Straits of Gibraltar with – it was
Sueves, crossed the frozen Rhine Constantius persuaded the said – 80,000 of his people and, far
near Mainz, sacked Treveri Visigoths under Wallia (r.415–18) from helping Boniface, swiftly
(modern Trier, Germany) and to invade Spain. There he occupied most of North Africa. In
Remi (modern Reims, France), smashed the Alans and the Siling 435, he made a treaty with the
and forced their way southwest Vandals, but allowed some of Romans, recognizing his
until they reached the Pyrenees. them to settle in southern Spain occupation of Mauretania
Meanwhile, the armies of Visigoths ride on Rome and left the Asing Vandals and (modern Algeria and Morocco).
Britain had raised up a series commander Stilicho persuaded Alaric’s sack of Rome in 410 was Sueves in possession of Gaiseric broke this and in 439 his
of usurpers as emperor from 406. the Senate to agree to pay Alaric particularly shocking, as it was the northwestern Spain. Wallia was warriors captured Carthage, the
The last of these, Constantine III a huge bribe in exchange for first time the city had fallen since the rewarded with official possession Roman capital there, and set up
(r.407–11), took most of the leaving the city, but there seems Gauls took it in 390 BCE. of much of southwestern Spain. an independent Vandal kingdom.
remaining Roman troops in Britain to have been a coup d’état and
and crossed to Gaul in spring 407, Stilicho was overthrown and of Lake Titicaca (on the border
North
aiming to seize the throne from the killed. In 409, Alaric had Attalus, between modern Peru and Sea
then head of the Western Roman the prefect of Rome, declared Bolivia), reached its greatest EUROPE
Empire, Honorius. Although he emperor in an attempt to seize size in the 5th century, covering
was defeated and captured at Arles the initiative, but all negotiations an area some 8 sq km (3 sq miles)
KINGDOM OF THE
in 412, native leaders in Britain had failed. So, on 24 August 410 the in extent. Its central area BURGUNDIANS
EMPIRE OF
THE HUNS
already expelled the last Roman Visigoths entered Rome and contained a lavish series of Bay of
officials there in 410 – probably in subjected it to a three-day sack. ceremonial buildings and Biscay
Black Sea
revenge for their abandonment by The event shook the entire Roman temples. These included the

Ca
Rome

spi
Constantinople
Constantine’s legion. Britain was world, but Alaric was unable to Semi-subterranean Temple,

an S
ROMAN
now independent from Rome. secure domination over Italy, as decorated with stone heads of

ea
Toletum EMPIRE
Carthage
In 408, Alaric (r.c.395–410), he died later the same year. humans and supernatural beings,
leader of the Visigoths, invaded In South America, the city of and structures such as the Mediterranean Sea SASANIAN
EMPIRE
Italy once more. The Roman Tiwanaku, 25 km (15 miles) south massive and beautifully decorated
Gateway of the Sun. These were AFRICA
erected by a major pre-
Ransom demands Columbian culture that The barbarian
Pepper
Alaric initially asked dominated the Altiplano (flat invasions KEY
for a huge ransom in high plateau) of Peru and Bolivia, Barbarian groups Roman Empire Burgundians
Gold
return for leaving and whose influence extended took more and more Sasanian Empire Franks
Rome in 410. Even Roman territory in the
Silver
when he moderated
into northern Bolivia. first half of the 5th
Huns Jutes, Angles, Saxons

his demands, the century, leaving the Goths Irish

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 Senate refused, and Western emperors Alans Picts
POUNDS so the city was sacked. virtually powerless. Vandals, Alans, Sueves

,
s de als e ly III le nd t
th inva nd s
th Rom Ita an gg e a y a
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96
 434–450

A colourful Buddhist mural from the Yungang caves, which were begun
under the Northern Wei c.450.

THE EASTERN JIN DYNASTY IN (r.418–51) occupied sections of the ,, THE WORLD IS PASSING

,,
CHINA HAD ENDED IN 420, with Mediterranean shore of Gaul,
Gongi’s abdication. His successor,
Song Wudi (r.420–22), a former
before they were pushed back
southwest in 430. About this time a AWAY… LOSING ITS
fisherman, had risen to become a
general and founded the Liu Song
new group of barbarians, the
Huns, began to menace the
GRIP, THE WORLD IS
dynasty. He strengthened the
southern kingdom’s northern
empire. This nomadic group from
Central Asia, whose pressure from
SHORT OF BREATH.
borders against the barbarian the rear on the Goths had been
St Augustine of Hippo, theologian and philosopher, from Sermons 81, 8
tribes, but under his son Wendi indirectly responsible for the crisis
(r.424–53), the northerners of 378 in the Balkans, had since
captured Luoyang in 424, before, moved further west. In 424, the defeated and thereafter confined to the very end, when he had Aëtius,
some 25 years later besieging the Roman general Aëtius recruited a a region to the northwest of Italy. the Western Empire’s last effective
Liu Song capital of Nanking. force of Huns to help him bolster These were all just temporary general, murdered.
Although Song Wudi had the cause of John, a usurper successes, however, as the area The barbarians who settled on
strengthened the central raised up at Rome after the death controlled by the Western Roman the former Roman territories
bureaucracy, the growing power of Honorius in 423. Aëtius emperors was diminishing began gradually to establish
and wealth of the Buddhist and continued to use the Huns into the steadily. The loss of almost all kingdoms of their own, notably FLAVIUS AËTIUS
Daoist monasteries weakened late 420s to secure his power base North Africa to the Vandals in the Franks in northern Gaul and (c.395–454)
the economic basis of the state. and his appointment as patrician 429–39 (and of Sicily in 440), the Visigoths in southwest Gaul
Wendi’s successors were weak (the most senior post in the late of northern Gaul to the Franks and Spain. In Britain, the situation Born of nobility in Moesia
and by 479 the Liu Song Roman Empire) in 429. In 435, by 450, of southwest Gaul to the was rather different, since the (modern Bulgaria), Aëtius
were overthrown by the he was able to call on Visigoths after 418, and of all province had rebelled against spent time from 408 in the
short-lived Qi dynasty them to aid an attack save a few isolated outposts in Rome rather than being subject to royal court of the Huns. He
(479–502). on the Burgundians Spain by the 430s meant the barbarian conquest. In a bygone used these contacts to gain
Meanwhile, in who had raided remaining strongholds in Italy era, the Roman army might have influence and rose to further
northern China across the lower and southeastern Gaul could not been expected to reassert its prominence in the late 420s.
the Sixteen Rhine; these provide enough tax revenue to control there, but, with the empire The deaths of patricians Felix
Kingdoms had were soundly support armies to reconquer the increasingly dependent on (in 430) and Boniface (in 433)
been united lost provinces. The long reign of barbarian troops fighting under left him with unrivalled
under the Toba Wei (a group of Valentinian III (r.425–55) in the their own commanders, there was dominance. He shored up the
Turkic nomads), who founded Western Roman Empire virtually no army left to retake it. empire’s position, and in 451
the Northern Wei dynasty did not provide any The Britons were left to their he scored a notable victory
(386–534). The Northern Wei stability as he own devices. It seems that some against Attila the Hun. In 454
ruled over northern China, ascended to the Roman institutions survived for a he was murdered by
until its split into two in the throne as a child while; in 429 Bishop Germanus Valentinian III himself.
early 6th century following a and never of Auxerre visited the island and
revolt against the imposition of asserted found men bearing Roman titles.
Chinese dress and language on himself until But barbarian raiders – attracted letter to Aëtius, appealing for
the Wei nomads. by the weakness of the British aid. No reply was sent to these
In Europe, the Western Roman defences and the lack of a central “groans of the Britons”, and
Northern Wei horse
Empire continued to lose ground, political authority to counter them within a few years the Angle,
The art of the Northern Wei
as barbarians occupied more and often evoked their nomadic – came in increasing numbers. Saxon, and Jutish raiders began
more of its territory. In the 420s the origins, as in this beautiful Around 446, the leading men of to occupy parts of the former
Visigoths under Theoderic terracotta horse. Britain addressed a desperate Roman province.

at ius
fe t h of s of
de dos his itis cil pt he 50 nce n r aw
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43 my o rac ca o i re ala m of be En un ri ge ha on d 4 4 hes hys at C e
Te etch tem Na m ph
ar n Th bli n C nc tin nt nd t N
e
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97
 451–465 466–500

In this undated painting Attila the Hun is shown with his army – he is said to have The baptism of Clovis the first: Clovis’s baptism made him an easier diplomatic
been turned aside from sacking Rome only by the pleas of Pope Leo I. partner for the eastern Roman Empire than his Arian neighbours.

,,[HUNS] TOOK CAPTIVE IN 456, THE VISIGOTHS, repeated elsewhere in the Roman

THE CHURCHES AND
SLEW THE MONKS
AND MAIDENS.
Callinicus, disciple of Hypatius, from Life of Saint Hypatius, c.450
IN JAPAN, THE 5TH CENTURY SAW
THE RAPID DEVELOPMENT and
expansion of the Yamato state.
Complex irrigation systems began
to appear, and rulers built ever
larger burial mounds, such as the
486m (1,600ft) long Nintoku
mound. Ojin founded a new line of
kings, who exercised firmer
control over Japan’s main islands
from a royal centre in the
Kawachi-Izumi area. Yamato
,,
encouraged by the western
Roman emperor Avitus, had
invaded the Iberian Peninsula.
The Visigothic king Theoderic
II (r.453–66) defeated the
Suevic ruler Rechiarius, who
was threatening the Roman
province of Tarraconensis,
and the remaining Sueves
retreated. Theoderic took
overseas contacts became more most of Spain for himself, but
extensive, with ten diplomatic left the Romans parts of the
missions visiting China between east coast. This policy was
421 and 478, and increasing reversed by his successor
Yamato interference in civil wars Euric (r.466–84), who overran the
between the Korean states of Clay bear figurine remaining Roman territories in
Clay haniwa figurines have been
Paekche, Silla, and Koguryo. the late 470s. By the time of Alaric
a feature of rich Japanese burials
The Sasanian Persian Empire since the earliest times. The large II (r.484–507) the Visigothic
came under pressure from burial mounds of Yamato rulers kingdom encompassed almost all
eastern nomadic groups in the contain huge quantities of them. of Spain, as well as Aquitaine and
later 5th century. The Hephthalite Provence in southern Gaul.
Huns moved into Bactria early in Undaunted, Attila invaded Italy in The situation in Spain was
the century, and were a particular 452, but turned back short of
threat to the Sasanians, but a Rome. Attila died after his A ns
Sa ng lo
s
xo n
it o
Empire, and the area of imperial
control shrank to little more than
Italy. Anthemius (r.467–472) tried
to recover some ground, but an
expeditionary force against
Vandal-controlled North Africa in
468 ended in disaster. In Gaul,
Euric conquered almost all
remaining Roman territory in the
south by 475. In 472, Anthemius
was overthrown by Gundobad, a
Burgundian. Gundobad placed
Olybrius (r.472) and Glycerius
(r.473–74) on the throne in quick
sucession, but, despairing of the
empire’s frailty, he then left for
Burgundy. The last embers of the
empire were contested in 475–76,
between Julius Nepos and
Romulus Augustulus, the son of
Orestes, commander of the
Roman army. Feeling that the
KINGDOM OF THE
BURGUNDIANS

KINGDOM OF
famine during the reign of Peroz wedding feast in 453, and his sons
Br

THE FRANKS Slav s KINGDOM OF

THE OSTROGOTHS
(457–84) caused them to move began a civil war that led to the KINGDOM OF c.4
96
534
507

THE SUEVES Alemanni Lo KINGDOM OF THE GEPIDS

west again. In 469 Peroz suffered Hunnish empire falling apart. mbards
PS
a terrible defeat at the hands of Following the death of the AL
HS

Bas
que
Caucasu s
OT

s
the Hephthalites. He was Roman general Aëtius in 454, VIS
IG 508 B lack S ea
E
537–

captured, and only released after real power in the western KINGDOM OF TH 53
5 540
0
54

leaving his son as a hostage. In Roman Empire was exercised by

55

EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE

533

535
4

484, Peroz sought revenge in a a series of barbarian kingmakers, 540

SASANIAN
EMPIRE
Ber 533
new campaign against the such as Ricimer, the leader of the Atlas Mountains
bers
Med
Hephthalites, but was defeated Roman army in Italy. In 457, KINGDOM iterra
nean Sea
OF THE Lakhmids
and killed. Ricimer placed Majorian on the VANDALS
Ghassanids
Having demanded, and been imperial throne. When Majorian
refused, the hand in marriage of became too independent-minded, AFRICA
Re
d

Honoria, the sister of Roman Ricimer replaced him with

Se
a

Emperor Valentinian III in 450, the Libius Severus (r.461–65), who

Pope Leo I
The illustration on this manuscript
shows Pope Leo I, an Italian
aristocrat, persuading Attila the Hun
not to attack Rome.
Hunnish king Attila (see 401–450) he later had poisoned. Deprived Barbarian kingdoms in Europe C.500 KEY
By 500, most of the former western Roman
marched into Gaul. He was of effective leadership, the Empire was divided between several principal Byzantine reconquests
defeated near Châlons by an army Roman Empire lost more of its barbarian successor states: the Vandals in Frankish expansion
of Romans under Aëtius and Gallic territories to the Visigoths North Africa, the Visigoths in Spain and Ostrogothic expanision
Goths under Theodoric. and Franks. southern Gaul, and the Ostrogoths in Italy. Sasanian expansion

es
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98
 interests of the Germanic Italy, led by Odoacer. He resolved Odoacer ruled as king of Italy, but the loyalty of the old Roman
barbarians in the army were being this by commissioning the king of the legitimacy of his rule was aristocracy. In 497, the eastern
ignored, Orestes’s deputy, the Ostrogoths, Theodoric, to always questionable. In 489, an emperor Anastasius I recognized
Odoacer, revolted and deposed topple Odoacer in 489. By 500, the invasion by Theodoric’s Theodoric’s right to govern Italy,
Romulus in September 476. He eastern Roman Empire under Ostrogoths led to a four-year providing him with a secure base
did not appoint a new emperor, Anastasius (r.492–518) was in stand-off, with Odoacer to consolidate his rule and extend
claiming that he ruled Italy on little danger of the implosion that blockading himself inside the old it into Gaul.
behalf of the eastern emperor had erased its western imperial capital of Ravenna. After In northwestern Gaul the Franks
Zeno (r.474–91). This marked the counterpart just 25 years earlier. the murder of Odoacer in 493, had emerged as a threat
end of the Roman Empire in the The western Roman Empire Theodoric established a regime in the late 4th century, and by the
west after 500 years. was replaced by a series of in which the continuation of 460s they were carving out a
However, in the east the Roman Germanic successor Roman administrative kingdom under Childeric. His THEODORIC THE GREAT
Empire survived. The long reign of states. practices won successor Clovis (r.481–511) (454–526)
Theodosius II (408–50) had transformed that kingdom,
strengthened its position, and defeating Syagrius, ruler of a Son of Thiudmir, a king of the
after 400 the eastern empire had Roman enclave around Soissons, Ostrogoths, Theodoric spent
not had to face such direct threats and expanding along the Rhine at 11 years as a Roman hostage,
from Huns, Goths, Vandals, the expense of the Alamans in to guarantee the good
Alamanns, Burgundians, the 490s. In 507, he defeated behaviour of his father. He
and Franks as the west. the Visigoths at the Battle returned home to become
Marcian (r.450–57) had of Vouillé and drove them king of the Ostrogoths in 471,
consolidated the out of most of and for the next 17 years
eastern empire’s southwestern Gaul. In alternately allied with and
finances, leaving a the late 490s or early attacked Roman territories in
surplus of 100,000 500s, Clovis the Balkans. In 493,
pounds of gold at converted to Theodoric became the first
his death. Leo I Catholic Ostrogothic king of Italy. His
(r.457–74) fended Christianity, rule was generally pro-
off residual setting him apart Roman, and he was buried in
Gothic threats to from other this Roman-style mausoleum.
the Balkans, and barbarian rulers
even made an who were mostly
attempt to Arians (members Saxons, and Jutes) settled in
recover North of an alternative Britain. The arrival of the Saxons
Africa in 468. Christian church). has been dated to 449, when they
Zeno (474–91) In Britain, the were invited by the British king
faced the challenge expulsion of Roman Vortigern. Seven years later, they
of the new officials had been revolted and set up a kingdom in
Germanic rulers of followed by a period in Kent. Aelle founded a kingdom in
which petty kingdoms Sussex around 477 and Cerdic, in
vied for power. These Wessex (around modern
Saxon brooch
kingdoms were vulnerable Hampshire), by 495. A British
Anglo-Saxon art in the
5th century valued abstract to coastal raiders, and, late in victory at Mons Badonicus around
geometric patterns, as seen the 5th century, groups of 500 stemmed the Saxon tide, but
on this brooch. Germanic barbarians (Angles, the respite was short-lived.

e l
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dh te ob es au ule t do ita
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B s nd m u ing lit
e r
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 501–526 527–540

These 6th-century ivory panels show Emperor Anastasius. He amassed a vast financial This 6th-century mosaic, from the curch of San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy, depicts
surplus, which his successors spent on expanding the Eastern Roman Empire. Emperor Justinian with his retinue of officials, guards, and clergy.

IN THE EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
(generally called the Byzantine
Empire from about this date),
Anastasius (r.491–518) faced
difficulties in the Balkans, as new
groups, including the Bulgars,
pressed southwards across the
Danube between 493 and 502.
More serious were problems on
the eastern frontier, where the
Persians insisted on Byzantine
financial subsidies to pay for the
defence of strategic passes in the
Caucasus against barbarian
incursions. In 502, the Persian
ruler Kavadh began a war over
the issue; the slow Byzantine
reaction allowed him to capture
Amida as well as several towns in
Armenia. Byzantine forces retook
Amida in 505, and Kavadh –
preoccupied with a Hepthalite
invasion in the east – agreed a
truce, which lasted until 527.
Anastasius was almost 60 when
he became emperor in 491, and
his place on the throne was only
secured by his marriage in 492 to
Ariadne, widow of his predecessor
Zeno. Almost immediately Zeno’s
brother Longinus revolted, and it
took six years for Anastasius to
subdue Longinus’s home area of
Isauria (in western Asia Minor).
Anastasius gained popularity by
abolishing the chrysargyron tax
for traders and craftsmen.
Prosperity continued and over his
reign his treasury amassed a
surplus of 320,000 pounds of gold.
He also implemented monetary
reforms in 498 and 512 aimed at
stabilizing the currency, which had
suffered successive debasements
in the 5th century. In religious
red
enamel
Frankish fibula brooch
Fibula brooches were practical as
well as decorative, being used to
fasten clothes.This brooch is
decorated with the heads of birds.
terms Anastasius’s reign was less
tranquil, as he was a follower of
Monophysite Christianity, which
held that Christ had only a single
divine nature and did not combine
human and divine in his person.
At first, Anastasius supported
Zeno’s Henotikon – an “act of
union” issued in 482 that tried to
broker a compromise between
supporters of the orthodox creed
(established at the Council of
Chalcedon in 452) and the
Monophysites. However, later his
attitude became more pro-
Monophysite, which led to serious
rioting in 512, and the revolt of an
army officer, Vitalian, in Thrace in
513. Anastasius left no clear heir,
and on his death Justin (r.518–27),
head of the palace guard, seized
the throne. Justin was of humble
origins and relied heavily on his
nephew Justinian. He restored
Chalcedonian Christianity and
developed good relations with the
Ostrogoths of Italy and the
Vandals of North Africa. Abroad,
his reign was generally peaceful,
apart from a minor campaign
against Persia in early 527.
In Gaul, Clovis, king of the
Franks, had defeated Syagrius,
ruler of a Roman enclave near
Soissons, in 486, followed by the
Alamanns and the Thuringians in
491. The Visigothic kingdom in
southwestern Gaul was his next
target, and it collapsed after a
major Frankish victory at Vouillé
in 507. Clovis’s marriage to Clotilde,
daughter of the Burgundian king
Chilperic, led him to convert to
Catholic Christianity in the 490s,
and he maintained cordial
relations with the Byzantine
emperor Anastasius, who gave
him the title of consul c.508. Near
the end of his reign, Clovis added
several previously independent
Frankish domains to his kingdom,
notably that of the Ripuarian
Franks. On his death in 511,
Clovis’s kingdom was divided
among his four sons – Theuderic,
Childebert, Chlodomir, and
Chlothar. This tradition of
subdivision would weaken the
Merovingian dynasty, as the
descendants of Clovis were known.
The Merovingians ruled Francia
(France) until the 8th century.
THE REIGN OF THE BYZANTINE church of Hagia Sophia in 534.
EMPEROR JUSTINIAN (r.527–65) The greatest challenge to his rule
began with important reforms. In came in 532, when rioting among
528, he commissioned a new law the Blue and Green chariot-racing
code to replace the confusion he factions got out of hand and
had inherited. The new code, the turned into the Nika Revolt. The
Codex Justinianus, came into uprising almost caused Justinian
force in 529 (revised in 534). An to flee Constantinople, and its
enthusiastic builder, Justinian suppression killed 30,000 rebels.
ordered the building of the great With his throne secure, Justinian
looked abroad. In 533 he sent an
army under Belisarius to
Vandal-controlled North Africa,
where Gelimer had deposed King
Hilderic, a Byzantine ally. On 13
September, Belisarius defeated
Gelimer’s army at Ad Decimum,
just outside Carthage, and Vandal
resistance collapsed. Carthage
was occupied and Gelimer was
sent as a captive to Constantinople.
The rapid conquest of the Vandal
kingdom encouraged Justinian to
intervene in Italy. An excuse was
THEODORA (C.500–548) provided by the murder in April
535 of his friend Amalasuintha,
Theodora, who Justinian the Ostrogothic queen. Belisarius
married in 525, had once been launched a strike against Italy in
a prostitute and the mistress 535, landing on Sicily with 7,000
of Hecebolus, the governor of troops. Sicily was secured by the
Libya Pentapolis. After the end of 535, and Belisarius moved
death of his adoptive mother, into southern Italy early in 536. He
Empress Lucipina (who had took Naples after a three-week
opposed their relationship), siege, causing the Ostrogothic
Justinian had the law changed king, Vitigis, to retreat northwards.
in 524 to allow him to marry On 9 December 536, in a symbolic
Theodora. Theodora became restoration of the empire’s lost
a forceful empress, stiffening provinces, the Byzantine army
Justinian’s resolve during the occupied Rome. Rome was soon
Nika revolt and acting as the besieged by Goths. Belisarius
protector of Monophysite finally took the Ostrogothic capital
Christians – she was one of Ravenna in 540. Suspicions that
herself – during times of he planned to become emperor
persecution. led to his recall, encouraging more
Ostrogothic resistance.

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 541–550
,,THE PLAGUE FELL UPON THE

,,
WHOLE WORLD... NOT A SINGLE
MAN IN THE WHOLE ROMAN
EMPIRE COULD ESCAPE…
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, from Secret History, c.550

Argentorate
THE LATTER PART OF JUSTINIAN’S
Franks REIGN lacked the achievements of
Geneva
Burdigala
Slavs its first half. A serious outbreak of
Tolosa Arelate
Ravenna Black Sea
plague – probably bubonic plague
Naissus
Tolosa
Barcino 537–40 Rome 53
5 Adrianople – began in Egypt in 540 and caused
537–40 Constaninople
widespread mortalities, robbing
0

Carthago
Persians

Sardinia
7-4

Thessalonica
Nova 554 the empire of desperately needed
53

Tingi Athenae
Carthage Sicily Antioch
manpower. Tax revenues fell,
53

further weakening the

3

Med
iterra
533 nean Sea Cyprus
administration, and
Cyrene prices rose, leading to
AFRICA Alexandria
the passing of laws in
544 to reduce inflation.
KEY Further outbreaks of
Justinian’s reconquests
Vandal Italy fell to Justinian’s armies in 533, but it
Byzantine Empire, 527 plague occurred in the
was devastated by the 20-year war needed to take Justinian’s reconquests 6th and 7th centuries,
it. An attempted Byzantine reconquest of Spain Byzantine campaigns sapping the vitality of
foundered, capturing only a few coastal areas. Battle the Byzantine Empire.
In Italy, the Ostrogoths
Persia entered a new period of paying salaries. Khusrau captured made rapid advances
greatness under Khusrau I Antioch in 540, forcing Justinian to after the departure of
(r.531–79), who came to the throne pay 5,000 pounds of gold to regain Belisarius. Their new
at a time when the Mazdakites – it. He attacked again, in 544, but a king, Totila, secured the
a populist religious movement siege of Edessa failed and so he area north of the River
– had caused serious social made a truce. A further Byzantine– Po, and in 542 took
tensions. Khusrau reformed the Persian war (546–51) resulted in a control of much of
tax system and established a new 50-year peace. central Italy. Belisarius
army, encouraging poorer nobles was recalled to retrieve
and their followers to serve by the sitiation in 544, but
Justinian starved him of
resources and Rome
,,TO ME, AND TO MANY
OTHERS, THESE TWO
fell in 546. Although the
Byzantines retook Rome
in 547, it fell once more
to Totila in 550. Justinian

SEEMED NOT TO BE sent two huge armies under

,,
Artabanes and Narses to finish
HUMAN BEINGS, BUT off the Goths. Artabanes entered
Ravenna in June 552, and in July
Ostrogothic brooch
This gold and enamel
VERITABLE DEMONS… Narses defeated Totila at the
Battle of Busta Gallorum in the
brooch demonstrates
the high level of

VAMPIRES. Apennines. Totila later died of his

wounds. There was still some
workmanship in the
Ostrogothic kingdom
of Italy. Its eagle
Procopius, Byzantine scholar, on Justinian and Empress Theodora, Ostrogoth resistance, but the imagery may indicate
from Secret History, c.550 war in Italy was effectively over. Roman influence.

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080-081_91_135.indd 81 Co
103
101
 551–567 568–588
,,WHEN JUSTIN HAD HEARD THESE EVENTS... HE HAD

,,
NO HEALTHY OR SANE THOUGHTS… HE FELL INTO A
MENTAL DISORDER AND MADNESS AND AFTERWARDS
HAD NO UNDERSTANDING OF EVENTS.
Evagrius Scholasticus, scholar and aide to Gregory of Antioch, on Justin II’s
reaction on the fall of Dara to the Persians, from Ecclesiastical History c.595

The 13th-century Iona Abbey (pictured) was built on the site of the original

7
monastery founded by St Columba when he arrived on Iona in 563.

MEROVINGIAN FRANCIA (FRANCE)

HAD BEEN DIVIDED into separate
kingdoms on the death of Clovis in
511 (see 501–526). Despite this,
Frankish power continued to grow.
By 558, Chlothar I (511–61), who
ruled the area of Francia around
Soissons, had absorbed the
Rheims kingdom and the region
around Paris after their rulers
died. This left Chlothar as the sole
Merovingian ruler of Francia for
three years, until his death in 561.
Francia was once again divided,
with Charibert I receiving Paris,
Guntram getting Orléans, Sigibert
Rheims, and Chilperic Soissons. It
was not until 613 that the
Frankish kingdom was reunited
under Chlothar II (r.613–29).
Ajanta cave art
The Ajanta caves, a Buddhist holy
site in Maharashtra, India,
experienced a second major phase
of use during the 6th century.
Ireland had been converted to
Christianity by Patrick (d.461) in
the mid-5th century and a strong
monastic tradition took hold
there. From the 6th century, Irish
monks began conducting
missions abroad. In 563, Columba
(c.520–97) set up the abbey of
Iona on an island off Scotland’s
western coast. Iona became a
centre of Irish-influenced
monasticism, which extended into
northern England, Scotland, and
Francia with the foundation of the
monastic centre at Luxeuil in 590.
The Gupta Empire fell apart
after the reign of Vishnugupta
(r.540–50); and northern India split
into a number of regional
kingdoms. A minor branch of the
Guptas ruled Magadha, but they
were swept aside by the Maukharis
of Kanauj. The region fell to the
Vardhana king Harsha, who
established an empire in the
early 7th century.
JAPAN’S SOGA FAMILY CAME TO
PROMINENCE IN 540, when Soga
no Iname was made chief
minister. Emperor Bidatsu’s
death in 585 led to a succession
dispute, from which Iname’s
grandson Yomei emerged
successful. The next emperor,
Sushun (r.586–93), had
a Soga mother, reinforcing the
family’s dominance. When Sushun
was assassinated in 593, he was
succeeded by Bidatsu’s widow
Suiko (r.593–628), who was another
Soga. Suiko’s reign saw the start of
the Asuka Enlightenment, and
was a time of great confidence in
foreign affairs, state support for
Buddhism, and flourishing arts.
In 572, the Byzantine emperor
Justin II (r.565–78) went to war
with Persia after he refused to pay
a tribute due under the terms of
Justinian’s 50-year peace deal (see
527–540). In 573, Persia struck
back, invading Syria and taking the
THE NUMBER OF YEARS
THE “ENDLESS PEACE”
OF 532 BETWEEN THE
BYZANTINE EMPIRE AND
PERSIA LASTED
fortress of Dara. On hearing this, Byzantine counterattacks in 575
Justin went insane. His wife took were a disaster. Under Agilulf
power, and had to agree a (r.590–616) the Lombard kingdom
humiliating peace with Persia. consolidated; the Byzantines were
In 567, the Lombards, who had limited to small territories around
settled in the former Roman Rome, Naples, and Ravenna.
province of Pannonia (Hungary), Under Khan Bayan (r.c.562–82),
destroyed the Gepids and then, the Avars – nomadic horsemen
under Alboin (reign c.560–72), from the northern Caucasus
moved southwest into Italy, where – exploited the vacuum left by the
the Byzantine authorities were too departure of the Lombards to
weak to resist them. In 568–69 they carve out a vast territory centred
occupied the plain of the Po River around modern Austria. Their
and set up dukes in major cities. conquest of a number of Byzantine
By 572, when Pavia fell to them, towns prompted Emperor Maurice
they had founded duchies as far (r.582–602) into a successful
south as Benevento. Attempted campaign to dislodge them.

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104
102
 589–599

,,
Painted c.581–618, this fresco is from China’s Dunhuang caves, in a strategic
Silk Road oasis. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art.

IN 581, YIANG JIAN, A GENERAL OF

THE ZHOU RULERS of northern
China, rebelled and took the
throne for himself as the emperor
,, NOT ANGLES,
Wendi (r.581–604). In 589, he
invaded southern China. His
forces rapidly overcame those of
the last Chen emperor, Hou Zhu.
Wendi was now the country’s sole
ruler and the first emperor of the
Sui dynasty; after three centuries
of division, China was finally
united. Wendi disarmed private
armies and established
agricultural colonies along
China’s frontiers to strengthen
central control in remote areas. He
implemented a major land
reform that increased the
number of households liable to
the land tax from 4 million in 589,
to almost 9 million in 606. Wendi
also extended the country’s canal
system to form a “Grand Canal”
BUT ANGELS.
Pope Gregory I, on seeing Anglo-Saxon slaves
at a market in Rome
that allowed vessels to travel
2,000km (1,240 miles) from
Hangzhuo in the southeast to the
northeastern provinces around
Beijing, via Luoyang in eastern
central China. Austere, strict, and
occasionally violent, Wendi seemed
to have set the Sui dynasty on firm
foundations; in the end, it lasted
only 14 years after his death,
when it was replaced by the Tang.
In 582, Emperor Maurice
succeeded Tiberius II (r.578–82)
as the Byzantine emperor. He had
been commander of the palace
POPE GREGORY I (590–604)
From 572 to 574 Gregory I was
prefect of Rome, and only
became a monk on his father’s
death. A man of great ability
and energy, he was involved in
resistance to the Lombards
in Italy in the early part of his
papacy, but he maintained good
relations with the Merovingians
in Francia and the Visigothic
rulers of Spain. Relations with
the Byzantine emperor Maurice
broke down over the use of the
title “ecumenical patriarch” by
the Bishop of Constantinople,
which Gregory viewed as a
challenge to his authority.
guard and then of the war against
the Persians from 578. Tiberius’s
overspending and ineffective
campaigns against the Persians,
Lombards, and Avars had emptied
the imperial treasury, leaving
Maurice facing an immediate
financial crisis. His subsequent
economizing led to mutinies by
the eastern army in 588 and by
that of the Balkans in 593. Maurice
made his father Paul head of the
Senate and his brother-in-law
Philippicus head of the palace
guard; such nepotism further
increased his unpopularity.
In 584, Maurice renewed the
war with Persia, appointing
Philippicus to oversee it. The new
commander attacked Arzanene,
but his campaign was disrupted
by the defection of the Ghassanid
Arabs – former allies alienated by
the arrest of their king, al-Mundhir.
The mutiny of the eastern troops
in 588 caused Byzantine efforts to
stall further, and in 589 they lost
the city of Martyropolis (in
present-day Turkey) to the
Persians. The Byzantines were
saved by the outbreak of a civil
war in Persia; the involvement of a
Byzantine army in the restoration
of one Persian claimant,
Chosroes II, led to the recovery
of Martyropolis and Dara in 592.
In the Balkans, the Slavs – a
non-Germanic people referred to
as “Sclaveni” in contemporary
sources – seem to have arrived
dependent on Kent – also
converted, but the infant English
Church would suffer a series of
setbacks before the last Anglo-
north of the Danube in the early to Saxon kingdoms became Christian
mid-6th century. When the Avars in the late 7th century.
moved into the region in c.559 the
Slavs were pushed further south.
By the end of the 6th century,
Slavic groups had settled as far
south as northern Greece, the
Dalmatian coast of the Adriatic,
and Macedonia, as well as in
those areas of Bulgaria, Bohemia,
Moravia, Serbia, and Croatia
where the great Slav
kingdoms of the Middle
Ages would later arise.
In 596, Pope
Gregory I sent a
mission to Britain
to revive
Christianity,
following the
invasions by pagan
Anglo-Saxons in the
5th and early
6th centuries. The
missionaries set out
under Augustine, a
former prior of a
monastery in Rome,
and arrived in Kent
the following year.
Their reception was
reasonably warm as
Bertha, the wife of
the Kentish king
Aethelberht, was
already Christian.
After Aethelberht was baptized
Sui dynasty figurine
a Christian, Augustine was able to This figure depicting a trader on a
establish a church in Canterbury. camel emphasizes China’s continuing
King Saebert of Essex and King concern with commerce along the
Sigebert of East Anglia – both Silk Road through Central Asia.

ed ry e
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w i
105
103
TRADE AND
INVENTION
600 1449
In the Medieval period, trade and travel unified the Old World
in a single network, with new ideas and inventions emerging
even as the political landscape was transformed. Meanwhile,
in the New World, great civilizations reached their peak.
 600–610 611–620 621–630 631–640

A coin depicting the Eastern Roman A Tang dynasty Mendicant friar, with This 1721 engraving by Austrian architect Johann Fischer von Erlach The ruins of the 7th century Byzantine
emperor Heraclius. an unusual travelling companion. shows Al-Haram Mosque and Ka’aba in Mecca. fortresses at Sbeitla, Tunisia.

UPHEAVAL IN THE MUHAMMAD FIRST RECEIVED A Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad’s BY THE TIME OF MUHAMMAD’S
EASTERN ROMAN EMPIRE DIVINE REVELATION IN 610 and rule was then unchallenged. DEATH IN 632, the young Muslim
began when the emperor began to preach in Mecca from Heraclius began to claw back community – united by Islam,
Maurice (r.582–602) 613; but the start of the territory ceded to the Persians, which transcended traditional
dispatched his armies to Islamic era is traditionally starting at the Battle of Issus in rivalries – was ready for expansion.
the northern Balkans to marked by the Hegira or 622 and later, in 627, at the Battle Although Muhammad had left no
regain imperial control of hijra, the flight to of Nineveh. In 628 the Sasanian guidance as to his successor
the Danube frontier from Medina. Hostility from and Byzantine Empires made (caliph), four men tied to the
the Avars (see 568–88). In the Meccan authorities peace, exhausted by decades of prophet by marriage emerged as
602, the army rebelled under forced Muhammad to flee to war and unaware of the storm
officer Phocas and Maurice was Medina with his family and brewing to the south. ,,
killed. Phocas became emperor followers in 622. In Medina, In China the emperor’s son, THOSE WHO
but Chosroes II of Sasanian
Persia took advantage of the
Muhammad established a
political and religious power
Taizong, consolidated Tang
power by suppressing rebellions
ARE PATIENT IN
ADVERSITY AND

,,
eastern empire’s weakness, while base. He fought a series of across the empire. In 626,
the Avars invaded from the north.
In 610 the son of the military
attacks by Meccan forces, with
their ultimate surrender in 630
Taizong forced his father to step
down and inaugurated a golden
FORGIVE WRONGS
governor of Roman Africa,
Tang dynasty horse sculpture
when he took possession of the age of trade, prosperity, and ARE THE DOERS
Heraclius, executed Phocas and Horses were symbols of military Ka’aba, the holiest shrine in the cultural exchange. OF EXCELLENCE.
declared himself emperor. prowess, especially warhorses from
In 606, in northern India, Harsha the western fringes of the empire. Prophet Muhammad
(c.590–647) acceded to the
thrones of Thanesar and Kannauj, SASANIAN CONQUESTS RESTORED
establishing the last native THE PERSIAN EMPIRE at the the Rashidun, or “rightly guided”,
Indian empire of ancient times. expense of the Byzantines with caliphs. The first caliph, Abu Bakr
the falls of Jerusalem in (r. 632–34), suppressed an Arabian
,, THE EMPEROR
HARSHA, NOBLE
614 and Egypt in 619. By 618,
Constantinople was besieged by
the Avars, and their Slavic
rebellion, re-established Islamic
dominion over Arabia, and began
the conquest of Syria. His
subjects. In 620, Heraclius bought successor Umar (r.634–44)
IN BIRTH AND OF off the Avars in order to focus on became caliph in 634 and oversaw
WELL-CHOSEN repelling the Persians. the conquest of Syria and the
In 613 Clothar II (584-629) defeat of the Byzantines at
NAME, THE reunited the Frankish kingdom, Ajnadayn. By 637, Umar controlled
SURPASSER OF bringing an end to civil war. His Jerusalem and Damascus, and, in
ALL THE Edict of Paris, issued in 614,
introduced reforms to the MUHAMMAD (570–632)
the same year, Arab forces
conquered Persia (modern Iran
VICTORIES WON

,,
Merovingian church and state.
BY ALL THE KINGS In 616–17, rebellions against the
despotic rule of Yangdi (r.604-17)
OF ANCIENT caused the collapse of the Sui
TIMES... dynasty in China. A year later
military governor Li Yuan founded
Banabhatta, Indian poet, from The the Tang dynasty, which ruled
Deeds of Harsha, c.640 until 906.
and Iraq), occupying the Sasanian
Born in Mecca, Muhammad ibn Abdallah worked as a merchant
and shepherd before growing discontented and retiring to a life of
capital at Ctesiphon. Umar
established several important
contemplation. In 610, he received the first of a series of divine practices: the creation of garrison
revelations – these became the Qu’ran. He preached a towns in conquered territory to
monotheistic faith based on complete submission to God (Islam). separate the invading Arabic forces
Before his death he unified Arabian tribes within his new religion. from the locals; the recruitment of
soldiers through slavery and tribal

es d
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s
et ate
an led s sta , fi or h e ac nd ph ph
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u ow e f n
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te r sh am n M Em rder e o vic Pers a nia us ra is p ing th t o
as Ma ed
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ng ac rI pe is ar s ia t
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108-109_600-650CE.indd 108 nq 9 63 hi U ec 20/05/11 12:46 PM
co 62 s
108
106
 641–650

,,
,, THEY BEQUEATHED THE
GLEAMING GOLD, TREASURE
OF MEN, TO EARTH
From the Old English epic poem, Beowulf

One of 20 burial mounds of this type at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, England, which conceal the

27
graves and funerary treasures of the royal line of East Anglia.

region. In 642, for instance, the – is believed to have once

IA
UR Christian king Oswald of contained the body of an Anglo
MONGOLIA N CH
Gob
i MA KO
RE Northumbria, hitherto one of the Saxon king. One of the last
Turfan
Sh a
n most powerful kingdoms, was burials of this type in England, the
A

Tashkent n Ordos
Samarkand Tie Dunhuang Anxi Desert
Kashgar Takla Makan East China slain by the pagan king Penda of artefacts comprise a fusion of
Desert
Bactra Jinchang
Chang’an
Sea Mercia. The great Anglo-Saxon Christian and non-Christian
Perwali Khotan
Taxila
Hangzhou
ship burial at Sutton Hoo, Suffolk elements, suggesting transition
Peshawar
Plateau of – filled with marvellously worked as Christianity gained in

METRES
CHINA
Thar H i Tibet artefacts, weapons and treasures popularity and strength.
ma Taiwan
Desert layas
Mathura Sarnath

THE LENGTH
Pataliputra dragon’s head
Bodh Gaya Philippine
BURMA crest
INDIA Islands

Arabian
Sea
Barygaza Nasik Ratnagiri
Bay of Bengal S outh OF THE SUTTON
HOO SHIP
China
Nagarjunakonda INDO- Sea
CHINA
Kanchipuram

unchecked even by the

KEY
Xuanzang’s route
The travels of Xuanzang
The young monk left the Tang
capital, Chang’an, in around 630.
He crossed Central Asia and
reached India in 645.
affiliation – those recruited for
fighting were made dependents of
tribal members; and a taxation
system that favoured Muslims and
encouraged conversion but
allowed Christians and Jews to
follow their religions.
Buddhism became increasingly
influential in Tang China; the
Buddhist monk Xuanzang
journeyed far and wide in search
of wisdom. His travels became
legendary and foresaw the
increasing mobility of people and
ideas along the Silk Road, made
possible by the power of the Tang
and later the caliphate. Also
travelling the Silk Road, Nestorian
Christians reached China from
Persia in 635.
assassination in 644 of Umar by
Borneo
INDIAN Su
m
a Persian slave. His successor,
OCEAN at
ra Uthman, promulgated the first
written version of the Qu’ran,
which had previously been
ISLAMIC EXPANSION CONTINUED transmitted orally.
as the Arabs defeated the Persian After launching successful
counterattack at the Battle of expeditions against the Tibetans
Nihavand in 642, dealing the final and Mongolians, but failing to
blow to the Sasanian Empire; conquer Korea, the Tang
the last emperor, Yazdgird III, died emperor Taizong (r.626–49) died
in 651, and with him died in 649, and his weak-willed son
Zoroastrianism, the religion of began to cede increasing
the empire. Conversion of the influence to the Empress Wu
population to Islam proceeded (624–705). In Japan, the Fujiwara
slowly but steadily over the clan enacted the Taika reforms in
following centuries. The Arabs 646, bringing all land into imperial
met with similar success in Egypt ownership and centralizing power
where the Byzantines offered only following the Chinese model.
token resistance. The fall of In England, Christian converts
Alexandria came in 642, the battled pagan kings for control
same year that the Muslims over territory and the religious
founded the military settlement of and cultural direction of the
Fustat, which later became Cairo.
The following year the marauding Sutton Hoo helmet
Islamic armies conquered This reconstruction is made from
Tripolitania in North Africa as iron with highly-decorated panels of
their advance continued, tinned bronze.

a, ns th
iyy sia nor n hed se
a dis Per far n nia us
a
aik n
n
dia is g ri
Q t s to sa s cr ld 6T si f In ha; h an nd
of fea ia a ut S a n d wa 64 form o f T ng a
t tle s de ers 41 S rial of rsia avan f Os th rs p
o
th zo
a e P c.6 o bu nd e ih o ia re pan ea Ha ks u ea Tai u
7 B orc er 2 E e; P f N th
ea mb
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Ja 7 D or a 9 D or s W
63 ab f nqu Ho 64 pir le o 64 per bre 64 per res
Ar d co ul t 2 D rthu em pire
n s
m
E Ba t 4
6 No em Emp
o at m of
a M of e
as

t, of ar o
er g
ath us st
ob Um an rn els
D ag tron gs 1 De acli l i ph thm be retu trav
of he s kin 64 Her a U o ng ia
ath of t an 4 C d; n t wn za As
De ast ingi 64 nate u’ra n do u an an
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Me as ulga
108-109_600-650CE.indd 109 m h ina 20/05/11 12:46 PM
o C
pr
109
107
 651–670 671–690

The weathered landscape of central Anatolia, a Byzantine territory that suffered A modern-day depiction of the Battle of Karbala; al-Husayn’s death is
repeated raids from Arab forces in the 7th century. commemorated in the annual Shiite ritual of the ashura.

THE SPLIT BETWEEN SUNNI AND THE MAYA CITY-STATE OF TIKAL courts, causeways, observatories,
ASIA
SHIITE MUSLIMS was the outcome Aral
Sea
BEGAN ITS RESURGENCE after a and palaces.
Transoxiana
of fierce disagreement over how century-long period of political The Arab forces besieging the
KHAZAR Zabulistan
succession to the caliphate ought EMPIRE Ca
sp and cultural domination by city of Constantinople (see 670)
ian
to be decided; either by selection British
E U R OPE S Khurasan neighbouring city-states known were unable to breach its massive
Isles

ea
(as in the case of the first three H ea Armenia
SASANIAN as the Tikal hiatus, which had walls and were eventually beaten
KIS S ck S EMPIRE
AN

caliphs) or by hereditary descent. AN M

FR NGDO
Bla
Khuzis
Kerman been marked by an absence of off with the use of a new
Meso tan F a r s
OCE

I Constantinople
Caliph Uthman (r. 644–56) had K pota
mia inscriptions in the city’s Byzantine secret weapon–
E
promoted members of his own IR Oman petroglyphic record. An inscription “Greek fire” (see 711–20). Its
AT L A N T I C

Syria
MP

a n S ea
EE
clan, the Umayyads. He was B YZ A N
TI N Jerusalem Nejd dated to 672 records a military deployment may also have helped
assassinated in 656 by Egyptian Me di te
r ra ne a n S e a Arabian campaign against the rival destroy the Arab fleet at the Battle

abi
He
jaz Peninsula
soldiers, nursing grievances over EGYPT city-state of Dos Pilas, and in the of Syllaeum in 677, forcing the

Ar
re b
Magh
their lower status. Ali Ibn Abi Atlas Mountains Yemen
following decades Tikal restored caliphate to agree a 30-year
Talib became the fourth caliph. AF R ICA
its position among the Maya of the truce. The truce bought breathing
As Muhammad’s cousin and Late Classic period (600–900). space for the embattled Byzantine
son-in-law – next in line by KEY The city’s rulers engaged in a Empire, struggling to hold back
Expansion under the caliphate
descent – Ali enjoyed unique The rapid Arab expansion continued throughout
Muslim lands by 656 construction programme to match the Bulgars, who established the
status in the Islamic world, but he the latter half of the 7th century. Islamic armies Byzantine Empire c.610 their political ambitions, building First Bulgarian Empire in 681 on
faced many challenges. At the pushed into Central Asia and North Africa, Sasanian Empire c.610 many impressive structures conquered Byzantine territory
Battle of the Camel in 656 Ali bringing them within striking distance of Spain. Frankish Kingdoms c.610 including massive pyramids, ball north of the Balkan mountains.
overcame a revolt by the prophet’s
widow A’isha and her allies, Byzantine claims to Italy by Anatolia continued and by 670 they
opposing his inclusive policies. In relocating his court to Rome in had reached the Byzantine capital,
657, the Umayyad emir of Syria, 663, but raids deep into Anatolia Constantinople (modern-day
Mu’awiya, asserted his claim on (modern-day Turkey) by Arab Istanbul), launching the first
the caliphate; Ali was also forces led to a collapse in siege on the city, which would
challenged by the Kharijis, a his authority; in 668, he last until 677.
sect who objected to the was assassinated and The Unified Silla kingdom in
application of the Constantine IV took Korea brought to an end the long
hereditary the throne. Arab Three Kingdoms period, with the
principle. In 661, incursions into help of Tang China. In 660
Ali was murdered the Tang destroyed the
by a Khariji, opening kingdom of Paekche,
the way for Mu’awiya while in 668 Silla and
to declare himself Tang forces combined
caliph, instituting the to overcome Koguryo,
Arab Umayyad dynasty. thus bringing all of the Korean ARAB CONQUESTS
Ali’s supporters formed Peninsula under Silla control.
a party of their own, Having consolidated their conquests of Persia and Byzantine
which evolved into a North Africa, Arab armies pressed on eastwards and westwards.
Stoneware bird
distinctive branch In Central Asia, Arab forces crossed the Oxus river in 667 and
This grey stoneware incense burner
of Islam, the Shiites, dates from the Silla kingdom, which continued to advance to within range of the Silk Road kingdom of
in opposition to the Sunni. was on the verge of becoming the Bukhara. In Africa, they crushed the Berber kingdoms, reaching
Emperor Constans II dominant power during Korea’s late Tangiers in 683.
attempted to re-establish Three Kingdoms period.

ion es ler ya
rs n ru sh Ma p
ve a tio com sion es f gli of of he elo r
d
ize y ng n
n e
si li b cce s m
o eo En ce l se t le ev ate ic
rd d b Ki xo s a s e c t s r y –
by er om
n
e ika t u ” by ing nop n ns d t is l rab em
da ue a, Sa die ss n; A e su l b ta ld to
ca y-s bui rva gd rg s
ir re ur ti i a a A t
an iss n nd lo- cia 6 A ma th hit n ov su f T 3 F ek fi es d stan Ind tici wha du– sys
t e g er 65 Uth but Pa a cit nd bse f W ma kin a Re te o 7 80 ma nd in ue
1 S ’an ma 4 P An 7 y
65 Ma ue cal
a o o o l a
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a 6 re tin on
c.6 athe en a the H -val
65 Qur Uth 65 the m M of liph uted d
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of liph of ngdo ca disp of lenq omi Sy dop tian 66 ifies cit By ege m se t as ace
l
ca Ki is Pa tron 6 64 gy a hris u n si ba own al p
as r C kn cim
cle ltic e
Ce d

of it; :
pl ine um es
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ath ls nt I; ae roys
De igna n e s fth za s I l l e c lis
iit es fi m By tan des y t a pir stab pire
1
65 III sani nd
s a st: S h l a e r f s eo
f f S des ing e
Ma ys ni– com f Is
u
nq n n o on ce eo t r c m e m
eE o
g ird f Sa re a m of stro et un a be ph o co ista a tio or C V ac S ieg ople ) a ttl flee secu pea tin wh an
E
i s e S s n n I t n 7 B in e s, ea r an ars, ari
e
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ra gha si per ine irs nti 67 7 t b z
Ya en Em stria Ba vy ne 66 ’aw as t 0 F sta (to 67 zan Ara 0-y y lg l g
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68 to B irst
Zo
110-111_651-700.indd 110 ab Byz uc 6 6 Co ds F 24/05/2011 14:25
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110 l a

108
 691–700

Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock – a shrine sacred to all three Abrahamic faiths –
has an octagonal floorplan and a massive gold dome.

At the Battle of Karbala in 680
the Shiite leader al-Husayn ibn
Ali, grandson of Muhammad, was
surrounded by Umayyad troops,
deprived of water for several
days, and eventually killed. His
death was proclaimed a
martyrdom by the Shiites, who
commemorate it to this day.
In China in 690, the Empress
Wu finally took the throne in her
own name – the only woman in
Chinese history to do so – after
decades of controlling it through
her husband and sons. She even
created her own dynasty, Zhou,
which she headed until 705.
3,000
THE NUMBER OF MAJOR STONE
BUILDINGS CONSTRUCTED IN
TIKAL’S LATE CLASSIC PERIOD
ABD AL-MALIK HAD BECOME Temple Mount in Jerusalem,
CALIPH IN 685, instituting the Dome of the Rock (or
important changes to the way the Qubbat as-Sakhrah),
caliphate was ruled, centralizing completed in 692.
government, insisting that all The harsh ten-year rule of
state business was conducted in the Byzantine emperor
Arabic, setting up the barid (a Justinian II had aroused
postal/intelligence gathering widespread opposition and in
service), and issuing, around 697, 695 he was deposed and had
new coinage: the dinar and his nose cut off by Leontius,
dirham. He also commissioned a who became emperor in his
great shrine to be built on the stead. However, in 698, the
loss of Carthage, the last
Byzantine stronghold in North
,,I HAVE NOT
SEEN THE
Africa, to the Arabs led to
another revolt and Leontius
suffered the same fate as his
EQUAL; NEITHER predecessor.
The turn of the century was a
HAVE I HEARD time of change and unrest in the
TELL OF Americas. In North America, the
spear was superceded by
ANYTHING… widespread adoption of the bow
THAT COULD and arrow. In the Valley of Mexico

,,
Ancient
around 700, the great city-state of Teotihuacán
RIVAL IN GRACE Teotihuacán, which once housed mask

Temple at Tikal
Flanking Tikal’s Great Plaza, the 38m
(122ft) high Temple II was built
during the construction boom of the
Late Classic resurgence.
THIS DOME OF over 100,000 people, collapsed
bringing six centuries of growth
THE ROCK… and dominance to an end. Social,
Mukaddasi, Arab geographer, economic, and environmental
c.10th century factors were probably to blame.
This mask was
probably tied to
a figurine representing
a god. The mask would
have been decorated with
inlays and ear ornaments.

s: or
oli per d of
top em nia; se
as e po ate
ch S eb ntin rme cting I I de s
a a l d rst
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sr eo ke ef nia nd itio ry ao re e
ra
b ttl at B ta s d sti s a ad da , P ua och
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3 A rs 1 d II s 5 f 7 e n o 0
68 ngie 69 abs ian as e 69 Leo ut o 69 mil f Ve fest e
c.7 nqu u
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Ju vs i Lu
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 701–710 711–720 721–730

A detail from the illuminated Greek fire being deployed, as illustrated in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript from the An iconic image of Christ held by
manuscript of the Lindisfarne Gospels. 12th century, which chronicles the history of the Byzantine Empire. Nicephorus, Patriarch of Constantinople.

ANGLO-SAXON ART FUSED
GERMANIC AND CELTIC
ELEMENTS, and, through
travellers and Christian pilgrims,
it also reflected Roman and
Byzantine influences. A product
of this unique synthesis was the
Lindisfarne Gospels, an
illuminated manuscript produced
c.701 at the priory of Lindisfarne,
on Holy Island, off the northeast
coast of England.
In 705, with the help of Bulgar
allies, the deposed emperor
Justinian II returned from exile
(see 690–700), regained the
Byzantine throne, and exacted
brutal revenge on those who had
mutilated him.
By 705, Zoroastrian refugees
fleeing the Islamic conquest of
Persia established communities
in India and became known as the
Parsees. Persian Zoroastrian
emigration continued during the
following centuries.
Ruins of Lindisfarne Priory
The Benedictine Priory, built in the
12th century, replaced an earlier
church founded by St Aidan in 635.
His favourite concubine
This Tang dynasty scroll shows Xuanzong watching his
concubine Yang Guifei mount a horse. The emperor’s love
for her inspired much drama and poetry.
IN 710, THE VISIGOTHIC KINGDOM
OF SPAIN had descended into civil
war, presenting a tempting
prospect to the Islamic armies
now established in North Africa,
just a short distance away across
the Straits of Gibraltar. In 711, a
Muslim army under general Tariq
ibn Ziyad, landed at Gibraltar.
Tariq was a Berber (native of
northwestern Africa), or, in the
parlance of the times, a Moor, and
it was a mixed army of Arabs and
Moors that achieved the conquest
of Spain, known to the Islamic
world as al-Andalus. According to
tradition, Tariq defeated the
Visigothic king, Roderick, at the
Battle of Guadalete, and by the
end of the year most of the Iberian
peninsula was under Islamic
control. Only the northwest,
known as Asturias, managed to
caliphate control from Provence
to the borders of China.
The Arabs did experience some
setbacks, however. In 717, yet
another incursion into Byzantine
lands triggered a change at the
head of the empire, bringing Leo
III, founder of the Isaurian
Dynasty, to the throne. Although
unable to prevent the Arabs from
reaching the walls of the capital
and launching the second siege
of Constantinople (717–18), Leo’s
energetic command of the
defence, and the deployment of
the secret weapon “Greek fire”,
halted Arab advances in the
Eastern Mediterranean. Byzantine
fleets, wielding Greek fire-
spouting siphons, gained control
of the seas, and Leo was able to
begin restoring the empire.
resist the invaders, with defeat In 713, the Tang emperor
at the Battle of Covadonga in 718 Xuanzong came to the throne. His
checking the Arab advance. The 43-year reign would see Tang
year 718 is one of the dates China reach its apogee,
traditionally given for the start of economically and culturally, with
the process of Christian the establishment of many
reconquest of Spain. Nonetheless, schools, patronage of the arts,
by the end of the decade further and a great literary flowering.
expeditions across the Pyrenees,
and successful campaigns in
Central Asia, had extended
GREEK FIRE
The Arab expansion indirectly proved the saviour of the Byzantine
Empire, when Kallinikos, a Syrian Greek forced into exile by the
Arab invasion, brought to Constantinople the recipe for a secret
weapon that came to be known as Greek fire. Now believed to
have been a concoction of naphtha, sulphur, quicklime, and nitre
– a sort of medieval napalm – this highly flammable mixture was
sprayed at enemies from a siphon device that could be fitted to
the prow of a Byzantine war galley.
CASA GRANDE FLOURISHED
AROUND THE 720s. The success of
this settlement of the Hohokam,
an ancient people of the Sonoran
desert in modern-day Arizona, lay
in a watering system that allowed
a range of crops to be grown,
despite the arid environment. The
Hohokam lived here for more than
a millennium; they were known as
“canal builders” because of their
sophisticated irrigation
technology. Casa Grande was at
the centre of a trade network
that stretched from the Pacific
coast to Tucson and to the Gulf of
Mexico. The earliest structures
at Casa Grande were probably pit
houses; the “great house” that
gives the site its name came
much later.
In 725, the Khazars, a Turkic
people of Central Asian origin,
established their capital at
Atil, on the Volga delta at the
northwestern corner of the
Caspian Sea. From here they
controlled trade routes to all
corners of Asia and built an
empire that would control a huge
swathe of Eastern Europe and
Western Asia for centuries
to come.
In Byzantium in 726, the
emperor Leo III (see 711–20)
instituted a policy of iconoclasm
(smashing images deemed
sacrilegious) in response to the
idea that God was punishing
Christian Byzantines by their loss
of land to the Arabs and Slavs.
The controversy encouraged the
Roman papacy to assert their
independence from Byzantine
imperial authority.

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In 1837, artist Steuben depicted the Battle of Tours–Poitiers as a clash over the fate of The Great Mosque at Samarra, Iraq, built by the Abbasid Caliphate. Once the
Christian Europe. In reality Islamic raiders were beaten back in a minor skirmish. largest mosque in the world, the minaret stands at 52m (171ft) tall.

790
checked and Europe preserved overtaxed the surrounding THE FOUNDATION OF THE ABBASID Carloman. In 748, Pepin had a
for Christianity. Arabic sources ecology and exceeded their ability CALIPHATE IN 750 was the son, Charles, who would go on to
record it as a minor skirmish, to cope with drought. Collapse culmination of growing tension in unite most of Western Europe
and in reality its main was just around the corner. the Islamic world. Under the under one banner (see 761–90).
significance was that it Umayyads (see 651–70) the Arab Tiwanaku, a pre-Columbian city
PEOPLE PER demonstrated the need for the elite stubbornly maintained their on the altiplano (high plains) of
Frankish kingdoms to special tax and political status, Bolivia, reached it’s height in
SQUARE present a unified defence. failing to deal with the growing around 750. Tiwanaku was the
KILOMETRE The Maya city-states grievances of the mawali (non- centre of a civilization that
of the Late Classic Arab Muslims). In 747, revolt broke flourished from the third to tenth
THE period reached out in Persian Khorasan, centuries (see 951–60). The city
POPULATION the peak of their
power and
stronghold of the Abbasid clan,
who traced their descent back
itself was probably a ceremonial
and trading centre; its cultural
DENSITY sophistication to Muhammad through his and economic influence spread far
OF TIKAL in the mid-8th
century in
uncle, al-Abbas. In 749, Abu
al-Abbas al-Saffah was
through South America, and
it would profoundly affect the
Central America. proclaimed caliph at Kufa in development of later civilizations
SINCE CONQUERING SPAIN, The population of Iraq, and the following year at in the Andean region. Tiwanaku
ISLAMIC FORCES had made Tikal, for instance, the Battle of the Zab he thrived in the harsh environment
regular raids across the swelled to at least defeated Marwan II, the last of the Bolivian altiplan thanks to
Pyrenees, striking deep into 60,000, in a city Umayyad caliph. Marwan fled its sophisticated raised-field
modern-day France before spread out over to Egypt but his head was sent agriculture system and extensive
retreating to al-Andalus. In 721, 76 sq km (47 sq back to Damascus, whereupon use of terracing and irrigation,
an incursion into Aquitaine – a miles). Mayan rulers al-Saffah instigated a general which enabled it to achieve yields
dukedom nominally in vassalage built stone massacre of the Umayyad in excess of even modern
to the Frankish kingdom – had temples, palaces, clan to remove potential petrochemical farming
been checked by Duke Eudo at ballcourts, and opposition. (see below), and supported the
the Battle of Toulouse. But in observatories, and In 741 Charles Martel development of a sophisticated
731, Eudo was unable to halt a controlled a trade (see 731–40) died and was culture. The Tiwanaku people
fresh invasion of Islamic forces network stretching succeeded by his sons built pyramids, temples, and
under Abd al-Rahman I, emir of from California to Pepin the Short and colossal statues.
al-Andalus. After defeat at the South America. Yet
Battle of Arles, Eudo was forced the height of the 25
to appeal to Charles Martel, the city-states’ glory
YIELD (TONS/HECTARE)

Frankish mayor of the palace, for sowed the seeds of 20

help. Martel raised an army and downfall, as the populations
met the Islamic forces on the 15
banks of the Loire, between Tiwanaku yields
Tours and Poitiers, in 732. He Statue of Chaak, Mayan god Raised fields combined 10
was victorious at the Battle of Mayans would have sought with irrigation canals
Tours–Poitiers, and subsequent help from god of rain and enabled Tiwanaku to 5
thunder, Chaak, for their achieve yields
Christian historians would depict crops. Their civilization sat in of up to 21 tonnes per 0
this as one of the defining a region of poor soil and hectare, according Traditional Modern Tiwanaku
clashes of the age – the moment fragile ecology, to experimental Petrochemical Intensive
at which Islamic expansion was so rain was vital. reconstructions. FARMING YIELDS COMPARED

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 751–760 761–770 771–780

The interior of the Mosque of Cordoba, Spain, shows architecture from the The two-tier crop rotation system introduced in the 760s divided fields Roland bids farewell to Charlemagne,
earliest phase of construction during the reign of Abd al-Rahman I. between cultivated and fallow land, then alternated, promoting soil fertility. in this medieval illustration on vellum.

UNDER THE NEW ABBASID
CALIPHS (see 741–50) the Islamic
empire continued to grow. Initial
success came in 751 against the
Chinese in the Silk Route kingdom
of Tashkent. The Islamic armies
were victorious at the Battle of
Talas River near Samarkand,
which led to the loss of most of THE DEATH OF PEPIN III IN 758, Charlemagne’s
Tang China’s Central Asian had seen the Frankish kingdom European Conquests
Hamburg
possessions and introduced the customarily divided between his Charlemagne inherited
Islamic world to papermaking. sons Carloman and Charles (see Aachen land from his father then
Paris embarked on war after
Outlying regions of the caliphate panel, below).
AT L A N T I C war, continuing the work
asserted their autonomy. In Spain Meanwhile, the great monastic OCEAN E URO PE of his father and
in 756, one of the last surviving retreat on the Scottish isle of Iona grandfather.
Umayyads, Abd al-Rahman I, was developing a reputation for
declared an independent piety and scholarship. It is KEY Avignon Bologna KEY
Emirate of Cordoba. possible that one of the treasures Barcelona
Frankish Empire Frankish Empire on
on Charlemagne’s Charlemagne’s accession
In Europe, the of Celtic Christianity – the Book of accession Rome
Charlemagne’s
Carolingian Pepin III Kells – was produced by monks Charlemagne’s conquests
(c.714–68) in the monastery at Iona. Lavishly M ed iter r a n ea n
conquests
S ea Regions recognizing
deposed the last decorated and illuminated, this Regions recognising Charlemagne as overlord
Charlemagne as
Merovingian priceless artefact survived the overlord
king, Childeric III. Viking raids (see 791–800), and for Sasanian capital), the new city THE DEATH OF CARLOMAN IN 771
With the pope’s safekeeping it was later was carefully laid out on a meant that Charlemagne became
support Pepin was transferred to a monastery at circular plan and was connected sole ruler of the Franks. The
crowned and was Kells in Ireland. to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers following year he launched a
soon able to return The founding of Baghdad in by canals. Baghdad became a series of bloody campaigns with
the papal favour. 762 signalled the arrival of the trading hub that attracted the aim of bringing the peoples
When the Lombards first truly Islamic imperial city. merchants from northern Europe, east of the Rhine back under
conquered Ravenna, Sited near Ctesiphon (the old India, and China. Frankish rule – they had been
the last Byzantine subject to the authority of the
territory in Italy, the preceding Merovingian Dynasty.
Lombard king, Aistulf At this time the various Saxon
then set his eyes on tribes were still pagans, and
Rome. Pope Stephen II Charlemagne was determined to
appealed to Pepin for convert them to Christianity and
help, and in 755 and 756 thus bring them under the
Pepin invaded Italy, hegemony of the Frankish state.
seizing Ravenna. It was From 773–74 he conquered the
later claimed by the kingdom of the Lombards,
papacy in a document entitled bringing northern Italy into his
the Donation of Pepin, that empire and establishing his rule
Pepin had conceded all former over Venetia, Dalmatia, and
conquered territories in northern CHARLEMAGNE (748–814 ) Corsica, thus extending his reach
Italy to the pope, but this was down both sides of the Adriatic
almost certainly not the case. Athletic and physically impressive, Charlemagne spoke Latin and coast and into the Mediterranean.
understood Greek, but never learned to read. His intent was to In the late 770s, he attempted to
extend Frankish hegemony, foster a close relationship with the project his power into Spain by
Pepin III
Also known as Pepin the Short, papacy, and reform the Church to ensure divine support for the taking advantage of infighting
Pepin III was the first Carolingian Frankish Kingdom. This depiction from a 15th century tapestry is among the Muslim rulers. Invited
King of the Franks. This carving from testament his enduring legacy. to intervene in local politics by
his tomb dates to the 13th century. disgruntled emirs, Charlemagne

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114 a

112
 781–790 791–800

Offa’s Dyke, which roughly follows the line of the Welsh–English border, was The giant Buddha at Leshan in China was begun
constructed during the reign of Offa of Mercia; stretches are still visible today. in 713 and finished 90 years later.

sent his armies across the CHARLEMAGNE’S CONQUEST OF historians in the 1930s as a sort of VIKING RAIDS on the shores of
Pyrenees but they failed to take WEST SAXONY in 782 comprised pre-Christian Germanic the British Isles started in 789
the city of Saragossa (modern- a bloody development with the martyrdom, while others have and gathered pace in the
day Zaragoza in Spain) and were mass execution of 4,500 Saxon called into question its details and 790s with the looting of
forced to retreat. prisoners at Werden. This event even occurrence. Meanwhile, the rich monasteries of
This botched expedition was appropriated by Nazi concerned about ignorance and Lindisfarne and Iona. The
inadvertently launched one of illiteracy among clergy, “Vikings” (possibly from the
the great romances of Charlemagne launched a Old Norse language)
medieval times, the Carolingian cultural renaissance. originated in Scandanavia.
legend of Roland. In In 786, Haroun al-Rashid In Tang China, the influence
778, Roland, one of (r.786–809) acceded to the of Buddhism continued to
Charlemagne’s generals, caliphate in Baghdad. Under his grow, signalled by monuments
was killed during an attack rule the Barmakid family gained such as the Leshan Buddha, a
on the rearguard of the great power as his viziers giant statue of the seated Buddha
Functional and stylish brooch
Carolingian armies as they (high-ranking advisors) and carved into a bluff next to the Skilfully crafted out of gold, this
retreated through the favourites, while the intellectual confluence of several major rivers. Viking brooch was not only beautiful
Pyrenean valley of and cultural flowering of the In Constantinople (modern-day but also practical, used to fasten
Roncesvalles. The attack Islamic world gathered pace. Istanbul), the emperor invited his cloaks or other clothing.
was actually carried out by Growing enthusiasm among mother Irene to become
Basques, but Roland’s Breton the rich and powerful for books co-ruler in 792; four years later more or less complete loss
followers took up the tale and as encouraged scholars to begin she had him blinded and declared of authority in Africa west of
it spread through France in the translating ancient Greek and herself empress. This move Egypt. They conceded to the emir
following centuries it morphed Roman texts into Arabic. spurred the scholar Alcuin of York of the province of Ifriqiya
into a legend with many In 785, Offa of Mercia to suggest that the imperial seat (modern-day Tunisia and part of
fictitious elements: Roland (r.757–96), effective was effectively vacant, and on Algeria) the right to make his post
became the nephew of an overlord of Britain, 25 December 800, Charlemagne hereditary. The emir, Ibrahim ibn
elderly, white-bearded started constructing was crowned Emperor of the Aghlab, thus founded the
Charlemagne; his attackers the monumental Romans by his ally, Pope Leo III. Aghlabid Dynasty. This paid
the perfidious Saracens; earthwork known as In the same year he received an tribute to Baghdad and nominally
and Roland was Count of Offa’s Dyke, on the embassy from Haroun al-Rashid, recognized Abbasid authority, but
the Marches of Brittany. border between emblematic of how the focus of ruled much of North Africa as an
By the 11th century, the Wales and Mercia. power in Europe had shifted. independent state.
“Song of Roland” Originally 27m In 800, the Abbasid caliphs in
appeared as an early (89ft) wide and 8m Baghdad were forced to recognize
chanson de geste; a heroic (26ft) high, the
purpose of the dyke
epic of the age of chivalry.
In Constantinople, the is unknown, and it
,, [CHARLEMAGNE] WAS

,,
death of Emperor Leo IV probably fell into disuse
brought to the throne his
infant son, Constantine VI.
soon after its completion. LARGE AND STRONG AND OF
During his minority the empire
was under the regency of the
LOFTY STATURE, THOUGH NOT
Empress Irene, his mother.
Imperial gift
An exquisite water jug sent to DISPROPORTIONATELY TALL.
Charlemagne by Haroun
al-Rashid, probably c.800. Einhard, Charlemagne’s friend and Frankish historian, c.830

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 801–810 811–820 821–830

504
THE NUMBER
OF STATUES AT
BOROBUDUR
TEMPLE

Louis the Pious in a copy of Raban This 14th-century manuscript depicts scholars seated in the House of Wisdom;
Maur’s Book of the Cross. the Abbasid caliphs recruited scholars of all religions, from Europe to China.

400
THE TIBETAN EMPIRE EXPANDED CONFLICT BETWEEN THE THE HOUSE OF WISDOM, or Bait
in the early part of the 9th century, BYZANTINES AND BULGARS al-Hikma, was an institute devoted
and extended its control to the (see 671–90) continued through the to the translation of classical
Bay of Bengal. Its influence in early part of the 9th century. scholarship and the pursuit of
Central Asia was indicative of Despite Byzantine emperor learning in Abbasid Baghdad. It
Tang China’s weakness in the
region. Meanwhile, in northern
Nicephorus I (r. 802–11) twice
sacking the Bulgar capital Pliskas,
was the epicentre of the Islamic
intellectual renaissance, the heart
THOUSAND
India the Gurjara-Prathihara in 809 and 811, the Bulgar khan, of the Translation Movement, and THE NUMBER
dynasty, which had united the
region and held back the advance
Krum, fought back, meeting his
foe in battle later in 811.
the home of great scholars such
as Al-Kharwizmi (c.780–850);
OF BOOKS IN
of Islam, continued to grow in Nicephorus was killed and Krum algebra takes its name from his THE HOUSE
strength with the conquest of had his foe’s skull lined with silver great treatise on mathematics of
Kanauj in modern-day India by for use as a drinking cup. Two c.830, the Kitab al-Jabir, or The OF WISDOM
Nagabhata II, around 801. years later, Krum attempted to Compendious Book on Calculation
The Temple of Borobudur, a besiege the Byzantine capital by Completion and Balancing. world. Mimicking the practises
Buddhist monument in central Constantinople, but was unable The House of Wisdom was of the Abbasid’s Persian
Java, Southeast Asia, was to breach the walls and so consolidated c.822 by al-Ma’mun. predecessors – the Sasanians
completed in the early 9th retreated, devastating Thrace After the death of his father – the Translation Movement
century. The colossal structure, for good measure. Haroun al-Rashid (see 791–800), collected manuscripts from other
which is the largest Buddhist Charlemagne (see 760–800) and after a brief struggle, he had cultures and older traditions, and
Jayavarman II
monument in the world, contains This statue of Jayavarman II from died in 814 and his last remaining succeeded to the Caliphate in 813 translated them into Arabic,
over 2 million stone blocks and the 12th-century Bayon temple at son, Louis the Pious (r. 814–40), and continued the tradition of thus preserving much ancient
is covered in almost 2,000 sqm Angkor Thom, was constructed by acceded to the throne. He had intellectual patronage, building scholarship that would otherwise
(21,500 sqft) of carvings. The his namesake, Jayavarman VII. been crowned co-emperor by his observatories and gathering the have been lost. Ptolemy’s seminal
monument is a three-dimensional father the year before. best scholars from around the work on cosmology, the Almagest,
mandala, or cosmic wheel; around 770, was powerful enough for instance, was translated from
walking its path, which is a to establish an independent ISLAMIC SCIENCE Greek into Arabic around 827,
journey of over 3km (2 miles), Khmer Empire and have himself and it was only through this
re-enacts the journey towards proclaimed chakravartin, or Thanks to the House of translation that European
nirvana (englightenment). Its “universal ruler”. In Sanskrit this Wisdom and other similar scholars would later be able to
construction was an epic translates as “god-king”– the centres of scholarship across access this ancient text.
achievement, and a testament to authority of Khmer kings rested the Caliphate, Islamic scholars Civil strife in the Carolingian
the power of the Srivijayan on their direct link to the gods, went far beyond the learning Empire (800–88) resulted from
Empire (c.760–1402), which had which was reflected in the of the ancient Greeks and tension between Louis the Pious
grown rich from the extensive monuments they would construct Romans. Islamic scientists and his sons over their
maritime trade of the region. at the temple city of Angkor in made great advances in inheritances. After the death in
For much of this era Srivijayan centuries to come (see 880–90). fields such as alchemy 819 of his first wife – mother of his
influence extended over the Around 801, Bulan, the Khan of (proto-chemistry), medicine, sons Lothair, Pepin, and Louis
Southeast Asian mainland, the Khazar Empire (see 861-70), toxicology, metallurgy, the German – Louis the Pious had
including the Mekong basin hosted a debate between the mathematics, and astronomy. married the ambitious Judith of
kingdom formerly known to the three Abrahamic faiths, and This illustration from The Book Bavaria who prevailed on Louis to
Chinese as Funan. But, in 802, chose Judaism. of Knowledge of Ingenious grant to her son, Charles the
Jayavarman II, a vassal ruler Mechanical Devices shows an Bald (823–77), lands that had
whose family had been quietly innovative handwashing device. previously been promised to
extending their territory since Lothair. In retaliation Lothair,

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114
 831–840 841–850

The area around Segesta in Sicily, with its Greek ruins, was occupied early on The ancient city of Pagan, in Burma, became the capital of a powerful
in the Aghlabid invasion of the island. Buddhist state occupying roughly the same area as the current region.

Louis’ co-emperor since 824,
rallied his brothers in revolt
against their father. In early 830,
Louis was deposed, and although
Lothair’s misrule saw his father
restored by the autumn, the older
man’s authority was compromised
and the scene set for worse
conflict to come.
Wessex, the Anglo-Saxon
kingdom in south and west
England, became the dominant
English power as a result of the
victory of King Egbert over King
Beornwulf of Mercia at the Battle
of Ellandun, Wiltshire, in 825.
Egbert was subsequently able to
conquer the southeastern
counties of England, and by
around 828 Wessex was the most
powerful state in the land, with
Egbert recognized as bretwalda,
or overlord, of England until his
death in 839.
The emergence of Great
Moravia began around 830, with
the establishment of the
Principality of Moimir, to the
west of the White Carpathians,
under the rule of Moimir I.
Moimir was one of two Slavic
polities to establish themselves
in the power vacuum left by the
collapse of the Avars in 805; the
other – to the east of the White
Carpathians, in what is now
Slovakia – was Nitra, under the
rule of Prince Pribina. In 833,
Moimir would conquer Nitra,
setting his principality on the
path to becoming the Great
Moravian Empire.
THE ISLAMIC CONQUEST OF SICILY
had begun in 827 with the arrival
of an invasion force from Aghlabid
in North Africa, sent by the Emir
Ziyadat Allah I (r. 817–38) to take
advantage of internal divisions
among the Byzantine rulers of
the island. Hindered by outbreaks
of plague, the Islamic forces made
little headway until 831 when
Palermo fell after a year-long
siege. The city then became the
capital of Islamic Sicily, although
total conquest of the island did
not happen until 902.
The Field of Lies, in
Alsace in 833, was a
meeting brokered by
the Pope to mediate between the
Frankish rulers, which resulted
in the desertion of Louis the Pious
and Charles the Bald by their
followers, and their subsequent
imprisonment. This was one
episode in a series of conflicts
that saw the collapse of central
authority and increasing Frankish
vulnerability to raids from the
Norsemen to the north and west,
Bulgars and Magyars to the east,
and Saracen pirates to the south.
Saracen warriors
“Saracens” was a European term for
Muslims, especially those occupying
Sicily and raiding Europe.
THE TREATY OF VERDUN in
843 marked the definitive
division of Charlemagne’s
empire. After the death of
Louis the Pious in 840, his
three surviving sons
(see 821–30)
embroiled
themselves in further
conflict over land. In
842, Charles the Bald
and Louis the
German teamed up
and swore oaths to
impose a settlement on Lothair
that saw the Frankish Empire
divided into regions. These
Coffee plant
broadly equated to France in
The coffee bush is native to the
the west, Germany in the east, mountains of Ethiopia and Yemen,
and a middle kingdom that where it was first recorded in use in
would later become known as the mid-15th century.
Lotharii regnum, or Lotharingia
(modern Lorraine). for protection from Vikings and
The rise of the Cholas, a Tamil other raiders.
dynasty of southern India, can In around 848, the Burmese
be dated to 846, when the Chola city-state of Pagan was founded
king Vijayalaya, captured the in the Irrawaddy Valley. Indian
city of Tanjore from the influence is readily perceivable in
Pandya kingdom. the architecture of this part of
The Capitulary of Meersen was Southeast Asia due to cultural,
a proclamation by the West religious, and mercantile ties.
Frankish king Charles the The legendary discovery of
Bald in 847, ordering every coffee is dated to around 850
free man to choose himself a when it is said that an Ethiopian
lord. Charles intended the goatherd named Kaldi noticed
decree to facilitate the levy that, after eating some red
of armies, but it was also berries, his goats became
indicative of the increasing extremely lively. He brought a
inability of the Frankish sample to a local Islamic holy
rulers to protect their subjects. man, who, disapproving of
In place of central authority, intoxicants, threw them on the fire
the peasants relied on local where they roasted and released
lords; they gave up freedoms a delicious aroma.
and bound themselves to a
feudal aristocracy in return

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115
 851–860 861–870 871–880

Monument in the courtyard of the The frontispiece of The Diamond Sutra, the earliest known printed work, The landscape of Iceland offered scant
Maya city of Palenque. shows Buddha explaining the sutra (sermon) to an elderly disciple. welcome, yet Vikings settled here by 874.

THE DECLINE OF THE CLASSIC ALFRED THE GREAT OF ENGLAND,

MAYA civilization continued as the
wave of abandonments that began
with Palenque at the end of the
9th century spread south and east
into the Classic Maya heartland.
The last recorded inscriptions at
Mayan cities Quiriguá and Copán
date to 810 and 822; at Caracol
to 859; and at Tikal to 889. A
combination of drought, famine,
disease, and social upheaval
were probably responsible, as
overpopulated cities and their
overstretched resources reached
a tipping point.
The first recorded use of a
crossbow was in France in 851.
Although slower to reload than
a longbow, the crossbow, or
arbalest, required little training
or strength to operate.
The Fujiwara regency,
assumed by Yoshifusa (c.804–72)
on the accession of his grandson,
the child-emperor Seiwa in 858,
marked the Fujiwara clan’s
domination of Japanese power.
12
NUMBER OF ARROWS PER
an educated man who had spent
time in Rome with the Pope,
acceded to the throne of the
Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex
in 871. During the reign of his
elder brother Aethelred I
(r.865–71), Danish Vikings had
invaded Wessex, but Alfred had
helped defeat them at the Battle
of Ashdown in 870. On assuming
KHAZAR EMPIRE the kingship, Alfred averted
crisis by defeating the Danes at
The Caspian Sea is still known in the region as the Khazar Sea for Wilton in southwest England,
the empire that ruled the area between it and the Black Sea from but another attack in 875
the 8th to 10th centuries. A contributing cause to the empire’s caught him unawares and he
decline may have been a rise of 7m (23 ft) in the sea level. was forced to retreat to the
Somerset marshes.
According to the popular
CYRILLIC SCRIPT WAS INVENTED Around the mid-9th century, the legend, Alfred was here given
by the Byzantine missionary later Khazars adopted Judaisim (see shelter by a peasant woman
known as St Cyril in around 863. 801–10). According to tradition, who, unaware of his identity,
Originally named Constantine, they chose an Abrahamic faith left him to watch some
Cyril and his brother Methodius to put them on equal footing with cakes that were cooking on
were sent to convert the Slavs in Christianity in the Byzantine the fire. Preoccupied with the
Moravia by Byzantine emperor, Empire and Islam in the Caliphate. problems of his kingdom, Alfred
Michael III in around 862. Cyril let the cakes burn. Nonetheless
devised a new “Glagolitic” script he was able to summon his
to translate the Bible into Slavic; armies and defeated the Danish
this later became Cyrillic script. king Guthrum at the Battle of
King Alfred
In 867, Basil, a favourite of Edington in 878, forcing him to

A statue of King Alfred was erected

Michael III, deposed his master and conclude the Peace of Wedmore, at his capital, Winchester, in 1901.
9
took the throne as Basil I. His reign under the terms of which His sword doubles as a crucifix,
marked the start of one of the most Guthrum converted to emblematic of his militant faith.
MINUTE

6 glorious periods of Byzantine Christianity and agreed to a

history. Intent on restoring the division of the country (see 881–90). island and even over-wintered
3 empire internally and externally, The settlement of Iceland there, but the first permanent
Basil rebuilt the army and navy and demonstrated how the Vikings settlement, according to the
0 revised the legal system. were advancing on other fronts. medieval Icelandic Landámabók
Crossbow Longbow The Diamond Sutra of 868 is the Irish monks had probably already (Book of Settlement), was by
world’s oldest surviving printed reached the North Atlantic island, the Norwegian chieftain
Crossbow vs longbow Early Cyrillic script
Although the longbow could be book. An illustrated Buddhist text, This wax tablet contains psalms of and Viking navigators had other Ingolfur Arnarson in around
fired much faster, the crossbow it was found in a cave in David, written in the early 11th clues to its existence, such as 874. According to legend, he
had a greater range and was easy Dunhuang, a Silk Road town in century. It is believed to be the oldest the passage of migrating birds. selected the spot for his
to operate. northwest China. document written in Cyrillic. Vikings had already visited the homestead by throwing his

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116
 881–890 891–900

The façade of a building known as the Nunnery annex, at Chichen Itza, Symeon of Bulgaria, depicted in the centre, had been educated as a monk in
the leading Maya city-state of the Late or Terminal Classic Period. Constantinople before returning to take control of the Bulgars in 893.

,,WE DISCERN
ACROSS THE
SWEDISH VIKINGS, known as the
Varangians or Rus, used rivers
such as the Volga and Dnieper to
THE GROWING POWER OF THE
BULGAR KHANATE (see 811–20)
worried the Byzantine emperor
modern-day Turkey, forcing the
Byzantine emperor to pay tribute.
Symeon would rule for another
CENTURIES A push ever further inland from the
Baltic, establishing dominion over
Leo VI, who in 895 prompted the
Magyars to attack the Bulgars.
30 years, vying for the Byzantine
throne, only to be thwarted by
COMMANDING the eastern Slavs of the region. However, this merely provoked the the impenetrable walls of its
AND VERSATILE Having founded the settlement
of Novgorod in 862 and launched
new khan, Symeon (r.893–927),
to mobilize the Pechenegs – a
capital, Constantinople, on
numerous occasions.
INTELLIGENCE, audacious raids on Constantinople tribe that had recently arrived on The Toltecs (c.800–1000) were
WIELDING WITH by navigating rivers all the way to the Dnieper – to invade Magyar probably refugees from the
the Black Sea, they now colonized lands. The Magyars were forced to collapsed Teotihuacan culture
EQUAL FORCE

,,
THE SWORD OF
WAR AND OF
JUSTICE.
Winston Churchill, British
Politician, on King Alfred, 1956–58
throne pillars overboard and
following their drift.
The Twelfth Imam, al-Mahdi
– believed by some Shi’ites to
be the ultimate saviour of
humankind – miraculously
disappeared in 874. According to
some Shi’ites, when the Eleventh
Imam, Hasan al-Askari, died in
874, his successor, a seven-year-
old boy, went into literal and
spiritual hiding, and ever since
has been said to be “occulted”,
or hidden until the day of his
messianic return.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
a unique written record of events
from wars and politics to the
weather, was kept from around 880
until the mid-12th century. It was
indicative of the scholarship that
King Alfred fostered, inviting
scholars to England and translating
major classical works himself.
ever further south. In 882, the Rus
prince Oleg (r. 882–912) defeated
his rivals Askold and Dir, seized
their settlement at Kiev, and
transferred his capital there from
Novgorod. The city would become
the capital of Kievan Rus, a loose
federation of territories, until 1169.
The Danelaw – the part of
England in which Viking law was
upheld – was formalized by the
Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum in
886, following renewed attacks by
Guthrum. Alfred would keep the
south, including London, while the
area to the north of a line between
the Thames and Lea rivers went
to the Danish, who would live
under their own laws.
In 887, Charles the Fat
(c.839–88), the last Carolingian
king to rule both the primary
Frankish territories, West and
East Francia (modern-day France
and Germany), was deposed.
Charles, already king of the East
Franks since 879, had been
elected king of the West Franks in
884. However, he was a victim of
the declining power and authority
of the Carolingian monarchs (see
841–50). Unable or unwilling to
meet the Vikings in battle –
specifically during their Siege of
migrate west, settling in present- (see 690–700), who settled in the
day Hungary, from where they Valley of Mexico, founding a
launched extensive raids on capital at Tula c.900, and forging
Frankish territories for years to a militaristic empire that inspired
Slavonic–Viking Jewellery
Viking invaders conquered come. In the summer of 896, their descendants, the Aztecs.
territories along Russia’s waterways, Symeon defeated a Byzantine
establishing a hybrid culture that army at Bulgarophygon, in
mixed Slavonic and Viking styles.
Toltec coyote
Paris in 885–86 – he was proven Toltec art, such as this depiction
incapable of protecting his people. of a coyote-god, influenced other
Odo, Count of Paris (c.860–98), pre-Columbian American
who had led a heroic defence civilizations, including the Aztecs.
against the Vikings in 885, was
elected king of West Francia in
887. From now on, East and
West Francia would develop as
separate regions.
The catastrophic decline of the
Classic Maya city-states of the
southern lowlands continued
throughout the 9th century, and
Tikal was abandoned by around
889. Maya city-states of the north
(the area of Mexico’s Yucatán
Peninsula) now took precedence
in what is known as the Late or
Terminal Classic Period.
Foremost among these
civilizations was Chichen Itza,
which commanded the advantage
of cenotes, or water holes; of
vital importance in this drought-
vulnerable region.

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118-119_851_900.indd 8 fe
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119
117
 901–910 911–920

This stone relief is from the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.
Breakdown of central authority in the period led to economic contraction.

TANG CHINA HAD BEEN IN
MILITARY DECLINE since defeat by
the Arabs at the Battle of Talas
River in 751–760, and the Huang
Zhao rebellion of the 880s
signalled the end of the dynasty.
Zhuwen (c.852–912) was a
warlord who had originally been
part of the Huang Zhao uprising
and then instrumental in the rebel
defeat. Richly rewarded for his
role, he steadily built up his power
base until in 904 he was ready to
seize control, executing the Tang
emperor Zhaozong and most of
his sons, and installing the
emperor’s 13-year-son on the
throne as a puppet ruler. In 907,
he took the throne for himself,
founding the Later Liang
Dynasty, but although he
controlled the northern heartland
of China – the Yellow River Valley
region of Huang He – he was
unable to prevent the south
Fatimid era text
Named for Muhammad’s daughter,
Fatima, the Fatimids proved patrons
of learning through their sponsorship
of Cairo’s al-Azhar school.
fragmenting into ten independent ABD AL-RAHMAN III BECAME THE
ABBEY OF CLUNY
kingdoms. The Later Liang NEW UMAYYAD RULER of the
Dynasty was short-lived (907– Cordoba emirate on the death of
923), with a succession of groups William the Pious, who donated his grandfather, Abdallah, in 912.
seizing control of the Huang He the land for the abbey in 910, His territories had been reduced
region and founding dynasties of placed no obligations on its by rebellions and he quickly set
their own, but proving unable to Benedictine monks, so that it about regaining much of his lost
hold on to power. This period of was free from secular kingdom. During his reign and
anarchy, known as the Five oversight and answerable only that of his successors, Cordoba
Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, to the Pope. Cluny became the reached the peak of its power
lasted until the establishment of centre of a monastic empire of (see 921–930).
the Northern Song Dynasty (see great power, governing around According to traditional
951–960), and was a time of great 10,000 monks. In 1098, Pope sources, Prince Igor, ruler of
hardship. Authority broke down, Urban II, a former Abbot of Kievan Rus from 914–945, was
the economy collapsed, and Cluny, declared it “the light of the son of the legendary Rurik,
barter replaced money in many the world”. who founded Novgorod in 862.
areas. There was extensive flood Under his protection, Kievan Rus
and famine as flood defences and (see 881–890) became a
irrigation works fell into disrepair. Pious, Duke of Aquitaine, became Carinthia, in 906 and 907 they
To the west and north of the Five the centre of a monastic “empire” wreaked havoc in Moravia, and Igor I of Kiev
Dynasties region, Shatuo Turks in Europe (see panel, above). in 908 they attacked Bavaria, Igor, who ruled from 914 until his
and Khitan Mongols consolidated Displaced westwards by the Saxony, and Thuringia. With the death in 945, gestures to his court
kingdoms of their own. The Pechenegs (see 891–900), the Frankish emperor unwilling or in this19th-century illustration.
Khitans of southern Manchuria Magyars launched a series of unable to help, the East Franks
established their empire in 905 devastating raids throughout the elected regional “dukes” to
under the leadership of Yelü decade. In 901, they ravaged defend against the incursions.
Abaoji (872–926). He went on to
The Five Dynasties
declare himself emperor in 916,
A succession of
founding the Liao Dynasty, regimes was unable to
which lasted until 1125, including consolidate power, GANZHOU
Khitans YAN
a brief period as one of the leaving warlords to the SHAZHOU
Five Dynasties controlling north and south to set Uighurs
up independent Yellow
northern China. LATER
TANG Sea
In 909, Sa’id ibn-Husayn, an kingdoms. The
fractured geopolitical
Ismaili Shi’ite, overthrew the
situation is reflected in FORMER JINGNAN
Sunni Aghlabid Dynasty in this map, which shows Tibetans SHU WU YUE
Kairouan (modern-day Tunisia), a tangle of borders WU
CHU
declared himself al-Mahdi (the and states. Man MIN
Shi’ite messiah), and founded
the Fatimid Dynasty, named
SOUTHERN HAN
for the daughter of the prophet
KEY ANNAM
South
Muhammad, from whom he
Chinese states China
claimed descent. Sea
States occupied by
The Abbey of Cluny in Burgundy, non–Chinese
founded in 910 by William the peoples

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118

This decorative panel at the Caliph’s Palace in Madinat az-Zahra, Spain, was
erected by Al-Rahman III in imitation of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad.
formidable power in the region,
earning the respect of the
Byzantines by force of arms
during the Rus-Byzantine war of
941, and winning lucrative trade
concessions from them.
In 911, in recognition of
helplessness in the face of
constant and devastating Viking
raids (see 881–890), the West
Frankish king, Charles III,
granted a large area of land
guarding the mouth of the River
Seine, which consisted of a large
part of what later became
Normandy, to the Norse chieftain,
Rollo, also known as Hrolf, on the
condition that he became a
Christian. Charles’ grip on the
crown was tenuous; the authority
of the Carolingian monarchs had
declined precipitously, with local
counts ruling what were
s
g uer
kin onq in
l a c lar
C ho ka I dom
5 ta g n
91 ran a kin ndia
m ar
Pa ndy rn I Sy f Ts
a e 7 l
P ut h 91 se rs
so him lga
Bu
st
Ea ia
raid anc
r tim ily
s
ar t F
gy es
7 Ma nd W
1 a
120-121_901_950_v2.indd
9 121
effectively independent fiefs that
owed only nominal authority to
the king (see 841–850). A powerful
faction of West Frankish
magnates had elected Count Odo
of Paris to the kingship in 887, so
Charles spent much of his reign
engaged in civil war with Odo and
his descendants.
One of the tribal dukes who
came to power with the
impotence of the Carolingians in
the face of the Magyar threat,
Henry I, was elected king of the
East Franks in 919, founding the
Saxon Dynasty. The last
Carolingian monarch of the East
Frankish kingdom, Louis the
Child, died in 911, after which
Conrad, duke of Franconia, was
elected as king. On his death he
nominated his strongest rival,
Henry, as successor.
es er, ed
wl ct
d ec e e Fo s ele
t h h y, i
eo of yt as
nr xon f E ing
He f Sa y I o st k ty
9 3
o
91 ke enr e fi ynas
r F
Du ng H a, th n d
Ki anci Saxo
Fr the
of
ids
Fa Sic
7 e
91 tak
921–930 931–950
,, IN THIS YEAR, KING
AETHELSTAN, LORD OF WARRIORS,
,,
RING-GIVER TO MEN… WON ETERNAL
GLORY, IN BATTLE WITH SWORD
EDGES, AROUND BRUNABURH
Unknown author, from the Old English poem,
The Battle of Brunaburh, 937
Lögberg, or Law Rock, in Iceland is
the centre of the oldest parliament.
100 IN 932, THE UMMAYAD CALIPH ABD counter the threat. The results
NUMBER OF PEOPLE IN THOUSANDS
AL-RAHMAN III (see 911–920) were immortalized in an Old
80 captured Toledo, bringing all of English poem recorded in the
Muslim Spain back under one Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (see
60
banner. Al-Rahman also waged a 871–880), which reported that five
successful war against the kings and seven earls died on the
Christian kingdoms of Leon and battlefield, alongside
40
Navarre on his northern borders, “unnumber’d crowds” of soldiers.
forcing them to acknowledge his Victory confined the Welsh and
20 overlordship. In general, Jews and Scottish to their borders, halted
Christians enjoyed tolerance Viking expansionism, and helped
0 under the caliphate, though they create England as a nation.
8th 9th 10th remained second-class citizens, In 946, the Persian Shi’ite
CENTURY making issues such as tax status Buwayhids took Baghdad and
a driving force behind conversion. forced the caliph to recognize
Cordoba’s population growth
The Silla kingdom (see Ahmad ibn-Buwayh as supreme
This estimate shows how Cordoba
grew rapidly from a small town to 651–670) was conquered by the commander. Although Abbasid
become one of the world’s Koryo kingdom in 935, caliphs remained in place until
biggest medieval cities. completing the reunification of 1258, they were mere
Korea under the Koryo leader figureheads; real power now
THE WANING AUTHORITY OF THE Wang Kon, who now became King passed to Buwayhid sultans
ABBASIDS IN BAGHDAD prompted T’aejo (r.918–943). Wang Kon had who ruled from their capital
Abd al-Rahman III to declare acceded to power in the Three in Shiraz, Persia.
himself the true caliph in 929, Kingdoms state of Koguryo in 918, Henry I (see 911–920) was one
thus amending his kingdom, from renaming it and leading it in of the tribal dukes who came to
emirate to caliphate. During the successful military ventures power in the face of Magyar
10th century, his capital, Cordoba, against the Kingdom of Paekche, threat to the Carolingians. Known
became the largest and most who were conquered in 934, and as Henry the Fowler, he enlarged
developed city in Western Europe. the Silla. During his reign, T’aejo the kingdom and inflicted the
In 930, Icelanders started consolidated power by first great defeat that the
meeting to decide on justice and incorporating Silla nobility into his Magyars (see 901–910) had
legislation at an outdoor new ruling bureaucracy. experienced since beginning
assembly on the plains of In one of the bloodiest battles their raids into Europe, at the
Thingvellir. All free men who ever fought on British soil, the Battle of Riade in 933. Henry
had not been outlawed could Anglo-Saxon king Athelstan was powerful enough
attend the Althing, making it (c.893–939) crushed an alliance of to ensure that on his death the
the oldest representative forces in 937, cementing his succession would be hereditary,
assembly in the world. control of Britain and his kingship and the election of 936 was a
During what archaeologists call of a the now unified Anglo-Saxon formality, acknowledging his son,
the Pueblo II phase, the Pueblo realm of England. Alarmed by the Otto, as the new king. Otto’s
peoples of Chaco Canyon, North prospect of Anglo-Saxon coronation ceremony in 962
America, were thriving. They built expansionism, the king of Alba (in consciously emulated that of
immense structures called modern-day Scotland) had joined Charlemagne (see 761–770), and
“great houses”, some with up to forces with the Vikings and other he was crowned at Aachen, the
700 rooms. northern British realms to old imperial capital.
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A re usl li p 20/05/2011 14:50
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121
119
 Gold arm ring
Decorated with patterns made
Thor’s hammer by stamping, beading, and
pendant minute engraving, this arm ring
Thor’s hammer – gold beading from Räbylille in Denmark has
a symbol of power and wire crosses and tree motifs.
work
and virility – was a
common theme for
jewellery. Thor was the sword indicates that
rider is a warrior
Norse god of thunder.

Statue of Frey Silver figure of horseman

The Vikings worshipped Frey, This stylized metal figure from
the Norse god of fertility. This Sweden probably represents a
statue from Sweden shows Frey warrior on horseback. The Vikings
holding his beard – a symbol were fine horsemen, but they
of growth and virility. preferred to travel by ship.

THE VIKINGS
ends of ring are in
shape of cat heads

THE ARTISTRY AND SKILL OF VIKING ARTISANS BELIES THEIR REPUTATION AS SAVAGES

Between the 8th and 11th centuries, the Viking world

spanned Europe, from the Pontic Steppes in the south and
east to the shores of North America in the west and north.
buckle plate for
This realm was tied together by a culture of arts and crafts. securing baldric

The unifying motifs of Viking art and crafts were elaborate ornamentation,
interlacing patterns, and stylized animals. The material culture of the baldric (sling-like
shoulder strap)
Vikings was mostly utilitarian yet finely crafted. Common, ceremonial,
and military objects were ornamented heavily. Techniques such as etching,
engraving, and inlaying and the use of metal beading helped to create
patterns of interweaving tendrils, “gripping beasts”, and stylized limbs.

Wooden shield
Shields were made from spruce, fir,
pine, or linden wood with iron
handles behind an iron boss.
They were painted with
bright colours and often
had intricate designs. Silver brooch/pin
This gold-coated silver
brooch or cloak pin from
Sweden is highlighted with
niello, a black metallic
colours signified compound.
intent or
allegiance

iron blade double-edged

blade

stout wooden Axe Sword

haft with runic Axes were commonly used Swords were rare and extremely
inscription by poor Vikings, as they were valuable for the Vikings. This
cheaper than swords. This sword could be easily drawn
Danish axe has a metal blade out from its sheath and wielded
and a wooden haft. with one hand.

120
122-123_collection_Vikings.indd 122 26/05/2011 18:23
17:07
 THE VIKINGS

Gilded weather vane

ornate Weather vanes were originally mounted
etching
on the prows of ships and later on the
lion figure tops of churches. This gilded weather
indicates wind vane was found in Sweden.
direction

Buckle plate
This metal plate was fixed to a
Viking’s leather belt so that it could
be buckled. It has two sections, one
for each end of the belt.

carved teeth

silver and gold

inlay work
Hair comb Brooch
A typical Viking grooming kit included This box brooch (top view), from
a comb, tweezers, and scoops for Martens on the Swedish island stylized great
cleaning ears. This wooden comb has of Gotland, is decorated with four beast with
a handle secured with iron rivets. squatting human figures in gold. sinuous limbs

Early Danish coins

iron crest
Originally, the Vikings used
looted coins, hack silver
(chunks), and barter in place
of their own money. King
Harald Bluetooth started
mass minting of coins in 975.

Trading weights
Found in Sweden, these
brass-coated iron weights
dragon head
were used to measure used to terrify
quantities of goods and enemies
the value of hack silver.

symbol
indicates weight carved scale
patterns

Drinking horn
carved from
an animal horn
Vikings believed they would
use drinking horns like this
in Valhalla, the heaven for
warriors, if they died in
battle. This drinking vessel
was used in feasting.

beech panel with

tin and iron studs

Helmet Sledge Ship’s prow ornament

Made from iron plates face This oak-and-beech sledge is Elements of Viking culture were
welded together over a guard from a ship burial at Oseberg derived from and prefigured in
leather cap, this Norwegian in Norway. It has finely carved earlier cultures. For example,
helmet has an attached face runners and animal heads on this wooden prow ornament is
guard, complete with nose protector. each corner post of the box. from Saxon times.

123

121
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26/05/2011 18:23
 951– 960 961– 970 971– 980
,,A RECKLESS
MAN BY

,,
NATURE [WHO]…
ATTEMPTED
UNUSUAL DEEDS
Leo the Deacon on John
Tzimisces, late 10th century

This detail from the “Gateway of the Sun”, a great stone doorway at This detail from the imperial crown of Otto I shows the biblical figure,
Tiwanaku, is carved with a figure known as the Staff God. King Solomon, holding a scroll.

THE PRE-INCA, ANDEAN retreated to smaller, rural Iceland 33% 33%

rowing protecting rowers

to
CIVILIZATION OF TIWANAKU settlements, and returned to a

G
re
e
declined precipitously in the pre-urban lifestyle. ia

nl
an

v
d

na
second half of the 10th century. The establishment of the Song

di
an
Sophisticated agricultural and dynasty in China brought an end

Sc
EA
North
irrigation techniques (see 741–50) to the anarchy and warfare of the Sea

OC

a
Ireland
had allowed Tiwanaku to Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Se
TIC Dublin York

tic
support a population of up era (see 901–10). Known as the

al
AN
B 33%
Britain
AT L

to 60,000 people, with up to Northern Song in its early stages Vol

ready
1.4 million in the wider region, because the capital was at Dniep ga to attack
er
GAUL EUROPE
according to some estimates. A Kaifeng in northern China, the

Ca
Bordeaux

s
an
prolonged drought is believed to dynasty was founded by Zhao

pi
Se
IBERIA a
have been responsible for its Kuangyin (r.960-76), who was a
IT
Black Sea

decline and archaeological
evidence suggests that the main
city was abandoned as citizens
Bronze Mirror
This intricately decorated mirror
from the Song dynasty illustrates
the artistic sophistication of China
in this period.
general under the Late Zhou, the
last of the Five Dynasties. He dealt
with the threat from external
states such as the Khitan Liao
(see 901–10), the Tangut kingdom
of Xia Xia, a confederation of
Tibetan tribes, and conquered
several of the Ten Kingdoms to
the south. Zhao used the civil
service examination system to
assert control over the military,
and centralize power.
Emperor Otto I, “the Great”
(912–73), defeated the
Magyars at the Battle of
Lechfeld in 955. Since
being displaced by
Byzantine–Bulgar conflict
(see 891–900), the Magyars had
raided Frankish territories,
reaching as far west as Aquitaine
in 951. The son of Henry I (see
911–20), Otto vigorously asserted
royal authority from his coronation
in 936, gaining control of all the
East Frankish duchies. His
powerful army ended the Magyar
menace and also defeated the
Wends – tribes on the eastern
border engaged in a long struggle
to resist Frankish colonization
and Christianization.
AL
Seville
Y
Constantinople
GREECE Longboat crew in battle
Athens
Asia Minor
By keeping part of the crew at the
Tunis ASIA
M oars Viking raiding parties
ed
AF RI C A
iterr
anean Sea maintained an aggressive posture
without sacrificing mobility.
Viking sea routes KEY
By the late 10th century, Viking seafarers had Viking expansionist DURING HIS SHORT REIGN, JOHN
penetrated to every corner of Europe and beyond, exploration 8–10th TZIMISCES, nephew of Nicephorus
reaching as far as Greenland in the north. centuries
II (see 961–70), won a string of
victories. Having fought off a
THE POPE’S IMPERIAL CORONATION 933. Further afield, Vikings revolt by general Bardas Phocas
OF OTTO I as emperor in 962, continued to prosper as they in 971, Tzimisces crushed a
revived the Carolingian Roman penetrated into all parts of campaign by the Kievan Rus
Empire in the West. In 961, Otto Europe. leader, Sviatoslav, and conquered
made an expedition to Italy in The death of Byzantine emperor Bulgaria as far as the Danube.
response to a plea for protection Constantine VII in 963 brought In 972, he campaigned in the East,
from Pope John XII, and in Pavia his infant son Basil II (958–1025) taking Edessa, Damascus, and
he had assumed the Italian crown. to the throne. In practice, Beirut, reaching the gates
The following year he went to authority was assumed by the of Jerusalem in 976. He died
Rome to receive the imperial general Nicephorus Phocas. As suddenly that year.
crown and assert his authority Nicephorus II (r.963–969), he In 980, the Vikings
over the fractious papacy. continued the restoration of the started raiding England
His son was crowned co-emperor empire that had begun with the again, though they suffered
as Otto II in 967. reconquest of Crete in 961, a reverse in Ireland, where
In 965, King of Denmark, regaining Cyprus and Cilicia Malachy II forced Viking
Harald Bluetooth, converted to in 965, subduing the Bulgars Dublin to pay tribute.
Christianity, and the religion in 966–69, and invading
spread rapidly through the Nordic northern Syria in 969. That
region. Denmark had been forced same year he was assassinated
to accept missionaries as by his nephew, John Tzimisces.
the consequence of defeat by the
East Frankish king, Henry I, in

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122
 981– 990 991– 1000

Venice’s modern splendour is the result of control of the lucrative trade routes between
Europe, the Byzantine Empire, and the East in the 10th century.

IN 981, THE ISLAMIC FORCES OF
CORDOBA defeated the Christian
kingdom of Leon in Spain, under
the leadership of Al-Mansur.
“Al-Mansur” was the honorific
title taken by Muhammad ibn Abi’
Amir, the powerful and energetic
vizier who was the true power
behind the Umayyad throne (see
911–20). He campaigned
successfully against Leon,
Navarre, and Catalonia, making
their kings subordinate to the
caliphate, and extended Umayyad
control to Africa via campaigns in
Mauretania (modern-day
Morocco and part of Algeria).
In 986, the Viking explorer, Eric
the Red, led a party of Icelandic
colonists to the shores
of the bleak landmass
he misleadingly named
rectangular
wool-cloth
sail
Viking longboat
Considered by some to be the greatest
technical achievement of the early
medieval era, the Viking longboat
combined river, close-to-shore, and
ocean-going capacity.
Al-Mansur
This 17th century oil painting depicts
Al Mansur, or Almanzor to his
Christian subordinates. Al Mansur
means “the Victorious”.
“Greenland” in the hope of
attracting settlers. He succeeded
in recruiting 24 boatloads of men,
women, and children willing to
entrust their lives to Viking
longboats, and brave the perilous
crossing. Only 14 ships arrived,
but they quickly established a
thriving colony that may have
eventually numbered around
5,000 people.
Otto II, the emperor and king of
East Francia, died of malaria in
10,000
983 after an expedition to Balam, Chichen Itza was
southern Italy. Although his infant conquered by Toltecs led by
son, Otto III (r.983–1001), Kukulcan, the Mayan name for
managed to hold on to the crown the Toltec god Quetzlcoatl or “the
thanks to the strong regency of feathered serpent” – possibly the KILOGRAMS
his mother, Theophano, the East exiled Toltec king, Topiltzin.
Franks were also faced with an Despite the record in the THE WEIGHT
uprising among the Wends, the chronicle, however, archaeological IN SILVER OF
forcibly converted Slavic tribes on findings suggest that the city
the eastern border. The Wends collapsed around this time. THE DANEGELD
restored their pagan religion and
resisted Frankish colonization for
By the end of the 10th century,
the mercantile powers of Venice
IN 991
nearly two centuries. and Genoa were beginning to
In 987, Toltec forces conquered dominate the Adriatic and IN 991, A FORCE OF ANGLO-SAXON
the Yucatán Maya and made Tyhrrenian seas respectively. WARRIORS made a stand against
Chichen Itza the capital of a Venice, in particular, enjoyed a much larger army of Vikings at
Toltec–Maya state. According to lucrative trade links with the the Battle of Maldon in East
the early Mayan chronicle Chilam Byzantine Empire. Anglia, England. They were
slaughtered. The English king,
Aethelred II, “the Unready”
(r.978–1016), was forced to pay a
tribute known as the Danegeld,
to buy off further incursions.
Byzantine emperor Basil II
launched the first of a long series
of campaigns against his
greatest enemy, the Bulgarian
tsar Samuel, in 996. Basil had
won major victories in Syria the
year before, but it took him
nearly 20 years to finally defeat
the Bulgarians.
From around 1000, the
TOLTECS inhabitants of Easter Island, or
Rapa Nui – an island in the Pacific
The Toltecs, who ruled a state centred on Tula in modern-day Ocean – began to carve
Mexico, were notable for their aggressive militarism, which monumental statues known as
changed society in Central America, paving the way for militaristic moai. Thought to represent
states such as the Aztec. The term “Toltec” came to mean ancestors and to channel mana
“city-dweller” or “civilized person”, but its literal meaning is “reed – spiritual energy – the cult of
person” – signifying an inhabitant of Tollan (“Place of the Reeds”, moai consumed the Easter
the city now known as Tula). Toltec art and architecture, Islanders to the point where they
characterized by monumental masonry and giant statues, was may have fatally compromised
greatly influential in the region. their environment – setting them
on the path to ecological disaster.

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123
 1001 – 1010 1011 – 1020 1021 – 1030

These ruins at Pueblo Bonito in Chaco Canyon, reveal one of more than One of the greatest but cruellest Byzantine emperors, Basil II became The Brihadishvara temple was built by
a dozen Great Houses constructed by the Anasazi. emperor in 976. Aged 20, he ruled for nearly 50 years. the Cholas in their capital Tanjore.

AROUND 1000, THE ANCIENT many as 10,000 people, and this MURASAKI SHIKIBU (LADY IN 1025, THE CHOLA KING
PUEBLO CIVILIZATION centred on set the Anasazi on a collision MURASAKI) wrote the novel Genji RAJENDRA CHOLADEVRA launched
Chaco Canyon in southwest North course with the fragile ecology of Monogatari (The Tale of Genji) an audacious naval expedition
America reached its climax. The the region (see 1161–65). in instalments between 1011 and against the maritime empire of
Anasazi used sophisticated Mahmud of Ghazni (c.971–1030) 1021. It is regarded as the first Srivijaya in Sumatra, also sacking
dryland agriculture and hydrology was a Muslim intent on Japanese novel, and possibly the the Pegu kingdom in Burma.
to thrive in the arid environment, spreading the faith into India. In first psychological novel in world Rajendra had inherited a strong
and controlled trade routes that 1001, at Peshawar, he defeated literature. kingdom from his father, Rajaraja I,
extended as far as the Pacific Jaipal, raja of Punjab, who then In 1014, Brian Boru, High King who had conquered Sri Lanka
coast of present-day California committed suicide. of Ireland and self-styled and instituted a programme of
and the Valley of Mexico. They Probably the first European to Emperor of the Gael, defeated a Hindu temple building centred
achieved impressive feats of set foot on North America, Leif coalition of Dublin Vikings and on the Chola capital of Tanjore.
architecture, most notably the Ericson landed in a place he Celtic Leinstermen at Clontarf, in Under Rajendra, the Cholas
construction of Great Houses called Vinland in around 1002. Ireland. Although the Norse expanded their kingdom
such as Pueblo Bonito, one of 13 Shortly after this discovery, kingdom was crushed and Viking to include Bengal, and
such buildings in Chaco Canyon. Greenlanders under Thorfinn incursions into Ireland halted, shattered the power of
Pueblo Bonito was six stories high Karlsefni tried to establish a Brian Boru was killed in the battle Srivijaya, securing control
and comprised more than 600 colony, spending three winters and his dream of a united Irish of the lucrative Indian-
rooms. It probably functioned there. The remains of kingdom fell apart thereafter. Chinese trade routes.
as a ceremonial centre, storage settlements at L’ Anse aux In 1014, at the culmination Cnut (also known as
depot, and elite residence. Meadows, in northern of an 18-year war (see 991–1000), Canute) was the son of
Lady Murasaki
Well-maintained roads – some Newfoundland, attest to Viking the Byzantine emperor Basil II A scene from a 16th century hanging Sven Forkbeard, king of
with stone kerbs – connected presence in North America. defeated the armies of the scroll depicts author Lady Murasaki. Denmark and Norway,
Chaco Canyon to thousands of Bulgarian tsar at Belasita. Of noble birth, she chronicled the who had invaded England
smaller Anasazi settlements Earning the name Bulgaroktonos affairs of the Heian court. and driven the Anglo-
across the region. The canyon (Bulgar Slayer), he put out the Saxon king, Aethelred II,
itself may have been home to as eyes of 15,000 captured warriors of shock. By the end of the into exile in Normandy in
before sending them home. decade the Bulgarians finally 1013. After staging his
LEIF ERICSON (970–1020 ) Basil’s arch-enemy, Samuel the submitted to Byzantine own successful invasion in
Bulgarian, was said to have died annexation. 1015, Cnut was accepted
Leif was the son of Eric the Red, founder as overlord of all England
of the Greenland colony (see 981–990). in 1016, and went on
3,000 1,000
Stories differ on the exact details of his survivors survivors
to expand his empire.
discovery of North America. According By 1030, it included
to one account, he was returning from Norway, Denmark, and
a visit to Norway in 1002, where the Faroe, Shetland, and
he had been converted to Orkney islands.
Christianity, and was blown off
course, landing at the place he
4,000 6,000
KILLED KILLED Chola sculpture of Shiva
called Vinland because of the
The Cholas were staunch
grapes growing there. Another GAELIC VIKING
Hindus and enthusiastic
account suggests that he aimed The bloody Battle of Clontarf temple builders. Shiva, one
for a land sighted to the west by Fought between the largest armies yet assembled in Ireland, of the major Hindu deities,
an Icelandic trader. the Battle of Clontarf was a bloody affair. Up to 4,000 Gaels is depicted here as a young
and up to 6,000 Norse and their allies were killed. and handsome man.

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124
 1031 – 1040 1041 – 1050

The Seljuks are shown here battling the Byzantines, Between 1041 and 1048, Bi Sheng invented the first moveable type printing
having already conquered Persia. system, using clay letters held in wax within an iron frame.

A wise and capable king, Cnut IN 1037, THE SELJUKS, UNDER BANTU IS A FAMILY OF LANGUAGES use of Hinayana Buddhism as a
managed conciliation between his CHAGRI BEG AND HIS BROTHER that originated in the Bantu cultural and political driver made
Danish and Anglo-Saxon subjects. TUGHRIL BEG, invaded Khurasan homeland (now southern Nigeria Pagan the centre of Burmese
He collected Danegeld (Danish in Persia. In 1040, they crushed and northwestern Cameroon). politics, culture, and religion. He
tax) to pay for a standing navy and the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Bantu-speaking people spread developed Burmese as a written
army – an important innovation. Dandanqan, winning control of from here to the east and south language, instituted a programme
eastern Persia, the first step on and Bantu became the dominant of building, and forged trade and
the road to creating a new language family in sub-Saharan cultural links to India and China.
Islamic empire. The Seljuks were Africa, although whether this In China, sometime between
Oghuz Turks, originally nomads indicates conquest, colonization, 1041 and 1048, the commoner Bi
from Central Asia who had or simply cultural influence is less (or Pi) Sheng invented the first
converted to Islam and moved to clear. The Bantu expansion moveable type system. Block
Transoxiana where they served started in the Late Stone Age, printing had been in use in China
as mercenaries in the region, accelerating as the Bantu for centuries, and since the Later
before turning their attentions speakers acquired iron technology Tang dynasty (923–36) had been
to Khurasan. and cattle-husbandry skills. By used for most book production,
In 1031, 40 lesser the mid-11th century, Bantu tribes but Bi Sheng introduced the
dynasties were founded on had become sophisticated innovation of using tiny clay
King and Emperor
the shattered remnants of the Ferdinand I was the first ruler of pastoralists, able to sustain high blocks – one for each character.
Cordoba caliphate, in Spain. Castile to call himself king. He population densities and complex The characters were moulded on
Known as the Muluk added the title of emperor after social and economic networks. the ends of thin rods of wet clay,
al-Tawa’if (“Party Kings”), his conquest of Leon. This in turn led to the emergence which were fired to harden them.
these short-lived dynasties of chiefdoms, and Bantu Unlike wood, this clay type did not
took control of different final break up of the caliphate, speakers dominated Central and distort when wet and could be
provinces of Cordoba after the with the Abbadids seizing Seville, southern Africa. used over and over again.
strife that brought down the the Jahwarids taking Cordoba In 1044, Anawrata seized power
Umayyads following the and the Hudids seizing in the Pagan kingdom in Burma.
execution of Abd al-Rahman Saragossa. With the Islamic His military prowess and skilful
Sanchol, son of al-Mansur, in state in disarray the Christian
1009. He was the last capable kingdoms to the north were
leader of the caliphate but his encouraged to expand southwards.
KEY
attempt to move out from Sancho III of Navarre, who had
Bantu homeland
behind the throne and conquered Castile and was 2000 BCE
take the crown led to overlord of Christian Spain, died Spread of Bantu AFR ICA
his downfall. in 1035, and his kingdoms were
Subsequently, the divided between his two sons.
Berber faction nominated Ferdinand inherited Castile, and Bantu expansion Lake
Victoria
their own candidate for in 1037 he killed his brother-in- From their homeland in the Lake
caliph and Cordoba law, the king of Leon and made border region of southern Tanganyika

descended into civil war himself emperor there in 1039. He Nigeria and northwestern AT L A N T I C c.1000 Lake
Nyasa
OCEAN
for 22 years. In 1031, the went on to conquer Navarre and Cameroon, Bantu speaking
people spread east and
death of Hisham III, the last impose serfdom on parts of
south, through the tropical c.1000
Umayyad caliph, who had Muslim Spain and Portugal. forest, eventually spreading Kalahari
Desert
already lost control of to all parts of central and c.1000
several provinces, led to the southern Africa.

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125
 1051–60 1061–70 1071–80

Labanga Mosque in Ghana is possibly the oldest mosque in sub-Saharan In this detail from the Bayeux Tapestry, completed in 1080, William the Conqueror
Africa. Ghana was Islamicized by the Almoravids in the 11th century. exhorts his troops to prepare themselves for battle.

IN MOROCCO, IN 1054, A FIREBRAND conquest of West Africa, where a
CLERIC NAMED IBN YASIN inspired number of powerful states had
the unification of Saharan tribal arisen, including that of Ghana.
groups.The confederation – Yoruba was the name given by
known as the Almoravids, from outsiders to a group of city-states
the Arabic “al-Murabitun” in Nigeria that shared a common
(“people of the frontier garrisons”) language and culture. The oldest
– built an empire that would and most prestigious Yoruba
eventually encompass much of kingdom was Ife, where a
northwestern Africa and Muslim sophisticated urban culture was
Spain (see 1081–90). In 1056, the well established by the mid-11th
Almoravids began the Islamic century. Ife was the spiritual and
mythical centre of the Yoruba,
but its poor location meant that
it never exerted wide-ranging
military or political control
over the other Yoruba
states. Ife is most
famous for its artistic
achievements, most
notably terracotta
and bronze heads.
In 1059, Pope
Nicholas II
recognized Robert
Guiscard the
Norman as Duke of
Apulia and
Calabria, and
Count of Sicily –
territories under
Byzantine and Arab
control – legitimizing
his attempts to
conquer them.
Ife bronze head
This head probably dates
IN 1066, AT THE BATTLE OF
INVESTITURE CONTROVERSY
HASTINGS, William Duke of
Normandy (c.1028–87) defeated
Harold Godwinson (c.1022–66), Which was greater: secular
the last Anglo-Saxon king of or religious authority? This
England. England had fallen into was the question at the
the Norman orbit earlier, with heart of the Investiture
Edward the Confessor spending Controversy. This 12th-
his youth in exile at the Norman century manuscript
court while Cnut (see 1021–30) illumination shows Henry IV
ruled England. William claimed requesting mediation from
that Edward had promised him Matilda of Tuscany and Hugh
the English crown, but when of Cluny. Matilda was one of
Edward died, in 1066, Harold was the most powerful women of
elected king. He marched north the Middle Ages. It was her
to defeat a Norse invasion, before stronghold of Canossa where
dashing south to Hastings to face Henry made his penitence.
William, where he was killed and
his army shattered. William the
Conqueror quickly took southeast SINCE CHARLEMAGNE’S against the king. In 1077, Henry
England, then the southwest, and CORONATION BY THE POPE (see IV crossed the Alps in the dead of
suppressed a great uprising in the 791–800), the Western emperors winter and appeared at Canossa,
north in 1069. had considered it their divine right dressed as a penitent, to submit
Under their leader Tughril Beg, to appoint – or invest – bishops. to the pope (see panel, above).
the Seljuks had occupied Baghdad Emperors had derived great He was absolved but controversy
and ended the Buwayhid dynasty income and power through their quickly flared up again, with a
(see 931–50), retaining the Abbasid dispensation of religious offices, rival, Rudolf of Swabia, being
caliph as a figurehead but giving and Emperor Henry III (1017–56) elected to the German (formerly
him the title of sultan. Tughril Beg had gone further still, in 1046, East Frankish) throne. In 1080,
died in 1063; his successor Alp insisting that it was the Henry had a rival pope elected,
Arslan extended Seljuk dominion emperor’s right to appoint the while Gregory allied himself with
into Anatolia, Armenia, and Syria. pope. Pope Gregory VII Roger Guiscard, Count of Sicily,
represented the opposite view; he against the imperial camp.
held that only popes had the right In 1071, the Seljuks crushed
to invest clerics. In 1075, at the the Byzantine army at Manzikert,
Lent synod, Gregory issued a capturing and ransoming
decree forbidding lay investiture. Emperor Romanus IV and going
The emperor, Henry IV (1050– on to conquer Anatolia (present-
1106), who was fighting to reduce day Turkey). This began its

from the 14th century, but
it represents an artistic
tradition stretching back to
the 11th century that was at
least as sophisticated as
any in contemporary Europe.
2:1
the power of German prelates, transformation into a Muslim
Battle of Hastings defied the decree. In 1076, Turkish region. In 1077, the
Anglo-Saxon casualties
outnumbered Norman Gregory excommunicated him, Seljuks established the Sultanate
losses by two-to-one, thanks in part absolving his subjects of their of Rum there, while other
to their forced march from the north, oaths of loyalty and triggering a conquests brought them Syria and
and the advanced Norman tactics. rebellion by Saxon nobles Jerusalem.

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126
 1081–90 1091–1100
,,LET SUCH AS ARE GOING TO FIGHT FOR
CHRISTIANITY PUT THE FORM OF THE CROSS UPON

,,
THEIR GARMENTS THAT THEY MAY OUTWARDLY
DEMONSTRATE THEIR DEVOTION TO THEIR
INWARD FAITH.
Pope Urban II, 1095

Hassan-i Sabbah leads initiations at Alamut, in an illustration

13
from Marco Polo’s 13th-century Travels.

IN 1090, A GROUP OF ISMAILI IN 1092, CHINESE POLYMATH

SHI’ITES BECAME INVOLVED IN A SU SUNG DESIGNED AND
DISPUTE over the Fatimid CONSTRUCTED A COSMIC ENGINE.
succession in Cairo (see 901–10). This mechanical astronomical
Under the leadership of the clock was 9m (30ft) high, and was
charismatic Hassan-i Sabbah, this water-driven with an armillary
group recognized the claims of an sphere, which showed the position
infant called Nizar, and were of celestial objects.
therefore known as Nizari
Ismailis. Forced to flee Cairo,
THOUSAND In 1094, a Castilian who had
served both Christian and Islamic
Hassan led the Nizaris to his THE NUMBER Masters, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar,
homeland in Persia where they known by the Moors as El Cid
captured a fortress known as OF PLACES (“the lord”), captured Valencia in
Alamut in the mountainous region
of Kazvin and made it the base of a
LISTED IN THE eastern Spain and established
himself as ruler.
de facto Nizari kingdom. Thus was DOMESDAY At the Council of Clermont in
born the group later known as the
Assassins – a name derived from
BOOK 1095, Pope Urban, a French
Cluniac (see 910), preached to an
the word “hashashins”, a label assembly of mainly Frankish Battle of the Crusades
applied by their enemies who threat. Defeating Alfonso at Zallaka clerics and nobles about Muslim This manuscript illustration shows Crusader knights joining battle with
claimed they used intoxicants such in 1086, they annexed most of “defilement” of the Holy Land, Saracens – the generic term used by Europeans to refer to their Muslim
as hashish to brainwash devotees Islamic Spain. urging his audience to take up foes. Around 30,000 knights took part in the First Crusade.
into blind obedience. In 1085, William the Conqueror arms in a holy war. Urban had
Alarmed by the advances of (see 1061) commissioned a survey been entreated by the Byzantines and Baldwin of Bouillon, Count became king the following year.
Alfonso VI of Castile, the of his new kingdom – known as the for help against the Seljuks, and Raymond of Toulouse, and the Under the overlordship of the King
Abbadids (see 1031) summoned Domesday Book – probably to saw a way to channel the energies Norman Bohemond of Otranto, of Jerusalem, the Crusaders
the Almoravids from North Africa regulate military service and of European nobility away from took the Seljuk Rum capital of established four principal states:
to defend against the Christian assess taxation opportunities. constant in-fighting and towards a Nicaea in 1097, conquered Edessa the kingdom of Jerusalem, which
Christian expansion that would in the same year, captured Antioch thrived on trade mediated by the
benefit the papacy. Fired by in 1098, and marched on Italian trading powers; the county
religious zeal and spurred by the Jerusalem in 1099. Godfrey was of Tripoli, set up by Raymond; the
promise of remission of sins, elected king of Jerusalem but took county of Edessa, established by
together with the prospect of the title Defender of the Holy Baldwin; and the principality of
winning booty, land, and control of Sepulchre; his brother, Baldwin Antioch, set up by Bohemund.
the lucrative trade with the Orient,
many nobles of France (formerly
West Francia) and Lorraine
joined, or “took the cross”.
The Siege of Antioch
75,000
Other nations were either in
conflict with the papacy or Islamic forces at the Siege
indifferent, so the First of Antioch outnumbered
SARACENS the Crusaders considerably.
The Domesday Book Crusade was a largely In fact Antioch fell only
French affair. Taking advantage of 15,000
Nicknamed “Domesday” in reflection of the trepidation that the great CRUSADERS when a traitor opened a
undertaking inspired in the native English, William’s survey actually disarray in the Muslim world, three gate to a party of knights
comprised two manuscripts; the Great and Little Domesday. groups of Crusaders under Godfrey led by Bohemond of Otranto.

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127
 1101–05 1106–10 1111–15

An illustration from Edward Fitzgerald’s translation of the Rubaiyat; of the 600 Monumental ruins in the city of Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Mwene Mutapa The 12th-century Cathedral of
verses, only around 120 are thought to have been written by Khayyam himself. Empire. After it seized control of the gold trade, the empire grew rich. St Nicholas at Novgorod, Russia.

SOMETIME AROUND THE START
OF THE 12TH CENTURY, OMAR
KHAYYAM (1048–1131), an
astronomer and mathematician in
the service of the Seljuk sultans,
composed a series of four-line
poems, or “roba’iyat”, which
became famous thanks to the
translation made by Edward
Fitzgerald in 1859. Khayyam’s
career reflected the Seljuk era.
At Samarkand, in the early
1070s, he was able
to pursue his
mathematical
studies thanks to
patronage from
a local jurist,
and under
the strong
Seljuk sultan
Malik Shah
(r.1072–92),
Khayyam was
invited to Isfahan
in 1073 to set up an
observatory and lead
a team of top scholars.
In this period he made many
mathematical and astronomical
breakthroughs, including
an unprecedented accurate
measurement of the length of
the year to 12 decimal places.
Although he is now most famous
for the Rubaiyat, it is not certain
that Khayyam wrote most or any
of the verses involved, and he was
little regarded as a poet in his own
time. Much of the current
reputation of the work derives
from the very free translation
by Edward Fitzgerald.
The success of the First
Crusade (see 1091–1100) owed
much to the disarray of the Islamic
regimes it had dispossessed. The
Fatimid Caliphate in Cairo was
rich but decadent; the Abbasids
in Baghdad were little more than
figureheads; the Seljuk Turks had
failed to forge a unified empire,
and instead warlords and tribal
groups had set up a patchwork of
competing states such as Rum,
Danishmend, and Damascus.
Throughout the early 12th century,
the Crusaders battled
constantly against these
foes. In 1101, Raymond
IV of Toulouse
(c.1042–1105) led
a new Crusader
Baldwin of Bourcq
This coin features
Baldwin of Bourcq,
cousin of Baldwin I
who he succeeded as
count of Edessa, then as
king of Jerusalem (see 1118).
army from Constantinople
against the Sultanate of Rum,
taking Ankara in June, only to be
destroyed by Danishmend Turks
in August. Baldwin I of
Jerusalem (c.1058–1118) steadily
improved his access to the
Mediterranean by taking a series
of coastal cities from the
Fatimids, defeating them at
Jaffa in 1102, Acre in 1104, and
Ramleh in 1105, although
Raymond died in an attempt to
take Tripoli in 1105.
NOTED FOR ITS FINE ARTS AND THE 12TH CENTURY SAW AN
CRAFTS and construction of EXPLOSION OF CATHEDRAL
monumental temple mounds, BUILDING all over Europe, as
the post-Moche culture, known population growth,
as the Sicán or Lambayeque increased wealth, and
on the northern coast of Peru, architectural advances
reached its height in the early combined with religious
11th century. But a prolonged zeal, civic pride, and
drought, followed by the personal ambition
catastrophic flooding, led of potentates. The
to cultural and political development of the
collapse. In the early 12th Romanesque and
century, the state recovered Gothic styles was given
from the convulsions of the expression in the great
11th century and rebuilt cathedrals, but each
around a new capital at region developed its
Túcume. New temples were own, distinctive idiom.
built and the capital flourished In Novgorod, for
until its conquest by the instance, the Cathedral
Chimú (see 1375), by which of St Nicholas (started
time there were 26 mounds in 1113) was given
and accompanying enclosures. domed cupolas.
In central southern Africa, The Investiture Controversy
in what is now Zimbabwe, the between the papacy and the
Mwene Mutapa Empire, also Western emperors rumbled on
known as Great Zimbabwe after (see 1071–80). Henry IV’s failure
its monumental capital, emerged to reconcile with the papacy had
as the most significant regional helped bring about his downfall;
power. A kingdom of the Shona concerned that the ongoing
peoples that emerged around 900, dispute was undermining royal
Mwene Mutapa was initially based authority, his own family had
on cattle herding, but from around conspired against him, and he
inlaid
1100 it took control of the lucrative turquoise
was imprisoned. His successor,
trade routes linking the gold, Henry V (1086–1125) launched a
iron, and ivory production centres powerful expedition to Italy to
of the interior to the Arab force an imperial coronation.
trading kingdoms on the east Under duress (he was a
coast, which offered luxury prisoner of Henry at the
goods from Asia. time), Pope Paschal II
offered major concessions on
the investiture issue in the
Ceremonial knife
This gold knife is from the Middle Treaty of Sutri, but he
Sicán culture in Peru. The early repudiated them the following
1100s mark the threshold between year and the issue remained
the Middle and Late Sicán cultures. unsettled (see 1122).

ate d , tile l f
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130
128
 1116–20 1121–25

Stained glass window of a Templar Guelph and Ghibelline forces join battle in Italy. These factions, based on the German
Knight in Warwickshire, England. Welf and Hohenstaufen dynasties, would come to dominate Italian politics.

,,IN THIS
RELIGIOUS
IN 1121, MOHAMMAD IB-TUMART,
A BERBER LEADER from the Atlas
Mountains, was hailed as the
SCHOLASTICISM

al-Mahdi (the Muslim messiah The school of thought known as Scholasticism

ORDER HAS – see 874) and led his forces, – because it was taught by the scholastics, or
FLOURISHED known as the Almohads, in a school masters – developed as the dominant
campaign of conquest against philosophy of learning in medieval Europe, hand
AND IS

,,
REVITALIZED
THE ORDER OF
KNIGHTHOOD.
From The Primitive Rule of the
Knights Templar
In Jerusalem, in 1119, a group of
knights, led by the French Hugues
de Payens (c.1070–1136), formed
an order to protect pilgrims
travelling along the dangerous
road from Jaffa, on the coast,
to the holy city. The new king of
Jerusalem, Baldwin II (cousin
of Baldwin I and his successor as
count of Edessa), assigned them
quarters in part of the Temple
Mount compound, next to the site
where the Temple of Solomon
had once stood. Accordingly, they
called themselves the Poor Fellow
Soldiers of Christ and of the
Temple of Solomon – also known
as the Knights Templar.
Bologna University was the
first in the western world. It was
Almoravid territories in Africa.
A synod at the German town of
Worms, in 1122, presided by a
papal legate drew up a concordat
(agreement) ending the Investiture
Controversy – though not the
imperial–papal rivalry. A
compromise was agreed along the
lines already adopted between
Henry I of England and Anselm
(see 1107), under which the
emperor would be involved
in investiture but not control it.
Essentially it was a victory for
the papacy.
In 1123, Frankish forces from
Jerusalem defeated a Fatimid
army at Ibelin, while off the coast
at Ascalon (Ashkelon), Venetian
ships destroyed the Fatimid fleet.
This marked the start of the
dominance of Italian maritime
power in the Mediterranean.
Emperor Henry V died in 1125,
with no male heir, and an election
was held to choose his successor.
The closest heir was Conrad of
Swabia (1122–90), of the house
of Hohenstaufen (allied to the
Salian dynasty and their
anti-papal policies),
but the powerful
archbishops of Mainz
and Cologne angled
for the election of a
candidate more friendly
to the Church. Lothair
of Saxony (1075–1137),
of the house of Welf, was
chosen and became
in hand with the emergence of the universities.
Scholasticism was an approach to learning
that used a method of formal discussion and
debating. It became the intellectual basis for
medieval religious and philosophical dogma.
Emperor Lothair II (III in some philosopher Boethius of one
sources). Immediately he was treatise on logic. This began to
plunged into a bitter civil war change in the early 12th century, as
with the Hohenstaufens, and the the conquest of Islamic areas such
two opposing sides became as Toledo and Sicily gave Christian
entrenched as pro-papal and scholars access to Arabic works.
pro-imperial factions known as Increasing exposure to the works
the Guelphs and Ghibellines of Aristotle led medieval scholars
respectively. They would plague to consider him the “master of
relations between and within the those who know” and the chief
city-states of northern Italy into authority on matters of reason.
the 14th century – long after they In 1125, the French king Louis VI
had ceased to dominate German (1081–1137) successfully
power politics – as they became rallied French nobles to repel
associated with class struggles an English–German invasion.
and reactionary versus This proved to be a milestone in the
reforming parties. French monarchy’s attempts to
The work of Aristotle assert its authority, and thus
(384–322 BCE) had survived in in the emergence of France as
Byzantium and among the Arabs, a nation-state.
but Western Europeans only had
access to a translation by the

25
founded in 1119 (or possibly
earlier, depending on the source).
Institutions such as Bologna Aristotle in translation
A page from a translation
PER CENT
University were the incubators
for the philosophical school of of Aristotle’s Nicomachean THE APPROXIMATE
Ethics, written on vellum
thought known as Scholasticism – a writing material made PROPORTION OF
(see panel, right). from calf skin, which is
more durable than
ARISTOTLE’S WORK
papyrus or paper. SURVIVING TODAY

f V ill
n o es ine gin ry
wi I nt be vid n I en at w
ald ecom ng ius yza s ds ora ra ws of nI f H wh he ct py o
B i ex s, B tute m
a
oh lm te la
La out f ids elin ing ’s wi n o f t fli cu Lia
18 q b , k l
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11 urc in II m 18 n n al
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Bo ldw sal
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130-131_1101-1125.indd 131 19/05/11 3:06 PM
nis nd
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131
129
 1126–30 1131–35 1136–40 1141–45

A mosaic shows Roger II being St Alban’s Chronicle, shows Matilda An illustration from a 15th-century copy of the History of the Kings of Britain, A scene from the Siege of Damascus,
symbolically crowned by Christ. of England holding a charter. by Geoffrey of Monmouth, shows Brutus the Trojan setting sail for Britain. a battle of the Second Crusade.

IN 1126, THE JIN – the Jurchen
dynasty established by Aguda (see
1115) in Manchuria – turned on
their erstwhile Chinese allies,
overrunning northern China and
seizing the Northern Song capital
at Kaifeng. The Jin took control
of northern China and moved the
capital to Beijing. This marked
the end of the Northern Song.
However, a Song prince, Gaozong,
escaped to the south and
established the Southern Song
dynasty in Hangzhou in 1127.
The death of Pope Honorius,
in 1130, resulted in the election
of two rival popes, Innocent II
and Anacletus II. During this
papal schism, Roger II, count
of Sicily, recognized Anacletus
as pope – his reward was the
throne of Sicily.
Song dynasty porcelain ware
The Qingbai (“blue-white”) glaze on
this ewer is characteristic of Song
dynasty porcelain from southeastern
China, where the dynasty survived
the Jin invasion.
THE DEATH OF HENRY I, IN 1135, IN 1137, LOTHAIR DIED SUDDENLY strengthen his position since IN 1141, JOHN OF SEVILLE
PITCHED ENGLAND INTO DYNASTIC while returning from a taking the crown, alienating TRANSLATED FROM THE ARABIC
STRIFE. His only male heir died in successful campaign in Italy many of his nobles, on one hand, the Epitome of the Whole of
1120 while crossing the English against Roger of Sicily. Lothair’s and powerful clerics, on the Astrology, while in 1142 Adelard
Channel, and although Henry had plans to concentrate German other. He particularly blundered of Bath translated an Arabic
made his nobles swear allegiance territories in the hands of the by arresting his chief minister version of Euclid’s Elements of
to his daughter, the Empress Welf clan, and create a stable Roger, Bishop of Salisbury. At a Geometry, one of the founding
Matilda (1102–67), she had spent inheritance for his son-in-law, stroke, he lost many of his ablest texts of mathematics. This
little time in England and her evaporated when the election of administrators, and was transmission of learning,
second husband, Geoffrey of 1138 chose the Waiblinger Conrad henceforth unable to rein in the ancient and contemporary, via
Anjou, was unpopular with the of Hohenstaufen (1135–95). The depredations of barons and Arabic into Latin, was a key
English nobles. Among those who Waiblingers were descended from other landowners, who became contributor to the emergence of
had sworn fealty to Matilda was the dukes of Franconia; the name laws unto themselves. The an intellectual renaissance in
Henry’s nephew and ward was later corrupted by the Italians country deteriorated into a state Europe, and beyond that to the
Stephen of Blois (r.1135–54). On into “Ghibelline”. Conrad set about of anarchy famously lamented by scientific achievements of the
his uncle’s death he immediately reversing the grants of Lothair, the author of the Peterborough Early Modern period (1500–1800).
went to London, secured the taking Saxony away from the Chronicle, who wrote that under In an attempt to end
support of most of the nobles and Welfs, which promptly sparked Stephen’s reign the English the civil war that was
the Church, and had himself renewed civil war. “suffered nineteen long convulsing Germany, an
proclaimed king. However, In 1139, Matilda entered winters… when Christ and all his 1142 meeting, or diet,
Matilda refused to renounce her England to reclaim her crown saints slept”. at Frankfurt confirmed
claim, and their contest would from the usurper Stephen of Sometime around 1140, the the Welf Henry the Lion
lead to a period of warfare and Blois. Stephen had failed to Welsh cleric Geoffrey of (1129–95) as Duke of
breakdown of central Monmouth (c.1100–55) wrote the Saxony (which he had
authority known as the Legendary castle
History of the Kings of Britain, an already taken by force).
Anarchy (see 1136–40). Tintagel, Cornwall, where the ruins important example of early Henry engaged in
In 1133, Lothair II of a 13th-century castle still stand, Anglo-Norman literature that a vigorous renewal of
(1070–1137) went to Italy to is featured in the Arthurian legends introduced the legend of King German expansion
intervene in the papal schism, created by Geoffrey of Monmouth. Arthur to a European audience. to the east, where his
installing Innocent II. In return,
the Pope confirmed the Matildine
inheritance (the vast estates of
Matilda of Tuscany, which she had
willed first to the papacy and then
to the emperor, sparking a dispute
that would become tied up with
the Guelph versus Ghibelline Pot helm helmet
contest – (see 1121–25) and This type of helmet
crowned Lothair as emperor. In was typical of those
1135, Lothair pacified his rivals, worn by Crusader
Conrad of Hohenstaufen and his knights. Made of
steel, the pot helm
brother Frederick of Swabia, helmet completely
apparently securing the German covered the head
crown for his son-in-law Henry save for two small
the Proud, of the House of Welf. eyeslits.

n
en er
ch rth n of ir lem ted
:
ln da
ur t No rru ing tha els of co atil d
J e u sa xp ain te lec
26 efea d ov na d k Lo in njo Jeru I e ls and Ow na hitan I e ns in Lin , M glan
11 i te o l-D A I f a
h K I I f
o e d n ins
d an
Jin ng, rn C
h lec ival
t
de s ko
f of air stal e, o
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 1146–50

Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, was built during the reign of Suryavarman II. It covers
nearly 200 hectares (500 acres) and the central tower is 42m (138ft) high.

,, THOSE WHO ARE OF GOD... STRIVE

TO OPPOSE THE MULTITUDE OF THE
IN 1146, THE INFLUENTIAL
CISTERCIAN MONK, BERNARD OF
CLAIRVAUX (1090–1153), egged on
Aquitaine (c.1122–04), and the loss
of her territories (see 1151–55).
The Byzantines were forced to
INFIDELS, WHO REJOICE IN A by Pope Eugenius III, preached a
new Crusade to liberate Edessa
step in where the Crusade had
failed, occupying western Edessa,
VICTORY GAINED OVER US, AND from the clutches of the Zengids; but Roger of Sicily took
DEFEND THE ORIENTAL CHURCH Conrad III of Germany (1093– advantage of Byzantine distraction

,,
FREED FROM THEIR TYRANNY BY SO
GREAT AN OUTPOURING OF THE
BLOOD OF YOUR FATHERS...
Pope Eugenius III, from Papal bull calling for the Second Crusade, 1145
campaigns against the heathen
Slavs were given the status
of Crusades.
In 1144, the atabeg (governor) of
Mosul, Imad el-Din Zengi
(1085–1146), founder of the
Zengid dynasty, took advantage
of feuding between the Crusader
principalities to seize the
Crusader county of Edessa. Fulk,
king of Jerusalem, had died in
1143 and his successor Baldwin
III (1130–63) was only a child,
under the regency of his mother
Melisende. She did not have the
CRUSADERS
1152) and Louis VII of France
(1120–80) “took the cross”. But
the expedition was a disastrous
affair, except for incidental
success in Portugal achieved by a
contingent of English and Flemish
Crusaders who helped Afonso-
Henriques, Count of Portugal,
take Lisbon from the Moors in
1147. Conrad and Louis took
different routes to the Holy Land,
their armies meeting equally
disastrous fates as they struggled
through Anatolia. In 1148, forced
to hitch a lift on a Byzantine ship,
having lost his army at the Battle
of Dorylaeum, Conrad met up
with Louis. Rather than pitch their
25,000
20,000
Koutoubia Mosque in Morocco
The Koutoubia (“booksellers”)
Mosque, built by the Almohads,
reflects the mercantile success of
Almohad Marrakech, where book,
cloth, and other souqs flourished.
depleted forces against the
powerful Zengids, they decided
to invade and plunder Greece in
1147. The disasters of the Second
Crusade marked the beginning of
the decline of the Frankish
Crusader kingdoms.
In 1147, the Almohads under
Abd al-Mu’min (1094–1163)
completed the conquest of
Almoravid Morocco, taking
Marrakech, before invading
Moorish Spain (although it took
them until 1172 to subjugate all
the Islamic kingdoms).
Suryavarman II (c.1113–50)
was the most warlike Khmer king,
although most of his foreign
adventures were unsuccessful. He
launched attacks against the Dai
Vet of northern Vietnam and made
repeated attempts to subjugate the
Champa. More significant
was his building programme, the
zenith of which was the temple
of Angkor Wat. This vast complex

15,000 includes five towers symbolizing

authority to settle a dispute instead to launch an attack on
between Antioch and Edessa, Damascus, the only Muslim state holy mountains, and masses of
and Imad el-Din besieged Edessa 10,000 that was friendly to the Crusader elaborate carvings.
until it fell to him. The loss of kingdoms. Hampered by lack

200
Edessa caused alarm and 5,000 of supplies and threatened by
outrage in Europe, and provided the Zengid leader Nur al-Din,
the trigger for the Second 0 successor to Imad el-Din, the
Crusade (see 1146–50). French German Siege of Damascus also failed.
In 1145, Eugenius III issued The Second Crusade broke up
a call-to-arms in the form French and German Crusaders
having failed to achieve anything
of a Papal bull.
The German force outnumbered the
French contingent during the Second beyond a damaging fallout. Louis HECTARES
Crusade. Neither army achieved any
success: defeat in Anatolia preceded
was cuckolded by one of his
generals, eventually leading to a
THE AREA OF
failure at Damascus. divorce from his wife, Eleanor of ANGKOR WAT
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131
 6 0 0 –14 49 TRADE AND INVENTION

Star–shaped tile
1267 • IRAN
Though distinctively Islamic in its
use of lustre (a ceramic technology
mimicking gilding) and arabesques
(stylized foliage), this tile shows
Mongol influence with
the inclusion of
dog-like animals.

foliage in
gold leaf

Persian ceramic and gold leaf ewer Bronze vase

1200–1399 • IRAN
It was prohibited to make drinking vessels from
gold and silver, as these were considered indulgent,
so Islamic craftsmen became expert in alternatives
such as ceramic, which was then richly decorated.
18 TH CENTURY • CHINA
Although this bronze vase from China
displays a text from the Qu’ran in
Arabic, it nonetheless shows clear
Chinese influence.

THE ISLAMIC WORLD

TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND RELIGIOUS INSPIRATION COMBINE TO CREATE A UNIQUE HERITAGE OF ARTS AND CRAFTS

Islamic arts and crafts were shaped by religious

restrictions, cultural heritage acquired through conquest,
and the elaboration of unique features, notably the use of
ornamentation and colour, and inclusion of Arabic script.
inlaid with
Through its rapid conquest of a huge empire, the Islamic caliphate was ornate
exposed to a diverse mix of cultural styles and heritages; Islamic art foliage inscription
reflects these while maintaining a high degree of homogeneity due to reads “Allah,
Muhammad,
religious uniformity. Restrictions imposed by Islam, such as prohibitions Fatima, and
on representative art and on the use of gold and silver, generated creative ‘Ali, Hasan,
and Husayn”
responses, especially stylized abstract designs, elaborate ornamentation,
strong use of colour, and the use of Arabic script and Qu’ranic quotations.

Jade necklace
1875–1925 • ORIGIN UNKNOWN
This jade necklace is made from
five pieces, all different in shape
and engraved with verses from
the Qu’ran. Such artefacts
could serve as amulets with
quasi-magical powers.
Surgical scissors and scalpel
10 TH CENTURY • ORIGIN UNKNOWN
Islamic physicians made huge
advances in medicine and surgery,
including devising a range of
surgical instruments such as the
mibda (scalpel) and miqass (scissors).

script border to Khanjar

prevent clipping 19 TH CENTURY • INDIA
Although from India, this curved,
double-edged dagger is actually
a traditional Omani blade. It is
decorated with ornate foliage,
a typical Islamic motif.

Pendant Coins Ornate gilded Shi’ite alam

18 TH CENTURY • INDIA 720–910 • SYRIA/EGYPT 17 TH CENTURY • IRAN
From the Indian Mughal Empire, this gold Coins from the Ummayad and Abbadis This alam, or standard, made
pendant shows how Muslim rulers sometimes caliphates, minted in Damascus and of brass and gold, symbolically
disregarded prohibitions on representative Cairo, bear Arabic text in place of recalls the Shi’ite standard planted
art and the use of precious metals. pictures of heads of state. at the Battle of Kerbala in 680.

134

132
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134 03/06/2011 14:34
26/05/2011 17:20
 T H E I S L A M I C WO R L D

rim markings
indicate city
head is hinged or location
to body

twisted cord
design in ochre, Feline incense burner
Bowl Candlestick
black, and white
1000–1199 • IRAN/IRAQ 11–12 TH CENTURIES • IRAN/AFGHANISTAN 15TH CENTURY • MAMLUK EGYPT
The bold colours of this simple bowl are Burners like this, in the shape of a big cat, To circumvent the prohibition on precious
typically Islamic, as is the interlacing cord were used in the courts of Medieval Islamic metals, Islamic metalworkers became
design. The lace of highlighted detail lends kings – lions and cheetahs symbolized power. adept at combining baser metals like
a meditative quality to the design. The head tilts to allow insertion of charcoal. brass with silver and gold inlay.

Calligraphy scissors
1700–99 • IRAN
These scissors were used Qibla compass
for shaping pens and brushes. DATE AND ORIGIN UNKNOWN
The blades are inlaid with gold, This ornamental compass was
a variety of damascening used to indicate the direction,
known as koftgari. qibla, of Mecca, so that
worshippers could orient
themselves properly for prayer.
Pen case
1700–1899 • ORIGIN UNKNOWN Islamic lamp
This hexagonal case for DATE AND ORIGIN UNKNOWN
carrying pens bares This hourglass-shaped lamp
geometric shapes, bares a design of Arabic script
a typical feature of on the side, which is picked out
Islamic design. in vibrant blue, a ceramic dye
perfected by Islamic craftsmen.

Illuminated Divan
1800–99 • INDIA
bold colours no empty space Arabic script illuminations
A Divan, or Diwan, is a collection or anthology of poems,
and gold leaf left unfilled inscribed with flout normal
careful calligraphy prohibitions inspired by ancient Persian poetry models. This illuminated
Divan of the Persian poet Hafez from 19th-century India has
typical Kashmiri painted lacquer covers.

135

133
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26/05/2011 14:3
 1151–55 1156–60 1161–65

Monks Mound, the largest mound at Cahokia, is over 30m (100ft) high. The University of Bologna was The Hassan Tower in Rabat, Morocco, is all that was built of
It has been estimated that it took 15 million baskets of earth to make it. originally a school for jurists. what was intended to be an Almohad super-mosque.

THE CITY OF CAHOKIA SPRANG
UP AT THE CLIMAX of the
Mississippian (or Cahokian)
culture of the American Bottom
(an area of the Mississippi River
Valley). Around the mid-12th
century they constructed more
than 100 mounds, including one
with a base that is larger than that
of the Great Pyramid at Giza,
along with a huge landscaped
plaza that may be the biggest
earthen city square in the world.
The most remarkable feature of
Cahokia is the speed with which it
came into existence. Until around
1050, Mississippians lived in
small villages and had never built
on anything approaching this
scale. By the 1150s the city may
have covered 493 hectares (4,000
acres) and been home to 30,000
people. Its cultural and economic
influence spread across the
Midwest, from the present
Canadian border to the Gulf Coast.
Perhaps because urban living
was so exceptional for the
FREDERICK BARBAROSSA (1122–90)
Mississippians, Cahokia would
decline rapidly, within around
a century, with a return to
low-density farming communities.
In 1152, Conrad III (b.1093), king
of the Romans, died and his
nephew Frederick of Swabia,
known as Barbarossa (see panel,
below) was elected as successor.
Of combined Welf and Waiblinger
parentage (see 1131–35), he
brought relative peace to
Germany. His coronation as
emperor in Rome was delayed
because the city was in the grip
of a revolutionary commune led
by radical reformer Arnold of
Brescia (1090–1155). Frederick
allied with the papacy against
Arnold and Norman Sicily, making
his first expedition to Italy in 1154.
The following year, in the face of
Roman hostility, he was crowned
by the new pope, Adrian IV
(1100–59), but had to retreat to
Germany, abandoning Adrian,
who was forced to ally himself
with the Normans.
Energetic and ambitious,
Frederick I was determined to
make Germany the dominant
state in Europe, and to reassert
authority over all the imperial
lands in Italy. Aware of the
historic context of his office, he
desired to restore the imperial
crown to Roman-era glory,
and began to style his realm
the Holy Roman Empire. In
Germany, he pacified rebels
and expanded royal lands.
WITH ORIGINS DATING BACK TO
PERHAPS 1088, BOLOGNA CLAIMS
to be the oldest university in the
Western world (see 1116–20) – in
the sense of an institution
specifically designated as a
universitas, as opposed to a
studium generale, as centres for
teaching had previously been
known. In 1158, the emperor
Frederick I (1122–90), on
the advice of scholars
who may have been
Bologna alumni, granted
the university a charter, firmly
establishing the institution as
an independent centre of
scholarship. Early universities
tended to specialize in one
field of study, and Bologna was
dedicated to law.
In 1159, Alexander III (c.1100–81)
was chosen as pope, although
his election was opposed by the
emperor, Frederick I.
Frederick had once again
invaded Italy, this time intent
on assuming his full imperial
inheritance. With the aid of the
League of Pavia (Bresci, Parma,
and others), he had subdued
Milan and its associated cities, but
at the Diet of Roncaglia, in 1158,
he had gone too far. Harking back
to the Roman era, Frederick
insisted that ancient law gave him
the right to appoint an imperial
podestà (local governor) to rule
each city. Milan was pushed into
revolt, and other cities joined
them in forming a Lombard
League under the auspices of the
papacy. Alexander III would earn
the title “the Great” for leading
this anti-imperial rebellion.
The Bodhisattva Guanyin
This 12th-century Chinese statue
depicts the Buddhist deity Guanyin,
who protects those in danger –
perhaps accounting for his popularity.
IN 1161, THE SOUTHERN SONG
REPULSED AN INCURSION by the
northern Jin (see 1126–30),
securing their kingdom from
invasion. A peace treaty of 1165
recognized an uneasy truce
between the two powers.
The Almohad caliph Abd
al-Mu’min died in 1163, having
destroyed the Almoravids and
extended Almohad rule from
Morocco to Tunisia (the province
of Ifriqiya). He made his office
hereditary, and his son Yusuf
abn Ya’qub (1135–84) succeeded
him. He would spend most of his
reign battling internal opposition,
although he was also noted for
military success in Muslim Spain
and for his patronage of the arts.
In 1164, the Zengid emir Nur
al-Din (1118–74) defeated the
Crusader princes at Artah.
Throughout the 1160s, Nur al-Din
contested with the Crusader
kingdoms, particularly as they
vied for control of the ailing
Fatimid kingdom in Egypt,
led by the vizier Shawar.
Amalric, who had become
king of Jerusalem in 1162,
was the first to occupy
Egypt, but Zengid success at
Artah forced him to march
north, leaving the way clear for
Nur al-Din’s general Shirkuh
and his nephew Saladin to
invade Egypt (see 1167).
Around the mid-12th
century, the dense urban culture
of the ancient Pueblo peoples at
Chaco Canyon in North America
collapsed, probably because their
marginal system of agriculture
had overtaxed the fragile dryland
ecology, leaving them vulnerable
to drought. Dating of timbers from
the Chaco Canyon pueblos show
that the youngest timbers date
from around the 1160s – in other
words, there was no construction
after this. Other Pueblo, or
Anasazi, sites show evidence
from this period of fortification,
destruction, and even cannibalism,
but there is also evidence of
orderly abandonment, presumably
by people moving to new sites.

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134
 1166–70 1171–75
,, WILL NO ONE

,,
RID ME OF THIS
TURBULENT
PRIEST?
Attributed to Henry II, 1170

The murder of Thomas Becket is depicted in stained glass at Canterbury Cathedral. Muhammad of Ghur, travelling by elephant, leads
Canonized in 1173 , Becket became one of the most popular English saints. his army in the Islamic conquest of India.

IN 1170, THOMAS BECKET,
ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY,
was murdered in Canterbury
Cathedral, England, by four
knights of the court of Henry II
(r.1154–89). Although he swore
that he had not ordered the crime,
and was absolved of responsibility
by Pope Alexander in 1172,
Henry’s famous outburst (see
above) had prompted the action of
the knights. The context for this
outrage was an ongoing dispute
over the extent of ecclesiastical
versus royal jurisdiction. During for instance, replaced the
the anarchy of Stephen’s reign Danegeld with new levies, but
(see 1136–40), clerical courts had it was the judicial reform that
encroached on areas previously brought him into conflict with his
under royal jurisdiction. Following friend and chancellor Thomas
Stephen’s death, Henry Becket. Becket had already
Plantagenet came to the throne. been forced into exile after being
He controlled England alongside found guilty of violating the
the territories of Anjou, Constitutions of Clarendon
Normandy, and Aquitaine – known (see 1164). On his return he vexed
as the Angevin Empire – and set Henry by excommunicating
about instituting a badly needed royally favoured bishops.
reorganization of his new At its height, in the late 12th
kingdom. Taxation reforms, century, the commercial empire
of Srivijaya, based in Sumatra,
controlled much of the Malay
tablet in clay Archipelago. Its authority
with moulded extended to colonies around the
design East Indies and as far as Sri
Lanka and Taiwan. Srivijayan
power was based almost
exclusively on its maritime
prowess. By securing the seas
in the region against piracy they
enabled and directed trade
between China, India, and the
Islamic world, but imposition of
heavy duties and taxes stoked
resentment and, eventually, revolt.
Frederick I’s fourth expedition
to Italy, beginning in 1166,
prompted the renewal of the
Lombard League (see 1156–60)
and the construction of the mighty
fortress town Alessandria,
named for the pope. With this
citadel guarding the mountain
passes, Italy became virtually
independent of imperial authority.
Votive tablet
This votive tablet from the trading
empire of Srivijaya is engraved
with Buddhist figures. The ruling
Sailendras were ardent Buddhists.
THE GHURIDS WERE A DYNASTY
FOUNDED IN 1151 by Ala-ud-Din
Husayn, who conquered much
of Ghaznavid Afghanistan and
founded a new state based at
Ghur in western Afghanistan. In
1173, Ghiyas-ud-Din became
emir, making his brother
Mu’izz-du-Din, better known as
Muhammad of Ghur, co-emir.
Together the brothers brought
most of Afghanistan under their
control, and in 1175 Muhammad
launched the Islamic invasion of
northern India.
The Spanish rabbi Benjamin of
Tudela (1130–73) was the first
recorded European to have
approached the borders of China,
in an epic journey he made from
1159 to 1173. His account, The
Travels of Benjamin of Tudela,
recounts many exotic legends,
including Noah’s Ark resting
on Mount Ararat.
Leaning Tower of Pisa
In the medieval period, the city Pisa’s famous leaning tower is
of Pisa, in Tuscany, became the 54.5m (179ft) tall and 17.5m (57ft) in
centre of a thriving city-state. Its diameter at the base.
cathedral was constructed in the
11th century, but in 1173 work that rejected many of the teachings
began on a separate bell tower. of Catholicism. Despite initial
Even during construction the blessing by Pope Alexander III,
foundations sank and the tower the Waldensians’ refusal to abide
began to slant. Eventually it by his injunction against preaching
came to lean 4.5m (15ft) from led to their denunciation as
the perpendicular. heretics in 1179 and a long history
During the 1170s, a new of persecution (see 1206–10).
religious movement emerged In 1174, the Zengid emir Nur
in Lyons. Also known as the Poor al-Din died. His nephew Saladin,
Men of Lyons and the Vaudois, who had already assumed control
the Waldenses were led by Peter of Egypt, quickly marched north to
Waldes (c.1140–1218), a rich secure Syria, and was duly
merchant who gave away his recognized as sultan of Egypt and
property and began to preach a Syria by the caliph in Baghdad,
radical creed of gospel simplicity founding the Ayyubid dynasty.

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 1176–80 1181–85
,, SALADIN’S HOPE HAD AN
EASY PASSAGE, HIS PATHS WERE

,,
FRAGRANT, HIS GIFTS POURED
OUT, … HIS POWER WAS MANIFEST,
HIS AUTHORITY SUPREME.
Imad al Din, Secretary to Saladin, from Lightning of Syria, c.1200

This depiction of the Battle of Yashima during the Gempei wars illustrates a
heavily armed Minamoto discovering the terrified mother of Emperor Taira.

EMPEROR FREDERICK
BARBARROSA’S FIFTH EXPEDITION
TO ITALY in 1176 (see also
1151–55) ended in disaster for the
imperial forces when his army
was crushed at the Battle of
Legnano. The battle marked one
of the earliest occasions in the
medieval era when cavalry were
defeated by infantry. This had
class implications as knights on
horses generally belonged to the
feudal aristocracy, while footmen
with pikes represented freemen
of the rising bourgeoisie. In 1177,
Frederick was forced to concede
the Peace of Venice with the
pope; a prelude to the more
comprehensive Peace of
Constance in 1183 (see 1181–85).
Now reconciled with the
emperor, Pope Alexander III was
able to call an ecumenical council
at the Lateran Palace in Rome,
in 1179. The council decreed that
papal elections would be solely
in the hands of the cardinals, and
that a two-thirds majority was
needed to elect a pope. It was
hoped that this would draw a
line under years of contention
between papal candidates
elected by the anti-imperial party
and “anti-popes” – persons
selected by the emperor to
oppose the legitimately elected
or sitting pope.
In 1176, the army
of Byzantine
emperor Manuel
Commenus was
destroyed by the
Turks of the
Sultanate of Rum
(see 1100–05)
at the Battle of
Myriocephalum.
The Byzantines were
never again able to
send land forces to
help the Crusaders.
The Gempei Wars
(1180–85) in Japan
Pope Alexander III
This 14th-century
fresco shows
Pope Alexander III
presenting a sword
to the Venetian Doge
for use against the
emperor, Frederick
Barbarossa.
COAL AND IRON IN
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
Growing populations, new
agricultural implements, and
constant military activity
increased the demand for
iron in the Middle Ages.
Charcoal was still the main
source of power for iron
forges, but deforestation
caused wood shortages.
As a consequence, demand
for coal increased in and
scavenging for sea coal was
increasingly supplemented
by mining. The first record
of a coal mine comes from
Escomb near Durham, in
northern England in 1183.
marked the end of Taira
domination of Japan (see
641–650), and the start of the
Minamoto shogunate. Civil
wars in 1156 and 1159 had left
control of Japan in the hands of
Taira no Kiyomori (c.1118–81),
who quickly assumed a similar
level of power to the Fujiwara
clan (see 851–860). Not only did
he act as prime minister, but he
also married his daughters to the
imperial family, enabling him to
place his infant grandson on the
throne as emperor in 1180. But
his excessive lust for power and
perceived corruption alienated his
provincial supporters, and in the
same year there was an uprising
by the Minamoto clan against
Taira rule, which grew into the
five-year-long Gempei Wars.
BY THE 1180S, THE CRUSADER
KINGDOMS OF OUTREMER (“beyond
the sea”, as they were known in
Europe) were in an increasingly
precarious position. Europe was
deaf to entreaties for Crusader
reinforcements, and the Christian
Byzantines were preoccupied with
other matters, such as war with
Norman Sicily. Meanwhile, their
Muslim opponents were gathering
under the leadership of Saladin, or
Salah al-Din, (c.1137–93) the sultan
of Egypt and Syria. By 1183, he had
suppressed Christian rebels at
Edessa and Aleppo, and with both
sides reeling from the effects of a
drought, had brokered a peace
treaty with the leper king of
Jerusalem, Baldwin IV
(c.1161–85). The uneasy peace was
shattered, however, by the actions
of Reynald of Châtillon, an
adventurer from the Second
Crusade, who persistently raided
unarmed caravans of Islamic
pilgrims, and sponsored a pirate
fleet that pillaged the Red Sea.
Saladin mobilized his army,
intent on punishing Reynald, but
his progress was checked by
Frankish fortresses and another
prolonged famine. In 1185,
Baldwin died and his sickly infant
nephew inherited the crown as
Baldwin V (1177–86).
In 1183, the peace between
Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and
his Italian foes was ratified as the
Peace of Constance, but although
imperial authority over Italy was
recognized, the Lombard cities
were granted effective autonomy.
The Battle of Dannoura of 1185
marked the climax of the Gempei
Wars. Warrior Minamoto
Yoshitsune, younger brother of
Yoritomo, the founder of the
shogunate, destroyed the Taira in
the naval battle.
Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria
Saladin escapes from battle on
a camel in this 18th-century
engraving. He was renowned as
a generous and principled leader.

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 1186–90 1191–1200

The Horns of Hattin, an extinct volcano crowned with two rocky outcrops, King Richard I of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, is shown
was the site of the Battle of Hattin in 1187. leading Crusaders into battle.

horns made of
ON 4TH JULY 1187, THE CRUSADER 200 Templars and Hospitallers THE THIRD CRUSADE was CRUSADER ARMOUR
gilded wood
ARMY WAS DEFEATED by the were executed, while Saladin hampered by infighting among
forces of Saladin. The Crusader
forces were led by the new king of
personally beheaded Reynald.
King Guy was later released,
the European factions of the
Crusaders of Outremer,
27kg THE WEIGHT
OF ARMOUR
Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan, who
had seized power on the death
but, with his army annihilated,
it was easy for Saladin to cow
and although Richard the
Lionheart won most of his 1.5kg THE WEIGHT
OF A SWORD

0.4kg
of the infant Baldwin V in 1186. many of the remaining battles, he was unable to THE WEIGHT
Baldwin’s regents had negotiated Crusader strongholds into achieve his sworn aim of OF A MACE
another truce with Saladin, but surrender. He took Acre in July “liberating” Jerusalem. The
and Jerusalem in October. Tyre, Crusade had already got off to a and hold the holy city. With
Antioch, Tripoli, and a few castles bad start (see 1186–90), and there continued infighting among the
were all that remained of the were further delays en route Crusader barons, the murder
Crusader kingdoms. when, in 1191, Richard stopped to of Conrad of Montferrat by
The Crusader kingdom of conquer Byzantine Cyprus. He Assassins (see 1081–90)
Outremer had been pleading for sold the island to the Templars, soon after being made king,
European assistance for years who would later pass it on to the reinforcements arriving for
and the fall of Jerusalem in Saladin, and bad news from

3:2
diminished Crusader kingdoms,
Battle of Hattin 1187 finally prompted Pope where it became one of the main England – where his brother John
Saladin’s troops
Gregory VIII to preach a new supports for continuing Christian was scheming to seize the crown
outnumbered the
Crusaders by 30,000 to 20,000, yet Crusade. The dispatch of presence in the Holy Land. – Richard was forced to conclude
his success was owed to his tactics Anglo-French forces was On finally arriving in Palestine, a peace treaty with Saladin in
and the Christians’ desperate thirst. delayed by disputes between Richard joined Philip II of France 1192. Outremer would henceforth
Henry II of England and Philip in the siege of Acre, which be confined to a 145km (90 mile)
once again, Reynald of Châtillon II of France, and then by the was actually a double siege coastal strip, from Tyre to Jaffa,
had broken it, raiding a caravan of death of Henry and the – King Guy had laid siege to along with Antioch and Tripoli.
pilgrims and provoking Saladin accession of Richard I in the city on his release from In 1192, Minamoto Yoritomo
into a final campaign to sweep the 1189. Richard I and Philip II captivity (see 1186–90), but (see 1181–85) awarded himself
Holy Land clear of the Christian finally set out in late 1190. Saladin had then encircled the title Seii tai-shogun
principalities. Goaded by Reynald, Frederick Barbarossa had his forces. Acre was taken (“barbarian-subduing great
King Guy led a combined force already set out overland in by the Crusaders in July general”). Since the end of the
of Crusader knights, Templars, 1189, but was drowned en and much of the population Gempei Wars, Yoritomo had
Hospitallers, and English route the following year. was massacred. Philip II dispatched all challengers,
mercenaries (see 1116–20) across returned to France, but including his brother Yoshitsune.
a waterless plateau in the blazing metal plated Richard I had sworn to As undisputed military dictator,
gloves or tekko his bakufu, or administration, at
heat to take up a position on liberate Jerusalem, and
the Horns of Hattin, an extinct marched along the coast, Kamakura now supplanted the
volcano. Between them and Lake skirts split for ease retaking towns and defeating imperial court. Japan would be
Tiberias – the main source of of movement Saladin at Arsuf in September. ruled by shoguns – military
fresh water for the thirst-crazed Although he would go on to dictators - for centuries to come.
knights – lay the well-rested and Samurai armour clear Muslim forces from In 1192, the Ghurids of Persia
provisioned army of Saladin. This beautifully presented the rest of the coastal strip, defeated a Hindu rebellion at the
Japanese armour dates from
Using raiding tactics, Saladin the 19th century, though the and camp within sight of Battle of Taraori near Thanesar in
drove the Crusaders into first samurai warriors fought Jerusalem, Richard India. The following year, Delhi was
desperate confusion, surrounding with similar armour in the realized he did not have taken and Muhammad of Ghur
and capturing them all. More than 12th century. the forces needed to take founded the Sultanate of Delhi.

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 1201–05 1206–10

A Persian painting shows Temujin, later known as Genghis Khan, battling the Peterhouse college, Cambridge was
Tartars. The Tartar tribes fought constantly with the Mongols. founded 75 years after the university.

POPE INNOCENT III HAD
PROCLAIMED A NEW CRUSADE in
1199, intent on restoring papal
supervision to the crusading
movement, and hoping to reunite
the Greek and Latin churches to
fulfil his vision of a single
Christian dominion under the
papacy. In 1201, envoys met
Enrico Dandolo, Doge of Venice, to
arrange passage to Egypt for the
Fourth Crusade. Under the
Peace of Venice (see 1176–80),
the Venetians agreed to transport
33,500 men and 4,500 horses for a
payment of 85,000 marks. In
addition, they would supply 50 war
galleys in return for half of the
Crusaders’ conquests.
When the Crusaders gathered in
Venice in 1202, it transpired there
were too few of them, and they
could not pay the agreed bill.
Instead, they agreed to help
Venice by taking Zara in Dalmatia
– a rich source of wood for
Venetian galleys. Pope Innocent
protested, but worse was to come.
In 1204, the Crusaders arrived in
Constantinople, where relations
with the Byzantines quickly
soured; the city was taken for the
first time in its history, and was
brutally sacked. A new Latin
Empire of the East was
proclaimed under a new emperor,
Baldwin of Flanders, while Venice
was awarded nearly half the city,
numerous Mediterranean islands,
and other territories. Although the
Byzantine emperors relocated to
Byzantine Nicaea, the Fourth
Crusade marked the end of the
Byzantine Empire as a true power,
which discredited the Crusading
movement and helped the Turks.
In the late 12th century, the
Mongolian and Turkic nomads of
the steppes were fearsome but
disunited. Temujin (c.1162–1227),
who later became known as
Genghis Khan, was a minor
leader who became a nokhor
(companion) to Toghril, Khan of
the Kereits, the dominant tribe in
Central Mongolia. Through ability
and charisma, he rose to become
a great general, crushing the
Jayavarman VII
This bronze statue of King
Jayavarman VII, in Mahayana
Buddhist style, portrays a serene
and contemplative king.
neighbouring Tartar tribes in
1202, but inciting resentment
among other Kereits so that in
1203 he clashed with Toghril
himself. He emerged from this
confrontation as the dominant
avenged the destruction of the
capital by deposing the Champa
king in 1191, suppressed a revolt
in the west, restored Angkor, and
finally gained ascendancy over the
Champa kingdom. Jayavarman
made Mahayana Buddhism the
state religion and taxed the
resources of the kingdom to build
great temples, as well as hospitals,
shrines, roads, and bridges. One
of his temples, Preah Khan, was
served by 98,000 retainers.
In around 1200, the Chimú state,
centred on their capital at Chan
Chan in the Moche valley in Peru,
began to expand. Their power
rested on their mastery of
intensive agriculture techniques
and elaborate irrigation. At Chan
Chan, Chimú leaders built
citadels, or palaces, high-walled
buildings with audience chambers
and storage depots. It is believed
that each new Chimú ruler was
obliged to build and fund his own
citadel, which drove the expansion
of the empire.
In 1202, the mathematician
Leonardo of Pisa, better known as
BY 1206, TEMUJIN HAD UNITED
ALL THE TRIBES OF MONGOLIA into
the Khamag Mongol Ulus “the All
Mongol State”, reorganizing tribal
society into an army grouped on a
decimal system. At the Mongolian
capital of Karakorum, he took the
title Chinggis Khan or “ruler of the
world”. The name is now most
commenly spelled, “Genghis”.
In 1208, Pope Innocent III
proclaimed a crusade against
heretics in the south of France –
the Albigensians (Cathars based
around Albi) and Waldenses (see
1171–75). Their teachings
challenged the worldliness of the
established church, while their
anticlericalism attracted nobles
keen to appropriate church lands;
the Cathars, for instance, were
under the protection of Raymond
of Toulouse, who ruled much of
southern France. The pope’s
declaration gave license for the
French king, Philip II (1165–1223),
to allow his northern lords to
wreak havoc in areas outside of
,, KILL THEM

,,
leader among the Mongol tribes. Fibonacci (c.1177–1250),
Jayavarman VII (c.1125–1220) produced the most influential
Novgorod had returned from exile to claim book in European mathematics to
ALL, GOD
Bolgar KHANATE OF THE
GOLDEN HORDE
CHAGATAI
KHANATE the Khmer crown in 1181. He date, the Liber Abaci, or Book of WILL KNOW
EUROPE Gran
Kiev
ASIA Karakorum
EMPIRE OF THE
Calculation. Based on Arabic
mathematics, it introduced
HIS OWN.
Tashkent GREAT KHAN KEY
Constantinople Bukhara Europe to Hindu numerals (0–9) Abbot Arnaud Amaury, on the
Beijing Campaigns of Genghis
M e d i terr
an e
Trebizond Nishapur
Kashgar Ningxia JAPAN Khan 1206-1227 and to the word zephirum, a Albigensian Crusade
an S ea
Herat Balkh Lhasa Kaifeng
Hamadan Empire of Genghis Latinized version of an Arabic
IL-KHANATE Kabul CHINA Ningbo
Medina Patna Dali Khan 1227 word that, in the Venetian
BURMA Guangzhou
AFRICA
Mecca
INDIA Pagan
Silk road dialect, became
Hanoi
Arabian
Sea South Map of Genghis Khan’s empire
zero in algebra,
China
Sea Temujin would go on to unite the Mongol addition, and
tribes and conquer a huge empire. His the Fibonacci
successors would extend it still further. Sequence.

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 1211–15 1216–20 1221–25

,,
,,I AM THE
PUNISHMENT
OF GOD...
Genghis Khan, Mongolian warlord

This 19th-century oil painting depicts the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, A detail from the south gate of the

8
said to have been the decisive battle of the Reconquista. great Khmer city of Angkor Thom.

PERSECUTION OF
THE CATHARS
Although only 200 Cathars
lived in the town of Beziers in
Languedoc, Crusaders
massacred the entire
population in 1209. Asked
how the attackers should
distinguish between
Catholics and heretics,
crusade leader Abbot
Amaury is reputed to have
given his famous order to
“kill them all”. In its pursuit
of Cathars, the papacy would
eventually create the
Inquisition (see 1231–35).
his control, preparing the way for
an expansion of royal power.
In 1209, Cambridge University
was founded by scholars who had
relocated from Oxford. By 1226,
they had aquired some formal
organization.
PETER II OF ARAGON (1178–1213)
AND ALFONSO VIII OF CASTILE
(1155–1214) defeated the
Almohads (see 1146–50) at the
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in
1212. Alfonso had earlier been
crushingly defeated by the
Almohads in 1195 but had fought
off invasions by the other Christian
Spanish kingdoms and rebuilt his
army. After this decisive victory, the
Almohads were soon expelled from
Spain, leaving only local Muslim
dynasties that could not stand up to
the Christian advance. Accordingly,
this battle is traditionally said to be
a decisive point in the Christian
reconquest or “reconquista” of
Moorish Spain (see 1241–45).
Having lost most of his lands in
France, King John of England
(1166–1216) joined in alliance with
Emperor Otto IV (1178–1215) and
others, but they were crushed at
the Battle of Bouvines in Flanders
in 1214 by Philip II of France and
the rival German emperor,
Frederick II. This ended Anglo-
Norman hopes of regaining French
territories. King John’s barons
were forced to concentrate on
England, where they had cause for
discontent. Thanks to a dispute
with the pope, the king had been
briefly excommunicated. More
importantly, he was taxing the
barons heavily and invalidating the
law when it suited him. The barons
revolted and after a brief civil war,
John was forced to sign the Articles
of the Barons, known in history as
the Great Charter or Magna Carta.
Although this mainly concerned the
rights of barons, in stating that the
king was not above the law, it was
an important milestone for human
rights. King John immediately
disowned the charter and war
3 clauses 4 surviving
still in use copies
63 40
CLAUSES ORIGINAL COPIES
The Magna Carta
Of the 63 clauses contained in the
original Magna Carta, only three
survive as laws today. Numerous
copies were made, to be distributed
around England; four survive.
broke out once more, this time with
added French involvement.
Retreating from a French invasion
force in 1216, the king lost his
baggage train – and royal treasure
– while crossing the Wash in
Lincolnshire, England, and died
soon after. His infant son, Henry III
(1207–72) came to the throne.
METRES
THE HEIGHT OF
THE WALLS OF
ANGKOR THOM
JAYAVARMAN VII DIED IN AROUND
1220, having seen his greatest
creation take shape. At Angkor, in
modern-day Cambodia he had
created a new city, Angkor Thom,
centred on the great state temple
of Bayon. The temple comprises
towers decorated with huge,
sculpted faces; the identities of
these are disputed, although they
may include Jayavarman himself.
Having conquered most of
Central Asia and northern China,
Genghis Khan’s empire (see
1201–05) now bordered the
Khwarazm Empire of Persia.
Mongolian dagger
The Mongolians had a deservedly
fearsome reputation. After archers
had decimated the enemy, fighters
with hand weapons would close in.
DOMINGO DE GUZMAN, A CASTILIAN
CLERIC DIED IN 1221. In 1203, he
had gone to Rome to ask
permission to do missionary work
with the Tartars (see 1201–10), but
was sent to France to preach to
the Cathars of Languedoc
instead. By adopting absolute
poverty, he was able to challenge
the Cathars and make some
headway, although ultimately his
failure to “correct” the heretics led
to the Albigensian Crusade (see
1206–10). However, like Francis of
Assisi (see 1226–30), he had
created a new kind of monastic
order – the Dominicans – adapted
to the new urban culture. The
Dominicans and Franciscans
were mendicant friars, mainly
recruited from the middle classes,
living off charity rather than
farming, and devoted to preaching
and charity in towns and cities.
A largely ineffective affair, the
Fifth Crusade was the fruit of
Pope Innocent’s determination to
reboot the Crusading movement.
Targeting Egypt, the Crusaders
took that but then lost Damietta,
and failed to account for the Nile
floods, which foiled their advance
on Cairo. They high-handedly
rejected a treaty offered by the
sultan that would have given them
Jerusalem, and left Egypt in 1221
having accomplished nothing.

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 1226–30 1231–35 1236–40

This 13th-century painting by Giotto di Bonodore This 14th-century image shows Pope Steppe landscape; little changed
shows St Francis of Assisi preaching to the birds. Gregory IX receiving a list of heretics. since the days of the Mongol Empire.

1,000,000
THE NUMBER OF PEOPLE
KILLED DURING THE
ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE
THE RENEWAL OF THE
ALBIGENSIAN CRUSADE (see
1206–10) in 1226 was in spite of
the Pope declaring an “official”
end to the Crusade at the Fourth
Lateran Council of 1215. In reality,
the battle for the south of France
descended into vicious guerrilla
warfare. Renewal of the Crusade
was followed eventually by the
submission of Raymond VII, Count
of Toulouse – the Cathars’
protector. Under the Treaty of
Meaux (also known as the Peace
of Paris) of 1229, the town of
Toulouse was ceded to the
Capetian dynasty – the ruling
house of France from 987 to 1328.
Crusader coin
A rare Crusader coin from the
Kingdom of Jerusalem illustrates
the effects of intermingling policy:
the inscription is written in Arabic.
Meanwhile, Emperor Frederick II
of Germany realized that peace
with the Muslims was better than
unwinnable military adventures.
In 1229, he concluded a treaty
with the sultan of Egypt that
restored Jerusalem and some
surrounding land to the Christians.
The Sixth Crusade thus passed
without bloodshed, although
Frederick was roundly condemned
for this achievment.
A former soldier, Francis of
Assisi had founded the
Franciscan order in 1209 (see
1221–25). In 1224, he received the
stigmata (the wounds of Christ),
and he was canonized just two
years after his death in 1226.
Cathar stronghold
The Cathar castle of Peyrepertuse in
the Pyrenees was located in a
strategic defensive position on the
French–Spanish border.
IN 1231, POPE GREGORY IX
established the Papal Inquisition,
a campaign by the church against
heresy. Prior to 1231, the
investigation of heresy had been
the responsibility of bishops but it
now became the preserve of
specialist inquisitors, mostly
drawn from the Dominican and
Franciscan orders (see 1221–25).
In 1233, the Dominicans were
charged with bringing the
Inquisition to Languedoc in
France, where the Cathar heresy
clung on despite the military
defeat of the Count of Toulouse
(see 1226–30).
Mongolian expansion
continued, though Genghis Khan
(see 1201–05) had died in 1227
while suppressing a rebellion in
Xia Xia in China. He was
succeeded by his second son,
Ogodei (c.1186–1241), who was
still more ambitious. Ogodei sent
armies to the east and west,
leading the final assault on the
Chinese Jin Empire (see 1126–
30), which was conquered by
1234. The Southern Song had
aided the Mongol advance, but
when they tried to seize Kaifeng in
northern China in 1235, the
Mongols turned on them.
In 1235, Sundiata, king of the
Keita, a Mande people from
sub-Saharan Mali, defeated the
Susu king Sumnaguru at the
Battle of Kirina. The Susu had
destroyed the old Ghana Empire
(c.830–1235), and Sundiata now
built a new Mande empire on the
ruins of Ghana.
ON HIS DEATH, GENGHIS KHAN had
informally divided his empire
between four of his sons. Given
authority over the west, Batu
Khan (c.1207–55) established the
Kipchak Khanate, also known as
the Golden Horde Khanate. In
the winter of 1237, when the
frozen rivers allowed his cavalry
to cross, Batu invaded Russia.
Over the next four years, his
armies conquered the Russian
principalities and blazed a trail of
destruction deep into Central
Europe. Under the overlordship of
Ogodei (see 1231–35), the
expanding reach of the Mongol
Empire had important
implications for pan-Eurasian
trade. The Pax Mongolica or
“Mongol Peace” achieved in the
lands under Mongolian control
made the perilous passage
across Central Asia and the silk
road increasingly viable, enabling
the first direct contact between
Europeans and the Chinese
since Roman times in
around 1240.
By 1236, the Teutonic Knights
– a military order formed in 1198
by German merchants serving at
the Hospital of St Mary of the
Teutons in Jerusalem – had
completed the subjugation of the
Pomeranians, a pagan tribe in
Prussia. Under their grand
master, Hermann von Salza
(c.1179–1239), the knights
established numerous
strongholds, and in 1237, they
merged with the Livonian
Brothers of the Sword and
advanced into Livonia (present-
day Estonia and Latvia).

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 1241–45 1246–50

This miniature from the Annalistic Code of the 16th century depicts the “Battle of the Ice”, In this 16th-century painting, Ferdinand III, King of Castile and Lon, accepts
fought on the frozen waters of Lake Peipus, Novgorod. the surrender of the city of Seville from the Moors in 1248.

IN 1241, THE GERMAN TRADING
TOWNS OF LUBECK AND HAMBURG
formed an alliance to protect the
Baltic trade routes. This was the
first act in the formation of the
Hanseatic League (from the
medieval Latin hansa, meaning
a group or association). Lübeck
quickly became the centre of
expanding German trade in the
Baltic region, which extended
along the Russian rivers as far
as Novgorod, and linked to the
European trading centres of
England and Flanders.
In 1242, the efforts of the
Teutonic Knights (see 1236–40)
RECONQUISTA
The notion of the Reconquista
– the Christian reconquest of
Islamic Spain – as a single,
continuous project, is a myth,
first created by clerical
propagandists in the 14th
century. In practice, the
advance of the Christian
kingdoms was by degrees,
driven by the need for land,
and facilitated by Muslim
dissention and advances in
military technology.
Medieval trade
A manuscript
illumination of the port
of Hamburg, a founder
member of the
Hanseatic League,
which had its roots in
an alliance of 1241
with Lübeck.
to extend their
Livonian territories
eastward and launch
the conversion of the
Russians from the
Greek to the Roman
church were checked
by defeat at the
Battle of Lake
Peipus. Led by
Alexander Nevski,
prince of Novgorod,
the Russians
checked the knights’ progress and
Lake Peipus thereafter served as
the eastern limit of Livonia.
In a series of stunning victories
in Eastern and Central Europe,
the Mongol armies destroyed all
opposition. Early in 1241, an army
of horsemen crossed the frozen
River Vistula into Poland, sacking
Kracow and defeating an alliance
of Poles, Silesians, and Teutonic
Knights at Leignitz in April. Just
three days later, another force
under Batu (see 1236–40)
overwhelmed the Hungarian army
in their camp at Mohi. By
December, Batu was destroying
Pest, the largest city in Hungary.
The Mongols had reached the
gates of Vienna when, in 1242, the
news reached them that Ogodei,
the Great Khan, had died. As was
traditional, Batu withdrew his
forces back to Karakorum, the
Mongol capital, for the election
of a new leader. Elsewhere,
Mongol forces had penetrated
the Indian subcontinent, sacking
Lahore in 1241.
In 1244, Jerusalem, which
had been under partial Christian
control since Frederick II’s treaty
with the sultan of Egypt (see
1226–30), was lost to medieval
Christians for the final time. The
Egyptian sultan, Ayyub, was
engaged in a contest with the
Syrian branch of the Ayyubids
(see 1171–75) at Damascus,
which had allied itself with the
Christian Crusader kingdoms.
In 1244, Ayyub’s forces overran
Jerusalem and expelled the
Christians.
IN 1247, FERDINAND III OF CASTILE
AND LEON (c.1199–1252) laid siege
to the Moorish city of Seville. It fell
to him in 1248, and with it the last
Moorish kingdom in Spain – with
the exception of Granada. Here,
Mohammad ibn-Yusuf ibn Nasr
had established the Nasrid
dynasty in 1230. By 1238, the
Nasrids had begun to reconstruct
an old fortress, the Alhambra,
which would become one of the
wonders of world architecture by
the mid-14th century (see
1350–55). In 1246, the emir of
Granada agreed to become
Ferdinand’s vassal, but the last
relic of Moorish al-Andalus would
resist Christian pressure until
1492 (see 1490–92).
Louis IX of France (1214–70)
was much respected throughout
Europe and had a reputation
for justice. Under his reign, royal
control was extended to the
Mediterranean, and the previously
autonomous realms of Languedoc
and Provence would become part
of French Capetian territories. In
1244, Louis “took the cross”,
embarking on a crusade in 1248.
Theobald of Navarre had launched
THE CRUSADES
1096–99 FIRST CRUSADE
1145–49 SECOND CRUSADE
1189–92 THIRD CRUSADE
1202–04 FOURTH CRUSADE
1213–21 FIFTH CRUSADE
1228–29 SIXTH CRUSADE
1248–54 SEVENTH CRUSADE
a crusade in 1239, but it was so
unsuccessful that it is not usually
recognized as an ordinate
crusade; Louis’ crusade of 1248
is accounted the Seventh, the
last Crusade of this magnitude
ever undertaken. Louis landed in
Egypt and took Damietta without
opposition, but in 1250 his army
was destroyed by the Egyptians
at Fariskur and he was taken
captive. His mother, Blanche of
Castile, raised a large ransom to
buy his freedom.
The Mamluks (or Mamelukes)
of Egypt were slave soldiers
captured from Turkic and
Circassian tribes (of the Pontic–
Caspian steppes), who formed
the main component of the
Ayyubid army. Eventually they
became strong enough to take
power for themselves,
murdering Turan Shah, the last
Ayyubid sultan of Egypt, in 1250.
At first the Mamluk commander
Izz-ad-Din Aybak used the
sultan’s widow as a puppet ruler,
but he soon married her and
founded the Mamluk dynasty,
the first slave dynasty to hold
power in its own name.

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 6 0 0 –14 49 TRADE AND INVENTION

sharp
obsidian blade

eagle head
sculpted
in gold

Lip ornament Human mask Warrior effigy pot

MIXTEC
This eagle-shaped lip plug, or labret,
would have been worn by a member of
the Aztec elite. The Mixtec, a conquered
tribe, made most Aztec gold jewellery.
AZTEC
Found at the Great Temple of the
Aztecs in their capital Tenochtitlan
(now Mexico City), this greenstone
mask was a votive offering.
MOCHE
This pot from the Moche culture of the
north coast of Peru shows a warrior in
a head-dress grasping a club. Constant
warfare was a way of life.

THE AZTECS, heavy wooden

handle

INCAS, AND MAYA

THE EXTRAORDINARY ARTISTIC TRADITIONS OF PRE-COLUMBIAN AMERICA THAT SPANNED MILLENNIA

The Incas, Aztecs, and Maya were advanced civilizations Obsidian knife
AZTEC
with sophisticated arts and crafts and highly developed Long-bladed, razor-sharp
graphic systems. The artefacts they created dazzled the obsidian knives such as
this one were used by
medieval European invaders and still fascinate today. warriors and in the gory
human sacrifices practised
by the Aztecs.
The art and culture of the pre-Columbian civilizations of Mesoamerica and
the Andes represent the height of ancient traditions stretching back to the Maquahuitl
AZTEC
4th millennium BCE. The conquistadors had a devastating effect on these Lacking iron or steel, pre-Columbian
cultures, but the artefacts that survive are a testament to their rich heritage. Americans used obsidian (volcanic
Much of Incan culture came from client states, such as the Moche, while the glass) to form cutting edges. The
maquahuitl – a wooden club fringed
Aztecs and Mayans derived theirs from older cultures, such as the Olmecs. with obsidian blades – was a
common Aztec weapon.

Sun stone skin of flayed

AZTEC victim
This sun stone, or calendar stone, is the
largest Aztec sculpture ever found.
It represents the Aztecs’ mythical
history of the universe. The Sun,
believed to have been formed
in the most recent era of
creation, is at the centre.

decorated with
pictoglyphs

band showing
days of month

Xipe Totec, god of the springtime
disc is 4m (13ft) TEOTIHUACAN
across The name of this grisly god translates as
“our flayed lord”; he is depicted wearing
the skin of a sacrificial victim, denoting
the spring renewal of the Earth’s “skin”.
Priceless heart
AZTEC
The heart was considered the most
precious organ that could be offered
to the gods, and this replica was carved
in jade, which the Aztecs regarded as
their most valuable substance.

142
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 T H E A Z T E C S , I N CA S , A N D M AYA

Necklace Tomb figurine

INCA INCA
Turquoise was highly valued by the This cast gold figurine
Incas (Aztecs and Mayans preferred representing an Inca god
jade and other greenstones), and this made up part of the grave
rare necklace is made from beads goods interred in the tomb
of gold, turquoise, and red shell. of a high-status individual.

size and position of

knots records numbers
ornate
head-dress

hunter disguised heavy

as deer earplugs

Panpipes
INCA
Known in Europe
as the syrinx, the
panpipes were
among the most
common Inca musical
instruments. This unusual
set is made of quills from
the feathers of a condor.

elaborate
carvings

Decorative plate
MAYA
This plate from the Yucatan Maya shows hunting
scenes – in the centre, a hunter drapes a deer he
has caught across his head and shoulders, while
around the edges other hunters wear deer masks.
Codex Tro–Cortesianus
MAYA
One of only four surviving Mayan codices,
this one records instructions for divination
(predicting the future) and priestly rituals.
Sheets of bark paper were coated in gesso
(chalky paste) to form a writing surface.
Jaina figurine
MAYA
This pottery figure from the island of Jaina
shows a powerful man dressed in all his
finery, with a heavy bead necklace, massive
head-dress, and ear plugs.
Counting device
Greenstone yoke INCA
AZTEC This quipu, or counting device, was a
Yokes were worn as protective belts in the versatile accounting tool that helped
sacred ball game ulama, played by most the Incas keep track of the tribute and
Mesoamerican cultures. This ornate yoke population of their empire – data was
was probably a ceremonial replica. recorded in lengths of string and knots.
codex was read
bars and dots from top to bottom,
represent numbers then left to right

145

143
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03/07/2012 11:3
 1251–55 1256–60

Although not as sophisticated as Mayan hieroglyphs, Aztec pictographs such This illustration of Mongols battling the Seljuks is from a chronicle by Rashid
as the one shown could express simple concepts. al-Din, a Muslim minister in the service of the Il-Khanate.

BY THE MID-13TH CENTURY, THE In 1253, Hulagu led a huge army HULAGU KHAN (SEE 1251–1255)
KUBLAI KHAN (1215–94)
MEXICA TRIBE – better known into Western Asia to conquer the CONTINUED HIS CAMPAIGN
today as the Aztecs – were Great Seljuk sultanate (see AGAINST THE SELJUKS and other
established in the Valley of 1031–40), while Kublai launched Islamic powers. In 1256, he The grandson of Genghis Khan,
Mexico. Aztec legend suggests campaigns against the Southern crushed the Order of the Kublai spent eight years
that they migrated from the Song and the Kingdom of Assassins (see 1081–90), taking campaigning in southern China
ancestral homeland of Aztlan in Nanchao in China. their stronghold at Alamut in before succeeding his brother
the early 12th century. Settling at Persia. In 1258, he sacked Mongke as Great Khan in 1260.
Chapultepec, near Lake Texcoco, Baghdad and executed the His own kingdom, the Great
Mexico, in around 1250, they were Abbasid Caliph – the figurehead Khanate, encompassed
soon expelled by the Tepanecs, of Islam – in just one of countless Mongolia and China, where he
one of the tribal confederations atrocities committed by Mongol founded the Yuan dynasty,
competing for dominance in the invaders who massacred moved the capital to Shangdu,
wake of the Toltec collapse in the hundreds of thousands of and did much to foster trade
early 12th century. Muslims during their campaigns. and international links.
Although the Mongols had In 1259, Hulagu penetrated deep
conquered most of the Russian into Syria, but as with Batu’s
principalities (see 1236–40), and campaign in Europe 18 years regain his Syrian conquests and formally made sultans of Egypt,
the Golden Horde Khanate had earlier (see 1241–45), his the westward expansion of the Syria, and the Levant.
claimed authority over Russia, progress was halted by news of Mongol Empire was halted. Alfonso X of Castile (r.1252–1284)
surprisingly little changed for the death of the Great Khan, Hulagu’s conquests, which won the nickname “the Wise”
the Russians. In return for and he withdrew his armies encompassed Iran, Iraq, most of thanks to his learning, patronage of
tribute and military service, while he returned to the Anatolia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and the arts and Castilian literature,
the Russian princes were left Mongolian capital to help Georgia, became the Il-Khanate, sponsorship of natural philosophy,
in power and the Russian select a new leader. or Ilkhanate. Meanwhile, the and judicial reforms. He oversaw
Church was not interfered Taking advantage of Hulagu’s Mamluks gave refuge to a fugitive the final expulsion of the
with. Alexander Nevski withdrawal, the Mamluk Abbasid prince, setting him up in Almohads (see 1121–25) from
(c.1220–63), the prince of general al-Zahir Baybars Cairo as the new caliph. Spain in 1257.
Novgorod who had led the marched north and struck at Recognized as guardians of the
Russians to victory against the the Mongol garrisons in Islamic faith, the Mamluks were
Teutonic Knights in 1242, Syria. At the Battle of
became the dominant Russian Ayn Jalut in Palestine,
noble, appointed Grand Duke of
Vladimir after his brother was
driven out by the Mongols.
General Baybars
defeated the
Mongols and
,,HAD I BEEN PRESENT
AT THE CREATION, I
Under the support of the new expelled them from
Great Khan, Mongke (r.1251–59), Palestine and Syria.
WOULD HAVE GIVEN

,,
his brothers Kublai and Hulagu On his return to Egypt
renewed the Mongol expansion. he murdered the
sultan and took his
SOME USEFUL HINTS FOR
Prince of Novgorod
place. Distracted by
dynastic struggles, and
THE BETTER ORDERING
This statue depicts Russian leader,
Alexander Nevski, whose name later by a protracted OF THE UNIVERSE.
derives from the Russian victory at inter-khanate war,
the Battle of the River Neva. Hulagu was not able to Alfonso X, the Wise, on the Ptolemaic system

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 1261–65 1266–71 1272–75

This example of Mamluk architecture from the height of the sultanate adorns Geneta Mariam church in Ethiopia, Former stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller, Krak des Chevaliers or “fortress
the entrance to the mausoleum of Qalawun in Cairo, Egypt. built during the Solomonid era. of the knights” in Syria was taken by the Mamluks and fortified further.

ITALIAN NOBLEMAN AND LATER Paleologus would campaign

DOMINICAN MONK, THOMAS tirelessly to restore lost K H A NATE O F TH E
C H AGATA I
K H A NATE
EM P I R E
O F TH E
GOL DE N H O R DE
AQUINAS (1225–74) became one of Byzantine lands. G R EAT K H A N
EUROPE ASIA Karakorum
the most important philosophers The Second Baron’s War in COST OF Venice GOBI
in the history of Western thought. England between 1264 and 1267 PARCHMENT Rome
Constantinople Shangdu
Khanbaliq
Renowned for his work in uniting was brought about by a M e d i t e r r an e an Antioch
Tabriz
faith and reason, Aquinas’s combination of newly kindled COST Se
a Balkh
H T I B E T C H I NA
OF MA
Baghdad IL-KHANATE i m a Hangzhou
period of greatest productivity national consciousness and PAPER ML
UK Hormuz
layas
S Quanzhou
occurred between 1258 and 1273, resentment at foreign Mecca I NDI A Guangzhou
S a ha r a Pagan
when he penned his two best- interference. Henry III of England

Re
Arabian
Cost of paper versus parchment

dS
MALI Sea South
known works, the Summa contra (r.1216–72) had introduced many

Gentiles and the Summa
Theologiae.
In 1261, Michael VIII Paleologus
(r.1259–61), the Byzantine
emperor of Nicaea, concluded the
Treaty of Nymphaeum with the
Genoese, agreeing to cede them
all the trading privileges once
enjoyed by the Venetians (see
981–990). He had already secured
an alliance with the Bulgarians,
and was now poised to achieve his
dream of re-taking Constantinople
from the Latin Empire
(Constantinople and environs,
captured from the Byzantines
during the fourth crusade),
After paper-making technology was
foreign officers into government introduced to Italy, the cost of
and taxed the English heavily to vegetable-based paper fell to 1/6 of
fund overseas adventures and the cost of animal-based parchment.
papal extortion. Rebels led by
Simon de Montfort, Earl of THE SOLOMONID DYNASTY IN
Leicester, captured the king at ETHOPIA was founded in 1270 by
Lewes in 1265 and summoned the Yekuno Amlak, displacing the
first European parliament that previous Zagwe dynasty, and
included elected representatives. claiming to have restored the
Meanwhile, the Mamluks began legitimate line of the ancient
a push to rid the Holy Land of the Christian kings of Aksum. Amlak
Crusader kingdoms once and claimed descent from the biblical
for all. Solomon, via the possibly
Ethiopian Queen of Sheba.
The town of Fabriano in Italy lies
close to the Adriatic port of Ancona,
which was notable in the 13th
ea
Aden Angkor
Calicut China
AFRICA Sea
INDIAN OCEAN
Travels of Marco Polo KEY
To reach China, Marco Polo travelled through Route of Marco
Anatolia, Iran, and Afghanistan. On his return, Polo 1271–1295
he sailed to Hormuz in Persia via Sumatra. Silk road
IN 1271,THE VENETIAN MERCHANT Holy Land, having forced the
AND EXPLORER, MARCO POLO Mamluks to conclude a 10-year
(c. 1254–1324), travelled to China. truce in his attempts to destroy
Arriving at Kublai Khan’s court in Acre, one of the last remaining
1275, the Great Khan employed Crusader footholds in Outremer.
Marco Polo in various capacities. The Mamluks had already taken
In 1292, he escorted a Mongol the apparently impregnable Krak
princess to Persia, returning to des Chevaliers from the Knights
Italy three years later and writing Hospitaller in 1271.
a travel memoir while a prisoner

22
and reconstituting the century for trade with the Muslim of the Genoese. Polo’s memoir,
Byzantine Greek Empire. In world. This is probably how paper The Travels – known by Italians as
July 1261, a Byzantine army manufacture became established Il Milione, because of the belief
took advantage of the there in the 1270s. Use of animal that it contains a million lies
absence of the Venetian fleet gelatin in place of more degradable – is a fascinating portrait of the
to cross the Bosporus strait vegetable gel made Fabriano Mongolian Empire at its height.
and take Constantinople. The paper more durable, and the town The Pax Mongolica (see 1236–40)
Latin emperor, Baldwin II became the principal paper allowed freedom of movement PER CENT
fled, and the Paleologus manufacturing site in Europe. through lands under the authority THE WORLD
Empire was established. In 1270, Louis IX of France made of Il-khanate, and it was said that
another attempt at crusading, but a virgin with a pot of gold on her LAND AREA
on the request of Charles of Anjou,
the Eighth Crusade was diverted to
head could pass unmolested from
Constantinople (modern-day
COVERED BY
Thomas Aquinas
This 15th-century altarpiece Tunis where disease killed Louis Istanbul) to Beijing. THE MONGOL
depicts Thomas Aquinas,
whose philosophy still
and his army. In 1272, Edward Plantagenet
(r.1272–1307), heir apparent to the
EMPIRE AT ITS
underpins Catholic dogma. English throne, returned from the HEIGHT
n
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 1276–85 1286–90

Statues adorn the Meenakshi Temple at Madurai, in India. Originally constructed by Kulasekhara Pandya, Guglielmo Berardi da Narbona was
the temple was destroyed by Muslim invaders and later rebuilt. killed at the Battle of Campaldino.

IN SOUTHERN INDIA, KING
KULASEKHARA I (r.1268–1308)
expanded the empire of the
Pandyas to its greatest extent.
The Pandyas were an ancient
Tamil people of the far south, who
contended for supremacy over the
centuries with neighbouring
kingdoms such as the Cholas and
the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka).
Under Sundara (r.1251–68) the
Pandya empire had expanded
dramatically and reduced some
neighbouring states to vassalage.
His son Kulasekhara went on to
conquer Kerala, Kongu, and
Ceylon, and in 1279 he defeated
the last Chola king, Rajendra III,
and annexed his territories. The
Divine wind
An engraving shows the destruction
of the Mongol fleet by the kamikaze
(“divine wind”) in 1281.
greatness of the Pandya court was
attested to by Venetian merchant,
Marco Polo, who would pass
through in 1293, but the empire
was short-lived, breaking up in
the early 14th century due to family
quarrels and Muslim invasions.
By the late 13th century, the
Maori had settled in New Zealand
– with the exception of Antarctica,
the last land mass to be colonized
by humans. Dating the Maori
colonization is contentious.
According to estimates based on
Maori traditions, the first
Polynesians visited the islands in
the early 10th century, and waves
of colonization climaxed with the
arrival of the Great Fleet of
ocean-going canoes in 1350.
Archaeological findings tell a
slightly different story. However, it
seems likely that Polynesians,
probably from Tahiti, arrived in
New Zealand around 1280, IN THE 1280S, A TRIBE OF
MAORI CARVING
dividing the territory between TURKOMAN NOMADIC HORSEMEN
hapu (clans). Hapu that traced a and raiders based in northwestern
common ancestry formed iwi Maori culture is noted for its Anatolia, known as the Ottomans,
(tribes), some of which could trace tradition of arts and crafts; elected Osman (1258–1354) as
their lineage back to a single waka chief among these is Te Toi their chieftain. At this time, the
houra (ocean-going canoe). Whakairo (carving). Master political map of Anatolia was
Having conquered Korea and craftsmen were believed to fractured: the Mongol onslaught
most of China, Kublai Khan channel the voices had broken up Seljuk Rum and
(1215–94) set his sights on of the spirits and replaced it with many small
Japan, sending embassies ancestors, and principalities, while also driving
demanding submission as early intricately carved waves of Muslim refugees into the
as 1268. Under the bold posts and lintels region. Meanwhile, the Byzantine
leadership of the Hojo regency, adorning Empire had been successively
the Japanese refused to be structures reduced and broken up by Seljuk
cowed. After a failed invasion around the and Latin encroachment. Osman
attempt in 1274, Kublai sent marae (sacred was able to lead his tribe in a
150,000 men in two huge space) and waka territorial expansion, rapidly
fleets in 1281, but the (canoes) were conquering Byzantine territory.
Japanese held off the invading believed to Florence, like many other Italian
armada until a great typhoon, accumulate and cities, had developed into a largely
known in Japan as the pass on mana autonomous republic or
kamikaze (“divine wind”), (spiritual power). commune. It was typically easier
devastated the Mongol fleet. for the German emperors – the
notional feudal overlords – to grant
cities powers of self-government
than try to control them directly.
Since the mid-13th century,
Florence had see-sawed violently
between Guelph and Ghibelline
regimes (see 1221–25). This
Guelph–Ghibelline conflict had
gripped the Italian city-states,
providing a vehicle for the
expression of local class tensions
as well as national and
international politics. When one
faction gained the upper hand in a
city, the other was typically
expelled. In the 1280s, the
Guelphs had the upper hand, and
Guelph partisans exiled from
Arezzo encouraged them to take
up arms against the rival city. The
Florentines defeated Arezzo at the

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146
 1291–95 1296–1300

The Eleanor Cross at Geddington, Northamptonshire, England, features an William Wallace was outlawed for killing one of Edward’s sheriffs in 1296.
ogee arch, marking a milestone for the English Gothic style. He was one of the first men to be hanged, drawn, and quartered.

Battle of Campaldino, heralding
the start of a period of Florentine
dominance in Tuscany. Among
those battling on the Florentine
side was the poet Dante Alighieri
(see 1311–17).
IN 1291, AFTER A DESPERATE THE EXTINCTION OF THE CANMORE
SIX-WEEK SIEGE, the Mamluks DYNASTY, followed by dissent
took Acre, the last major Crusader among the Scottish nobles, had
stronghold in Palestine, and a allowed Edward I to exercise
few months later they took Beirut, increasing dominance over the
the last remnant of the Crusader Scots, and in 1292 he awarded the

The line of Slave Kings of Delhi
came to an end in 1290 with the
seizure of power by Firuz of the
Khalji Turks – a tribe living in
Afghanistan – thus founding the
Khalji dynasty. Firuz is best
remembered for releasing into
Bengal 1,000 Thugs or Thuggees,
cult followers of the goddess Kali
devoted to murder and robbery
in her name.
1:4
kingdom known as Outremer crown to John Baliol. However, in
(see 1181–85). After nearly 200 1295, Baliol made an alliance with Battle of
Stirling Bridge
years, Christian presence in the England’s enemy, France. The Under William Wallace,
Holy Land was extinguished, and following year Edward launched a an estimated 2,500 Scots defeated a
the Mamluks plundered the campaign to subdue the Scots, much larger force of English soldiers
region to deter future Crusades. defeating them at Dunbar, and (numbering up to 10,000) at the
To limit the risk of disastrous taking the Stone of Destiny – the Battle of Stirling Bridge.
fires, Venice moved its glass- Scottish coronation stone – back
making industry to the island of to London. In 1297, the Scottish The Genoese–Venetian naval
Murano in 1291. Venetian glass nationalist William Wallace conflict continued, with battles in
makers were the only ones in Murano glass (c.1272–1305) led a revolt against the Black Sea and the Greek
This Murano glass vessel dates to
Europe to master the art of around 1330. As well as increasing English dominance, overcoming a islands. At the Battle of Curzola,
producing clear glass. Their fire safety, concentrating the glass larger English army at Stirling in 1298, the Genoese fleet inflicted
expertise in working with glass industry on an island helped to Bridge, but he was defeated at a disastrous defeat on the
had earlier born fruit in the regulate it and guard its secrets. Falkirk in 1298 and forced into Venetians, destroying all but a few
invention of spectacles (see 1284). years of guerrilla warfare and of their ships and killing up to
Edward I of England (r.1272– underway. Capable of carrying overseas fundraising. 7,000 men.
1307) had married Eleanor of more cargo and a larger crew, the
Castile in 1254. Though construction of the first of the great North
unpopular with the English, she galleys in 1294 heralded a distinct

a
Sea

Se
lti
and Edward enjoyed a happy advantage for the Venetians.

c
ENGLAND Ba
Danzig

165
marriage, and he was devastated Southampton London
Bruges
when she died in 1290. The ATL A NTIC
OC EA N Paris Frankfurt EUROPE
following year he ordered the Bay of
erection of 12 so-called Eleanor Biscay FRANCE Tana
HUNGARY
crosses to mark the passage of Venice Moncastro Kaffa
her funeral cortege to London. CASTILE Marseille Genoa
Lisbon Varna Black Sea
Bastia
The contest for mastery of the Valencia Dubrovnik
Rome Trebizond
Mediterranean between Genoa Cadiz Murcia
Naples Constantinople
and Venice continued, with a Málaga
Trapani
Honein Bougie Palermo Phocaea
Genoese fleet defeating the
THE NUMBER
Bône Syracuse Rhodes
Tunis
Venetians off Laiazzo in 1294. The Famagusta
Me Cyprus
following year, Genoa put together dite Crete Beirut

a huge fleet, with the aim of OF GALLEYS AFRICA rrane

an Sea

landing a killer blow. However,

Ornate Mughal screen
This screen from the main gateway despite a formal challenge being IN THE 1295 Genoese trade routes KEY
of the Qutb complex in Delhi was
built by the Khalji sultan Ala-ud-din,
made, it was not engaged.
Developments in Venetian
FLEET OF The Genoese opened a lucrative trade route to the
North Sea, and competed with Venice to dominate
Trade routes

murderer and successor of Firuz. shipbuilding, however, were GENOA trade with the Byzantines and the East.

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 1301–10 1311–17
,,LET EVIL SWIFTLY BEFALL

,,
THOSE WHO HAVE WRONGLY
CONDEMNED US – GOD
WILL AVENGE US.
Jacques de Molay, the Grand Master of the Knights
Templar, cursing King Philip and Pope Clement V, 1314

Domenico di Michelino’s painting The Comedy Illuminating Florence, depicts The torture of Jacques de Molay, Grand
Dante, the city of Florence, and scenes from the Divine Comedy. Master of the Knights Templar.

ALTHOUGH THE GHIBELLINES HAD
BEEN EXPELLED FROM FLORENCE
(see 1286–90), factionalism still
plagued the city, with a drawn-out
power struggle between the old
aristocratic nobility, the new
mercantile nobles, and the
powerful guilds. The Guelph
faction split into Black (extreme)
and White (moderate) parties.
In 1301, the Whites expelled the
Blacks, only for them to return
when Charles, count of Valois,
entered the city. The following
year the Black Guelphs sentenced
the Whites to death or exile –
among them the poet Dante
Alighieri (see panel, right).
In 1301, Pope Boniface VIII
(c.1235–1303) supposedly issued a
bull asserting papal supremacy
over France. In fact, the bull was a
forgery, put out by the French king
Philip IV the Fair (r.1285–1314) to
stir up animosity against the pope.
Philip “responded” by calling one
of the first Estates General
– including representatives of the
towns and clergy – and received
their backing. Boniface
excommunicated Philip and
Philip called for the Pope to face
criminal charges. In 1303, agents
acting for Philip forced their way
into the papal apartments in
Anagni and arrested the Pope,
who died soon after. Facing
tumultuous conditions in Italy, in
1303 the cardinals elected the
archbishop of Bordeaux as Pope
Clement V. Although hoping to
establish himself in Italy when
the violence subsided, Clement
remained in southern France,
finally settling in Avignon in 1309,
then owned by the king of Naples.
This temporary arrangement for
the papacy would last until 1378.
Palais des Papes
Situated on a rocky outcrop, the
papal palace in Avignon is one of the
largest and most important medieval
Gothic buildings in Europe.
FROM THEIR HUMBLE BEGINNINGS,
WHEN THEY HAD BEEN SO POOR
that two knights sometimes had
to share a horse, the Knights
Templar had risen to
dizzying heights. With the
backing of Cistercian
abbot Bernard of
Clairvaux (1090–1153),
and subsequently the
Pope, they had won
exemption from secular
jurisdiction and taxation,
and thrived as donations
of land and money poured
in. By the 13th century
they had become de facto
bankers to much of
Europe, able to direct a
large fleet and maintain the
primary Crusader army in
Outremer. Templar knights rose
to prominence all over Europe,
especially in England, where the
Master of the Temple was the
first baron of the realm. In the
early 13th century, then Master
William Marshal ruled the
country as regent for the young
king Henry III (1207–72). However,
after the fall of Outremer, the
Templars were struggling to stay
afloat, and presented an easy
target for their enemy, Philip IV of
France. Philip coveted the Templar
lands and cooked up charges of
heresy in which to indict them. On
13 October 1307, Philip’s officials
simultaneously arrested every
Templar in France. They were
accused of a variety of crimes,
including sexual and occult
outrages and worshipping an idol.
The use of torture obtained lurid
confessions, and over the next few
and the richness of their
Red Sea accessories. At Hereford
Cathedral a huge Mappa Mundi
(map of the world) was created
in around 1300 (its creation is
variously dated to 1285 and 1314)
and used as an altarpiece; it is the
largest mappa mundi in existence.
Such maps encapsulated the
medieval world view on the eve
of the Age of Discovery.
At the Battle of Bannockburn
in 1314, Robert the Bruce, king
of Scotland (r.1306–29), finally
expelled the English from Scotland.
Hereford Mappa Mundi
The world is shown as a disc, with
Jerusalem at the centre. Trade and
pilgrimage routes are illustrated,
together with places of interest.
years around 60 Templars were
executed. Elsewhere in Europe,
some arrests were made, but
there was much less appetite for
condemning the order. At the DANTE ALIGHIERI
Council of Vienne (1311–12), (1265–1321)
Philip forced Pope Clement to
dissolve the Templars, and in 1314 Dante is the greatest Italian
the last Grand Master, Jacques de poet to have lived and one of
Molay, was burned at the stake. the most important writers
Hereford, in England, was an in European literature. He is
important centre for the wool best known for his epic poem
trade – one of the main sources the Divine Comedy, and for
of wealth in medieval England. his tragic love for Beatrice,
Foreign buyers flocked to the who married another and
country to buy wool for export to died young. Exiled from his
the textile industries of Flanders native Florence for political
and Italy, and the wool trade was reasons, Dante spent much
described as “the jewel in the of his life travelling from one
realm”. The wealth of places such city to another. He died in
as Hereford was expressed in the Ravenna in 1321.
magnificence of their cathedrals

e es h n
th r lis tio
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e l m ur lan any ilip arr Tem nd ns ss de ntin :
rn nd tab de ror
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150-151_1301-1340.indd 150
re ba an 26/05/2011 19:09
150
148
 1318–25 1326–39

The earliest European illustration of a cannon, from a book by Walter de The gilded bronze doors on the Baptistry in Florence, sculpted and cast by Andrea
Milemete, presented to the future Edward III of England in 1326.

25
Pisano, took six years to make after he won the commission in 1329.

GUNPOWDER WAS SLOWLY BUT
STEADILY CHANGING THE FACE OF
WARFARE. Arabs and Moors had
probably gained knowledge of
gunpowder from the Chinese,
using cannons in Spain as early as
1284. The Mamluks are believed
to have used handguns at Ain
Jalut, while the Mongols acquired
the technology on conquering
China. Europeans probably picked
it up from Spain and contact with
the Mongols. The first record of
cannons forged from iron comes
from Metz in 1324; later that year
an English fortress in Gascony
was bombarded for a month.
The Mali Empire of West Africa
reached its height under Mansa
Musa (r.1312–37), extending from
the Atlantic to Nigeria, and from
the Sahara to the rainforest. His
great wealth was based on Mali’s
gold, and when he travelled on
pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324–25,
he dispensed so much gold on his
Moscow
Kiev
EUROPE
Granada
Constantinople
Tangier
Antioch
Marrakesh Fez
Cairo
Jerusalem
MAMLUKS
S ahar a
Timbuktu
MALI
Niani
Jenne
FLORENCE IN THE 1320S AND Sangama dynasty in the south, Flanders, which triggered a
1330S WAS HOME TO ARTISTS led to the establishment of the revolt there against French
including Giotto di Bondone last great Hindu empire in India, domination. In 1337, Philip VI
(c.1267–1337) and Andrea Pisano centred on the city of Vijayanagar. of France declared Edward’s
(c.1290–1349) – both seen as Edward II of England invested French territories forfeit, while
forerunners of the Italian power in favourites, especially Edward claimed the French
Renaissance (see pp.208–09). Piers Gaveston (murdered by crown, triggering the start of
Giotto painted naturalistic frescoes resentful barons in 1312) and the the Hundred Years War.
THE PERCENTAGE on the walls of the Basilica of Despenser family. He also
Santa Croce in around 1325, and alienated his wife, Isabella of
OF TIMBUKTU’S in 1334 was put in charge of the France, who was sent to France
Vijayanagar sculpture
Lord Hanuman, the Hindu monkey
POPULATION AT construction of the Duomo in 1325 to arrange the marriage of god, is shown carved on a rock
SANKORE (cathedral). Greatly influenced by their son. While there, she surface in Vijayanagar, the heart
Giotto, Pisano won a commission became the lover of Roger of the last great Hindu empire.
UNIVERSITY to craft a set of bronze doors for Mortimer, and when
the Baptistry of Florence, they returned, in
passage through Cairo that he finishing them in 1336. 1326, they led a
destabilized the economy. On The Tughluk dynasty of the revolt against
his return, he employed an Delhi sultanate had expanded the king. The
Andalusian architect to build a the reach of the Muslim state, Despensers were
new palace at Timbuktu, which reducing neighbouring Hindu hanged, Edward
became a centre for Islamic kingdoms to vassal status, and was forced to
scholarship. Mali was later repelling a series of Mongol abdicate in favour
visited by the Moroccan scholar incursions. In 1325, Muhammad of his teenage son,
Ibn Battuta (c.1304–69), who first Tughluk (c.1300–51) murdered his and Roger and
set out on his travels in 1325. father and took the throne, quickly Isabella ruled as
establishing a reputation for regents. Eight
Bulgar
KHANATE OF THE CHAGATAI cruelty. In 1327, he transferred the months later,
GOLDEN HORDE KHANATE
New Sarai capital from Delhi to Daulatabad Edward II was
ASIA
Astrakhan EMPIRE OF THE for defensive reasons, forcing the horribly murdered.
GREAT KHAN
entire population to relocate. In The regents ceded
Tabriz Samarkand
IL-KHANATE Balkh H
1336, a revolt led by Harihara I Gascony to France
Baghdad Multan i m a l a
C HINA
yas Hangzhou and his brother Bukka of the and acknowledged
Acre
Hormuz Delhi
Quanzhou Robert the Bruce
Guangzhou as king of an
Mecca

Aden
Arabian
Sea INDIA
Calicut South
,,THE FIRST
KING AFTER THE
independent
Scotland. In 1330,

,,
China
AFRICA Sea Edward III (r.1327–
Mogadishu
CONQUEST WHO 77) had Mortimer
Malindi hanged and began
Zanzibar
Kilwa
INDIAN OCEAN
WAS NOT A MAN his own rule. Rising
KEY
The travels of Ibn Battuta Route of
OF BUSINESS. tension with France
Ibn Battuta’s first journey was the Hajj (pilgrimage) Ibn Battuta was exacerbated by
to Mecca. He made seven further journeys, visiting 1325–1345 William Stubbs, English historian, Edward’s embargo on
almost every corner of the Muslim world. Silk road describing Edward II, 1875 wool exports to

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13 151
149
 1340–44 1345–49 1350–55

,,
,, WHATEVER THE WORLD
FINDS PLEASING, IS BUT
A BRIEF DREAM.
Petrarch, Florentine scholar and poet, from Canzoniere number 1 (c.1352)

The Strait of Gibraltar, where Marinid An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle, of 1346, depicts the Battle of Crecy,
forces destroyed the Castilian fleet. at which the English used mobile artillery for the first time.

THE BATTLE OF RIO SALADO IS HAVING GAINED MASTERY OF THE THE PAPACY WAS REFORMING ITS
CONSIDERED, BY SOME, to be the ENGLISH CHANNEL at the naval BUREAUCRACY and improving its
defining battle of the Reconquista, battle of Sluys in 1340, Edward III finances under the Avignon popes.
ending forever the threat of was free to invade France. He In 1348, Clement VI (1291–1352)
Islamic incursion into the Iberian landed in Normandy in 1346 and bought Avignon from Joanne of
Peninsula from Africa. The Marinid took Caen, but retreated in the Naples and work continued on its
dynasty of Morocco, which had face of a huge French army. At papal palace. Scholars and
overthrown the Almohads in the bay, on the borders of the forest artists were attracted to the
mid-13th century, gathered a vast of Crecy, Edward took up a papal city, briefly among them the
force and destroyed the Castilian defensive position and inflicted a Florentine Francesco Petrarch
fleet in the Strait of Gibraltar. crushing defeat on the forces of (1304–74), who had been crowned
The Marinids then marched inland Philip VI. This was largely thanks poet laureate in Rome in 1341. In
to the River Salado where they to the indiscipline and arrogance 1351, Petrarch started to arrange
were defeated by the Christian of the French knights and the THE BLACK DEATH his poems in sonnet form. He was
kings Alfonso XI of Castile effectiveness of the Welsh and also a scholar, whose translation
(r.1312–50) and Afonso IV of English longbowmen. At the cost The effects of the Black Death and popularization of Classical
Portugal (r.1325–57). of a handful of casualties, the are best recorded in Europe, literature contributed to the
English killed tens of thousands, where it had profound emergence of humanism, a new

800,000
including the kings of Bohemia consequences. It depopulated school of philosophy that would
and Majorca, the duke of Lorraine, the land, depressed the help to trigger the Renaissance.
the count of Flanders, the count of economy, checked intellectual In 1354, the Nasrid king of
Blois, eight other counts, and and artistic progress, changed Granada, Yusuf I, was murdered
THE AMOUNT three archbishops. The English the social order, contributed by his son Mohammed V (1338–
use of combined aristocratic and to the end of feudalism, and 91) who took the throne. Under
IN FLORINS yeoman forces had produced a triggered a wave of anti- Mohammed, the Alhambra – the
OWED BY powerful new form of army. They Semitic pogroms on Jews, fortress-palace of Granada – was
would go on to besiege Calais, who were blamed for the further developed, becoming a
EDWARD III pestilence, forcing many to treasure of Islamic architecture.
migrate to Eastern Europe. The Ottomans were invited to
To finance his expensive war in Gallipoli, on the Dardanelles
TOTAL (the straits separating Asia from
France, Edward III of England
POPULATION
(r.1327–77) had taken out huge which fell in 1347, after a Europe), by John Cantacuzenus
loans from Florentine bankers, protracted siege. (c.1292–1383), claimant to the
especially the Peruzzi family. Also in 1347, the Black Death Byzantine throne, to help in his
When the money ran out, Edward arrived in Europe. It is thought to attempt to gain power. Led by
renounced his loan in 1342.
With the king of Naples also
45% have been carried initially by
Genoans returning from the
Orhan, the Turkish dynasty soon
seized the peninsula, securing
KILLED
defaulting on loans, the Peruzzi Crimea, where they had been themselves a foothold in Europe.
were bankrupted, throwing exposed to it by infected Mongols.
Florence into economic chaos. Transmitted by fleas that were
Walter de Brienne, the mercenary carried by rats, the plague was
Plague deaths Architectural jewel
duke of Athens, was called in spread by ship to the principal
It is estimated that up to 45 per cent The Court of the Lions is at the heart
to take power in Florence but, of the total population of Europe was ports, and then to every corner of of the Alhambra palace, built by
eventually, a mercantile killed by the various waves of the Europe and Western Asia. A large Mohammed V as the winter
oligarchy took over. Black Death plague. proportion of the population died. residence of the royal family.

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152
150
 1356–65 1366–72

To many people, Petrarch is known This mural features Timur Leng, who rose from humble beginnings to found Constructed of brick and timber, the Bell Tower of Xi’an, was built during the
as the “father of humanism”. the Timurid dynasty after outmatching the conquests of Genghis Khan. early Ming dynasty, in the reign of Zhu Yuanzhang, the first Ming emperor.

276
BOHEMIA HAD EMERGED AS A dissolution in 1806. The Bull EDWARD, THE BLACK PRINCE, HAD
POWERFUL STATE under the established Bohemia as first BEEN MADE PRINCE OF GASCONY
Premyslid dynasty in the 13th among the electors and AND AQUITAINE in 1362, moving to
century. Under the Luxembourg guaranteed its independence. Bordeaux and becoming a major
dynasty, it became the central Timur Leng (1336–1405) – also player in continental affairs. In
force in German imperial known as Tamerlane – rose from 1367, he intervened in a dynastic THE SPAN, IN
geopolitics, while its ruler modest beginnings to become dispute in Castile, where French
Charles I (Charles IV as Holy leader of a Turkic-Mongol ally Henry of Trastamara (1334– YEARS, OF THE
Roman Emperor) sought to Chagatai tribe in Transoxiana, 79) had deposed English ally MING DYNASTY
modernize the imperial Central Asia, in around 1362. Pedro I, thereby placing control
institution and advance the Despite having a limp, and the of the Castilian navy in the
fortunes of Bohemia. In 1348, he fact that he was not of Chinggid French camp. Edward defeated Under Murad I (r.1362–89), the
had enlarged the kingdom by descent (directly descended from Henry at Nájera but was forced to Ottoman Turks extended their
granting it territories such Genghis Khan – only Chinggids withdraw owing to illness. control deep into the Balkans.
as Moravia and Silesia, and could become khans), he was Subsequently, Henry regained the In 1371, Murad defeated an
refounded Prague to become one destined to become one of the Castilian throne. In 1372 – after alliance of Serbs, Byzantines, and
of the foremost cities in Europe, greatest conquerors in history. Charles V of France (r.1364–80) Bulgars, and held control over
with a major university. In 1356, Edward of Woodstock, eldest son had fomented a Gascon much of Thrace, Macedonia,
Charles IV issued the Golden of Edward III, also known as the rebellion, restarting the Hundred Bulgaria, and Serbia. He also
Bull, which regularized the Black Prince (1330–76), had won Years War – the Castilian navy created the Janissaries, a
election of the emperor to a his spurs at the Battle of Crécy proved instrumental in defeating an slave-warrior corps that became
majority vote of seven electoral aged just 16. He went on to become English fleet at La Rochelle. the mainstay of Ottoman armies.
princes, most of which were one of the most effective English China was reunited by conquest
hereditary; the papacy would have commanders. When hostilities from the south, as a native 70,000
no role. This, in turn, allowed the renewed between England and rebellion drove out the Mongol
electoral principalities to develop France in 1355, he invaded Yuan dynasty. In 1368, rebels 60,000
sovereign states, and set the France, winning a great victory under Zhu Yuanzhang 7,000 dead
constitutional basis of the Holy near Poitiers in 1356, in which he (1328–98) – a former peasant
50,000
Roman Empire until its final captured King John of France. turned Buddhist monk then

NUMBER OF TROOPS
general – struck north from
40,000
their base in Nanjing,
Golden Bull
displacing the Yuan from
Edicts issued with 30,000
golden seals were Beijing. Taking the imperial 100 dead
called Golden name Hongwu, Yuanzhang
Bulls. That of established the Ming 20,000
Emperor Charles dynasty, setting up a strong,
IV sought to centralized, government, in 10,000
prevent future which the position of
imperial elections
emperor was strengthened, 0
descending into
conflict. but so was access to the English French
bureaucracy. In 1372, he
Battle of Nájera
passed an edict attempting Outnumbered by almost three to
to ban maritime trade and one, the English–Gascon army
thus limit contact with defeated the French–Castilian forces
foreigners. with the loss of only around 100 men.

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 6 0 0 –14 49 TRADE AND INVENTION

THE STORY OF
PRINTING
A REVOLUTION IN HUMAN COMMUNICATION CHANGES THE WORLD FOREVER

By making it possible to communicate and disseminate information at a

speed and scale previously unthinkable, printing wrought changes that bar to lower platen

are still unfolding today, from triggering religious mania, to scientific

and political revolutions – even changing language itself.

Printing is the impression of marks on a medium –
most commonly ink on paper. The earliest writing,
cuneiform, was a form of printing composed of
indentations made by a stylus in clay. Printing, in the
modern sense of the word, first arose in 8th-century
China with the development of block printing.
Blocks of wood carved into bas-relief were used as
stamps to reproduce multiple copies of a single text,
complete with images, such as the Diamond Sutra,
the earliest dateable printed book (see 861–70).
MECHANICAL PRINTING
eastern Asia but perfected by German printer paper is pressed
against form to
Johannes Gutenberg (see 1454–55). His printing produce imprint
press was so advanced that, except for refinements
such as new typefaces and mechanization of the
presses and paper handling, the basic process
remained unchanged until the 19th century.
In the 1880s, the development of linotype allowed
a typesetter to compose lines of type using a
keyboard, rather than by hand. Stereotyping made
it possible to duplicate complete pages for multiple
form, or frame, for
printing. In the 20th century, filmsetting enabled setting Gutenberg’s
rapid photographic creation of printing plates. By special type

Block printing was laborious and slow, as each block the end of the century, computers allowed every
was specific to one page. Moveable type was a major aspect of printing, from typesetting and graphics wooden coffin,
which slides
advance (see panel, opposite), first achieved in to inking and drying, to be done on one machine. under platen

,, HE WHO FIRST SHORTENED THE LABOUR OF COPYISTS

,,
BY DEVICE OF MOVEABLE TYPES WAS … CREATING A
WHOLE NEW DEMOCRATIC WORLD; HE HAD INVENTED
THE ART OF PRINTING.
Thomas Carlyle, Scottish essayist and historian, 1759–1881

c.2291–2254 BCE 868 1377

Sumerian cuneiform Block printed book Moveable metal type
Stamping cuneiform The earliest dated The first metal
inscriptions, rather book (entire moveable type is
than drawing them by manuscript) is cast in bronze in
hand, is introduced. the Diamond Sutra, Korea and is used
Stamps are pressed a Buddhist text to produce the
into soft clay bricks, found in a cave in Jikji Simche Yojeol,
which are then fired. Sumerian cuneiform Dunhuang, China. The Diamond Sutra a Buddhist scripture. Early Korean book

8th century Japanese c.1275–1313 c.1455–56 1790s–1820s

Block printing dharani Moveable type The printing press Metal presses
Printing using carved scroll Invented in China in the Gutenberg prints the The all-metal
wooden blocks and ink 11th century, moveable first book in Europe – the Columbian printing
is known as xylography; the type is refined by Gutenberg or 42-line Bible press is the first to
earliest surviving xylographic Wang Shen, who uses (because of the number of replace the screw with
fragment is a Buddhist over 60,000 wooden lines on each page). levers and weights.
dharani scroll from Korea. types in his treatise.
Gutenberg’s printing press Columbian metal press

154

152
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 T H E S TO R Y O F P R I N T I N G

screw, or spindle,
adapted from
wine press

MOVEABLE TYPE

The key technology in the printing revolution was

moveable type, in which each character in a script
had a corresponding single, small block, or type,
square sleeve, allowing lines of type to be assembled, and then
or socket reordered for different texts. The first book, printed
by moveable type cast in bronze, was published in
Korea in the late 14th century. Gutenberg improved
upon this technology by developing a technique that
enabled rapid, precision casting of metal type.
heavy
platen, or ink impression raised
printing on paper moveable type
plate

leather
ink balls
stuffed with
horsehair

Letterpress printing with moveable type

sturdy construction Gutenberg’s press

for industrial-scale Gutenberg created a screw
production press for pressing inked
type, set on a wooden frame,
against a sheet of paper. This
was a dramatic improvement
on the traditional method
of taking impressions by
means of rubbing.

Late 20th
century–present
Desktop printing
The laser printer
offers technology
that would once
have filled an
Laser printer entire workshop.

1886 1903 Early 1949

Linotype
A linotype machine allows a
typesetter to make up entire lines
of type, using a typewriter-like
keyboard, rather than hand-
compositing letter-by-letter.
Linotype typesetter
Offset printing
In offset printing, the inked image
is transferred (or offset) from the
printing plate to the paper via a
rubber sheet, achieving smooth,
precise transfer and reducing
wear on the plate.
photocopier Photocopying
Developed by American Chester
Carlson at the Xerox Corporation
in the US, the photocopier
uses electrostatic distribution of
powder ink or toner, rather than
wet ink, to create an exact copy.

155

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 1373–80 1381–85

A 16th-century painting captures the triumphant return of the An illustration from Froissart’s Chronicle depicts the Peasants’ Revolt, the first great popular
Doge to Venice after victory over the Genoese. rebellion in English history, led by Wat Tyler, who was executed by the mayor of London.

THE WAR OF CHIOGGIA, BETWEEN
VENICE AND GENOA, was triggered
by the continuing contest for
control of the trade routes
through the Dardanelles, along
which flowed the lucrative trade
of the Byzantine Empire and the
Silk Road beyond it. In 1376,
the Byzantine emperor John V
Palaeologus (r.1341–76) granted
to Venice the Aegean island of
Tenedos, key to the Dardanelles.
Meanwhile, his son and rival
Andronicus IV (1348–85) granted
it to Genoa. In the ensuing war,
the Genoans defeated the
Venetians at Pola and, in 1379,
seized Chioggia in Italy and
blockaded Venice. Under Vittorio
Pisano, the Venetians counter-
blockaded the Genoese fleet,
starving it into submission.
Genoese maritime power was
broken and Venice now controlled
the Levantine trade.
,,
NOTHING
GREAT IS EVER
THE BLACK DEATH AND
SUBSEQUENT LABOUR SHORTAGES
contributed to rising social
tension in England. Around 1362,
for instance, the poor country
priest William Langland had
written Piers Plowman, a poem in
English sympathizing with the
plight of the poor peasant.
Churchman and scholar John
Wycliffe (or Wiclif) had caused a
stir with writings that prefigured
Protestantism, and a popular
Biblical egalitarian sect, known as
the Lollards, partially inspired
by Wycliffe, was winning
widespread support. In
1377, the so-called Bad
Parliament, dominated
Executioner of Cesena by the king’s son John
The anti-pope Clement VII was
known as the “executioner of of Gaunt, earl of
Cesena” for his brutal suppression Lancaster and
of a rebellion in the Papal States soon-to-be regent to
while acting as a papal legate. his infant nephew
Richard II (1367–
after. The Roman mob pressured 1400), introduced a
the conclave of cardinals to choose poll tax; subsequent
an Italian pope, and Urban VI parliaments
(c.1318–89) was duly elected. extended it, causing
marched on London and hundreds of Noh plays and
siezed the Tower, burning the developed the highly stylized and
palace of John of Gaunt and killing symbolic performances.
Archbishop Sudbury, who was Castilian influence in Portugal
blamed for the poll taxes. Richard in the 1380s threatened the
II cleverly appeased the rebels; independence of the kingdom and
Tyler was executed and the revolt sparked resentment among the
was brutally suppressed. Portuguese. An uprising
Japanese Noh drama developed triggered by a nun resulted in
in the 14th century, mainly under Joäo (1358–1453), illegitimate son
the aegis of Kanami Kiyotsugo of Pedro I, seizing control of the
(1333–84) and his son Zeami country. In 1384, John I of Castile
Motokiyo (1363–1443), who wrote (1358–90) invaded Portugal, but
Joäo was elected king by the
Portuguese parliament and, with
English help, defeated
Castile at the Battle of
Aljubarrota, in 1385. In
doing so, he freed
Portugal from Castilian
influence and, after
marrying the daughter
of John of Gaunt,
founded the Anglo-
Portuguese Avis
dynasty.
In 1384, Philip the
Bold of Burgundy
inherited the county

,,
French cardinals, meanwhile, widespread of Flanders, adding to
ACHIEVED elected Robert of Geneva grievance. In 1381, his extensive
WITHOUT MUCH (1342–94) as anti-pope Clement
VII. The French king, Charles V,
attempts to
reintroduce serfdom
territories. France,
ruled by the young
ENDURING. threw his weight behind Clement, triggered the and mentally ill
while Richard II of England allied Peasants’ Revolt, Charles VI, was now
St Catherine of Siena, (1347–80) with the Holy Roman Emperor which saw peasants dominated by rivalry
Charles IV in supporting the rising against landlords, between the houses of
In 1376, Dominican mystic and Roman candidate. Thus began the burning manors, and Burgundy and Orléans.
miracle worker Catherine of Siena Western, or Great Schism, which destroying records. Up
travelled to Avignon to convince saw rival popes installed in Rome to 100,000 men, under
Noh mask
Gregory XI (c.1336–78) to return and Avignon until 1417. Jack Straw and Wat Tyler,
In Noh drama, which involves
the papacy to Rome. A few music, singing, speech, and mime,
months later, Gregory went to mask usually made masks are used by the principal
Rome to attempt to restore order of wood or clay character, and by female and
in the Papal States, and died soon elderly characters.

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146-147_1251-1275.indd 146 co ea 13/05/11 11:34 AM
th
156
154
 1386–90 1391–1400

Travelling pilgrims are shown in an illustration from the Canterbury Tales. This unfinished poem by Geoffrey Chaucer, A miniature from the Topkapi Museum in Istanbul, shows the Battle of
17,000 lines long, vividly illustrates the medieval world view on social, religious, and moral matters. Nicopolis, at which the Ottomans destroyed a crusading army.

JAGIELLO OF LITHUANIA (C.1362–
1434), THE LAST PAGAN RULER in
Europe, was crowned king of
Poland and converted to
Christianity in 1386. Marriage to
Jadwiga of Poland united the two
kingdoms, and brought Lithuania
into the Catholic Church, although
pagan traditions lingered on.
Timur Leng (see 1356–65)
completed his conquest of Persia
in 1386 and raided deep into the
Caucasus, sacking Tbilisi in
Georgia and capturing the Georgian
king. However, when the army of
the Golden Horde attacked his
Central Asian territories, in 1387,
he was forced to turn back and
meet them. It took another nine
years for him to destroy the threat.
Geoffrey Chaucer (c.1340–1400)
was a soldier, scholar, writer,
diplomat, government official, and
Yelets
Kaffa
Black Sea
CHRISTIANIZATION OF EUROPE
In Europe, the medieval period
saw the vigorous advance
of Christianity until it
encompassed the entire region
(with just a few exceptions).
The spectacular success in
converting Europe posed
extreme challenges to the
Church, as it struggled to
reconcile temporal and
spiritual power. Internal
forces would continue to
revolutionize the religion.
Member of Parliament. He was
instrumental in the development
of Middle English – a combination
of Old English and French
influences. His greatest work, the
KHANATE OF THE
GOLDEN HORDE
New Sarai
Astrakhan Aral
Sea Ottar
Urgench
CHAGATAI
Ca
Canterbury Tales, partially
modelled on Italian author Giovanni
Boccaccio’s Decameron, tells the
story of pilgrims on the road to the
shrine of Thomas Becket (see
1170); it was begun in 1387.
At the Battle of Kosovo, in 1389,
the Ottomans defeated the Serbs
and Bosnians, smashing the
Serbian empire and absorbing
THE START OF THE MING DYNASTY
IN CHINA TRIGGERED CHANGE IN
KOREA, which was considered a
client state by the Ming. The
Koryo empire had supported the
new Chinese dynasty, but this did
not prevent the Ming from
threatening to invade. In 1388, Yi
Songgye (1335–1408), a leading
general who favoured the
Chinese, seized power in Korea.
In 1392, as King Taejo, he
founded the Yi dynasty, also
known as the Choson (or Joseon),
a name taken from an ancient
Korean kingdom. Taejo
restructured his government on
the Chinese model, and instituted
wide-ranging land reforms to
redistribute estates from the
hands of the oligarchy, replacing
them with a new class of
technocrats known as the
yangban. Neo-Confucianism
was adopted as the state religion,
and a new capital was founded at
Hanseong (Seoul). The Yi dynasty
lasted until 1910.
Courts). During this period, the
line of the emperor Godaigo –
driven out of the capital, Kyoto, by
the Ashikaga shogun Takauji, in
1336 – had maintained a rival
court in the mountainous
Yoshino region south of Nara.
Japan was wracked by civil war
until the shogun Ashikaga
Yoshimitsu (1358–1408)
negotiated a reunification
and brought Ashikaga power
to its apogee.
The Nicopolis Crusade of 1396
– intended to roll back the
Ottoman advance in the Balkans
– saw a Franco-Hungarian
expedition led by Sigismund of
Hungary humiliatingly crushed
at the Bulgarian town of
Nicopolis on the Danube. A huge
army, featuring volunteers from
most of the Christian states,
proved ill-disciplined. The failure
of this adventure proved that
Christian Europe had to look to
its defence.

KHANATE
Bukhara most of its territories. The Ottoman In Japan, the union of
sp

Constantinople Ankara Derbent Samarkand

ian

Smyria Siras leader, Murad, was killed in the the northern and
S ea

Konya Balkh
Me Tarsus Alamut Nishapur battle but his son Bayezid the southern imperial
dit Aleppo Kabul
erra Antioch
nean S ea Mosul Qum
Herat Thunderbolt (1360–1403) took over. courts in 1392 brought
Multan
Acre Damascus PER S IA
Kandahar Delhi
News of Murad’s death prompted to an end the Yoshino
Alexandria Baghdad Isfahan
Cairo Jerusalem I L -KHANAT E the Ottoman vassals in Europe and period (also known
MAMLUK er Shiraz Anatolia to revolt, but Bayezid as the Period of
Ar

SULTANATE
P

sia
nG Hormuz swiftly reduced most of them, Northern and Southern
ab

EGYPT ulf
ia

bringing their territories under

Re

Aswan Medina Arabian

Pe
dS

Sea direct Ottoman rule. The Ottomans

ni

su
ea

la
Mecca
now controlled most of Anatolia and Gyeongbokgung Palace
the Balkans south of the Danube. This colossal palace, built
The Timurid Empire KEY by King Taejo (Yi Songgye)
Bayezid introduced the devshirme
Established by Timur Leng, the Campaigns of Timur in 1395, is also known as
Timurid Empire eventually reached – the levy of Christian children who the “Palace of Shining
Extent of Timur’s empire were converted to Islam and used in
a greater extent even than that of Happiness” and the
Genghis Khan, but it would not long the administration and Janissary “Palace Greatly Blessed
survive Timur’s death. corps. by Heaven”.

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156_157_1373-1400.indd 157 Tim G er th
e 96 rep
e 19/05/11 3:07 PM
lat 13
157
155
 1401–03 1404–07 1408–10
,,WE HAVE SET

,,
EYES ON...
REGIONS... FAR
AWAY...
Zheng He, Chinese explorer

The wall of skulls at the Templo Mayor archaeological site in Mexico City is made from skulls carved in stone, Wladyslaw II Jagiello of Poland prepares
covered with stucco; the Aztecs practised human sacrifice at the vast temples in the centre of Tenochtitlan. for the Battle of Tannenberg.

FOUNDED BY THE AZTECS IN 1325,
the city of Tenochtitlan – existing
on the apparently unpromising
site of a marshy island in a
partially brackish lake – reached
its height at the beginning of the
15th century. Tenochtitlan means
“Place of the Fruit of the Cactus”
– a reference to the vision that
supposedly informed the choice of
location. In this vision, the tossed
heart of a conquered enemy
landed on the island where an
eagle wrestled with a snake on a
cactus growing out of a rock – as
depicted on the present-day
Mexican flag. The Aztecs drained
the island, reclaiming
surrounding land, and joined the
land together with causeways.
Tenayuca
Pantlaco
Coltonco
Meanwhile, they expanded their HAVING CONQUERED AS FAR AS THE RELENTLESS ADVANCE OF
political territory through RUSSIA in the East, Timur Leng THE ORDER OF TEUTONIC KNIGHTS
marriages, alliances, and (see 1386–90) set his sights on the (see 1236–40) had brought
conquest. After a flood, greatest empire – China. In 1405, Prussia and much of the Baltic
Tenochtitlan was laid out on a he embarked on a campaign, but coast under their control, cutting
grid pattern, with quarters died en route to China and was Poland off from the sea. The union
arranged around a central buried at his capital, Samarkand. of Poland and Lithuania under
sacred district, regarded as Despite his possibly exaggerated King Wladyslaw II Jagiello
the centre of the world. A huge reputation for cruelty, Timur was (c.1362–1434) posed a new threat
population of up to 200,000 a devout Muslim and a patron of to the Order, and the Great
was supported by intensive the arts and architecture. His Northern War ensued. At the
agriculture and extensive enormous empire did not long Battle of Tannenberg in 1410 –
networks of trade and tribute. survive him, quickly breaking one of the greatest cavalry
The African Songhay kingdom down into a Timurid state ruled by confrontations of the age – a huge
was centred on the trading Songhay gold coin his son Shah Rukh (1377–1447), Polish–Lithuanian army of up to
metropolis of Gao, in the Niger This coin from the Songhay Empire which soon fragmented further. 16,500, including Bohemian
Bend area of West Africa. Gao is from the Songhay city of Gao; rich In 1404, John the Fearless mercenaries, Russians, and even
had long been a prosperous city and powerful, the city provided the (1371–1419) became duke of Tatars (Turkic Mongols), defeated
basis for building the empire.
thanks to interregional and Burgundy, leading opposition to
trans-Saharan trade with the the regency of Louis, duke of
Islamic world, especially 15th century, Mali declined and Orleans (1372–1407), brother of
VALLEY OF in salt, gold, slaves, and Gao won its independence, the mad king, Charles VI of France
MEXICO
ivory. In the mid-13th beginning the growth of a (1368–1422). In 1407, John
century, because of the Songhay Empire that would ordered the assassination of
allure of its riches, it eclipse the other two largest Louis, triggering civil war
Atepehuacán Atzacualco
became an eastern empires of the late Iron Age in between the Burgundians and the
Tepeyacac province of the Mali West Africa – Ghana and Mali. Armagnacs (named for the count
Dyke of Netzahualcoyotl

Azcapotzalco Empire (see 1231–35). In 1398, Timur Leng (see of Armagnac, the father-in-law of
However, in the early 1356–65) had invaded northern Charles, the new duke of Orleans).
Tacuba Altepetlac India and destroyed the Delhi The Burgundians, who favoured
Popotlan sultanate with astonishing speed peace with the English, were
Tlatelolco
and terrifying cruelty. Marching popular in Paris and the north,
Map of Tenochtitlan 260km (160 miles) in two days, he while the Armagnacs, who were
Lake Causeways connected
Texcoco captured and massacred 100,000 anti-English and pro-war, had the
Chapultepec Tenochtitlan to other fugitives outside Delhi before support of Queen Isabeau of
settlements on the lake
TENOCHTITLAN
and the mainland. The sacking the city, supposedly Bavaria, the great nobles, and the
Mixiucan
Tlacateco Acachinanco city and its emperor building a huge pyramid from the south of the country.
Xola-Xalac Zacatlalmanco dominated the Valley skulls of his victims. In 1401, In 1404, Zheng He, (1371–1435)
Tepetlatzinco
of Mexico. Timur massacred the population – a Muslim captured from Yunnan
of Baghdad and launched an in China as a boy, castrated, and
KEY invasion of Syria. He then moved pressed into military service – was
street against the Ottomans (see named grand, or high-ranking,
Mexicatzincgo
aqueduct 1286–90), occupying Anatolia and eunuch at the imperial court. The
Lake
Coyoacán Xochimilco causeway restoring the old Turkoman following year he led the first of
Huitzilopochco
dyke principalities. seven epic voyages of discovery.

f
36
–
of po ; di rdi
t
(13 s ad k u ns a, of ; llo a
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m
158-159_1401-1420.indd 158 co 07/06/2011 10:47
158
156
 1411–15 1416–20

This later depiction of the Battle of Agincourt shows cavalry engaged in This illustration from the Chronicle of Ulrich von Richental shows the papal
conflict; around 10,000 French troops were killed or captured. electors taking their leave from Emperor Sigismund at the Council of Constance.

the forces of the Teutonic Knights
who were around 11,000 strong.
The Order was crushed, but
Jagiello was unable to keep the
powerful Polish nobles in order
and thus could not press home
his advantage. The Peace of
Thorn, concluded the following
year, failed to secure Polish
access to the Baltic and enabled
the Teutonic Knights to regain
some of their advantage.
Andrei Rublev (c.1370–1430)
was a Russian monk and painter,
based at the St Sergius monastery
of the Holy Trinity in Moscow. He
worked during a period of
monastic revival in Russia, when
the Eastern Orthodox
Church offered
comfort in the face of
IN 1413, HENRY IV OF ENGLAND
DIED and his son, Henry V
(1386–1422), came to the throne.
In 1415, Henry concluded an
alliance with Burgundy and
reasserted the English claim to
the French crown as a pretext for
renewing the Hundred Years War
(see panel, right). In October,
Henry inflicted a terrible defeat on
a far superior French force at
Agincourt, taking the Duke of
Orleans prisoner, and going on to
conquer Normandy.
,, ...THE LIVING
FELL ON TOP OF
THE DEAD, AND
OTHERS FALLING
convene a general council – the
Council of Constance – to resolve
the split in the Catholic Church
known as the Great Schism (see
1373–80). In 1415, the Council
deposed the existing claimants,
and condemned the Bohemian
priest, religious reformer, and
philosopher Jan Huss, who was
executed the same year.
THE COUNCIL OF CONSTANCE
ENDED THE GREAT SCHISM in 1417
by trying and deposing the last
anti-pope, Benedict XIII, and
electing Martin V (c.1348–1431)
as the sole true pope.
The burning at the stake of
Bohemian religious reformer Jan
Huss (see 1411–15), and the death
of Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia
(1361–1419), sparked a Hussite
uprising in Bohemia. This
combined a religious tussle
between the papacy and
anti-papists, with a nationalist
struggle between Czechs
(Bohemians and Moravians) and
Germans. The Hussites made up
of moderate (Utraquist) and
extreme (Taborite) factions, united
to face a crusading alliance led by
Wenceslaus’ brother, the emperor
Sigismund. The Hussites defeated
the alliance outside Prague.
In 1411, peace was concluded
between Portugal and Castile
(see 1381–85). Portugal now
began to look outwards, winning
a foothold on the north coast of
Africa at Ceuta in 1415. Explorer
Henry the Navigator (1394–1460)

internecine war and
the hated Mongol
Yoke – the tribute
and service exacted
by the Golden Horde.
Though inspired by
,,
distinguished himself in the
ON TOP OF THE expedition; his visit to Africa
LIVING WERE sparked an interest in exploration,
and he may have set up the first
KILLED AS WELL. . school of navigation in Europe at
Sagres, in Portugal (see 1434).

the great icon painter
Theophanes the
Greek, Rublev was
celebrated for
pioneering a new,
more serene and
symmetrical style.
The Holy Trinity
This detail from Andrei
Rublev’s greatest icon,
painted around 1410,
shows the three angels
who visited Abraham.
Each angel represents
a different aspect of
the Trinity.
From Gesta Henrici Quinti, c.1416
During Chinese explorer Zheng
He’s fourth and greatest
expedition in 1413, he visited
Calicut in India, and reached
Hormuz on the Persian Gulf,
sending ships to explore down the
African coast as far as Malindi in
Kenya. The fleet included 63 ships
of up to 80m (260ft) long.
In 1414, anti-pope John XXIII
– one of three men claiming to be
pope – was expelled from Rome by
King Ladislas of Naples. John
sought refuge with the emperor,
Sigismund, who forced him to
45
THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR
The series of conflicts from 1337 to 1453, later known as the
Hundred Years War, was triggered by a combination of factors:
tensions over the status of the duchy of Guienne, which belonged
to the kings of England but owed sovereignty to the French crown;
English claims to that crown, based on descent from the THE NUMBER
Capetians; anxieties of influence on both sides; and the need of
English kings to use foreign adventures to shore up support at OF SESSIONS
home. There should have been little contest between France, the
most powerful nation in Europe, and smaller, poorer England, but
HELD AT THE
the English used new tactics and weapons, especially the longbow, 42-MONTH-
to devastating effect. The war drained resources on both sides, but
also forged a new degree of national identity for both countries.
LONG COUNCIL
OF CONSTANCE

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 1421–22 1423–25 1426–30

Fillipo Maria Visconti of Milan sits in state; having assassinated his brother to The Doge’s Palace, seat of the doge of Venice, is a masterpiece of 14th-century Joan of Arc here leads troops into
become duke of Milan, he restored Visconti hegemony over northern Italy. Gothic architecture, overlain with 15th, 16th, and 17th century additions. battle, wielding a crossbow.

SULTAN MEHMED I Sultan Murad II IN THE 1420S, THE CULTURAL Although Florence was the Bodkin point
(1382–1421) had Murad defended and MOVEMENT known later as the heart of the Renaissance in the This type of
successfully extended the Ottoman Italian or High Renaissance 15th century, the other great arrowhead is an
restored the Empire, and was also gathered pace, particularly in the Italian power centres of Milan, uncomplicated,
a patron of poetry squared, metal
Ottoman state field of painting and the visual Rome, and Venice also fostered
and learning, spike, extensively
after the Timurid making his court arts. In 1424, the sculptor artistic and architectural used during the
invasion (see a cultural centre. Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378–1455) achievement. In Venice, the wars of the
1401–03), completed the gilded bronze Doge’s Palace, which had been Middle Ages.
although his navy doors for the Florence Baptistry evolving since its origins in the
had come off between 1386 and that he had been commissioned to 9th century, embodied many of
worse in a conflict 1400; and make in 1403; the following year the architectural highpoints
with the Venetians threatened Florence he was commissioned for a of the previous six centuries. The
at the Battle of until his death in further set. Working at the same current building began to take
Galipoli in 1416, forcing 1402. Strife between time as Ghiberti were a host of shape around 1340; work on the THE DAUGHTER OF A FARMER,
the Ottomans to recognize his sons Gian Maria and other artists, including side overlooking the Piazzetta did JOAN OF ARC (1412–31) was 16
Venetian claims in Albania. In Filippo Maria saw this empire Brunelleschi, Jacopo della not begin until 1424, under doge when in 1429 voices in her head
1421, Mehmed died and his son, disintegrate, but when Filippo had Quercia, Masaccio, Donatello, Francesco Foscari (1373–1457). commanded her to bear aid to the
Murad II (1404–51) became Gian assassinated in 1412, he set Gentile da Fabriano, Jan van Eyck, In 1424, Timur’s descendant, French dauphin (see 1421–22).
sultan. Domestically, he restored about restoring it, regaining and many more. Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) – The English under John, duke of
the devshirme practice of training Genoa in 1421. The Visconti astronomer and future Mongol Bedford (1389–1435), had made
Christian slaves for key roles in patronized the arts and leader – built a great observatory further gains against the forces of
The Tribute Money
government; externally, he scholarship, helping to drive the Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone in Samarkand. It was equipped the dauphin and were besieging
pursued a policy of renewed Renaissance .(see pp. 208–09). Masaccio died aged just 27, but with a 40m (130ft) sextant, and Orleans, while the dauphin had
expansion, beginning with the The French had suffered great created some of the most influential Ulugh and his team of scholars still not managed to secure his
first Ottoman siege of losses at Agincourt (see 1411– artworks of the Renaissance. catalogued over a thousand stars. coronation. Joan succeeded in
Constantinople. The siege was 15), and in 1420, at the prompting
unsuccessful and Mehmed was of the pro-English Burgundians,
distracted by an uprising led by Charles VI of France had accepted
the Sufi theologian and preacher, the Treaty of Troyes and
Sheikh Bedreddin – it was acknowledged Henry V of England
suppressed, and the sheikh as his heir and immediate regent.
was executed. The agreement ceded all the
The Visconti family had ruled conquered lands up to the Loire
Milan since Archbishop Otto to the English and declared the
Visconti rose to power in 1277; dauphin, Charles, to be
their domain had spread to illegitimate. The English now
encompass much of northern controlled northern France.
Italy, reaching its height under In 1422, both Henry and Charles
Gian Galeazzo (1351–1402), sole died, and under the terms of the
ruler from 1385. He had made Treaty, the infant Henry VI was
marriage alliances with the chief acclaimed king of both England
monarchs of Europe; was made and France. The dauphin, based at
hereditary duke in 1395; mastered Bourges, refused to accept this,
Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Pisa, and the Hundred Years War (see
Siena, Assisi, and Perugia 1411–15) continued.

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 1431–33 1434
,,WE READ THAT WE OUGHT TO

,,
FORGIVE OUR ENEMIES; BUT WE
DO NOT READ THAT WE OUGHT
TO FORGIVE OUR FRIENDS.
Cosimo de Medici

The Arnolfini Marriage by Jan van Painting of the first Medici ruler
Eyck is noted for its detailed interior. of Florence, Cosimo.

obtaining an interview with him at
Chinon, won him over, and was
provided with troops and the title
chef de guerre (“war leader”). She
successfully relieved Orleans,
going on to defeat the English
twice more, and stood next to the
dauphin at his coronation as
Charles VII at Reims in 1429. Joan
failed to take Paris, however, and
the following year, she was
captured by the Burgundians,
who ransomed her to their
English allies (see 1431–33).
In 1428, Le Loi, leader of
Vietnamese resistance to the
Chinese occupation, expelled the
Chinese and founded the Le
dynasty of Dai Viet. On admitting
Chinese authority, his dynasty was
recognized by the Ming.
FROM 1431 TO 1433, ZHENG HE
(see 1404–07) made a seventh and
final expedition, returning to the
Persian Gulf. Despite this last
trip, China’s period of exploration
had come to an end with the death
of Emperor Yongle in 1424, after
which the Ming dynasty returned
to its isolationist policy.
SHIP LENGTHS
22m COLUMBUS’S
SHIP
134m ZHENG HE’S
SHIP
Surrendering the lead in
exploration to Portugal and the
Europeans would have profound
consequences for the Chinese,
and world history.
Not all the great Renaissance
painters were Italian; Jan van
Eyck (c.1390–1441) was Flemish.
Celebrated for his mastery of
realism and his perfection of oil
painting, van Eyck produced some
of his greatest masterpieces in
the 1430s. In 1432, he and his
brother Hubert completed their
largest surviving work, the
altarpiece of St Bavo’s Cathedral
in Ghent, Belgium. Later that year,
in London, van Eyck painted
the Portrait of an Unknown Man
and the Man with the Red Turban;
possibly a self-portrait.
In 1431, Joan of Arc was turned
over by the English to the French
ecclesiastical authorities for trial.
She was found guilty of heresy,
and was burned at the stake
in Rouen.
SINCE THE 1380S, FLORENCE HAD
BEEN DOMINATED by the Albizzi
family, who extended the city’s
control of Tuscany. The attempts
of Visconti Milan (see 1421–22) to
gain control over all of Tuscany
forced Florence into a ruinously
expensive war, although alliance
with Venice saw Milan defeated.
A leader of the peace party was
wool merchant and banker
Giovanni de Medici, possibly the
richest man in Europe. After his
death in 1429 and a disastrous
war with Lucca in Tuscany, the
Albizzi succeeded in having
Giovanni’s son, Cosimo de Medici
banished from Florence in 1433,
but new elections saw him
recalled the following year,
marking the start of Medici
domination of the city. Cosimo
combined business acumen with
political shrewdness, winning
popular support for his policies.
All attempts by anti-Hussite
forces under the emperor
Sigismund to dislodge the
Hussites and regain control of the
Czech territories had failed
(see 1416–20). The superior
organization and tactics of the
Hussites, first under Jan Zizka
and after his death in 1424 under
Andrew Prokops, made them
militarily powerful. In 1430, they
invaded Germany and raided as
far as Franconia. Negotiations
with the ecumenical Council of
Basel in 1413 led to the Compact
of Prague, or Compactacta, under
which moderate Hussites (the
Utraquists) agreed to go back to
the Catholic Church. The extreme
anti-papist Taborites rejected the
Compact, and civil war broke out
between the factions, which
represented different classes as
well as religious ideals. In 1434, at
the Battle of Lipany the upper-
class Utraquists vanquished the
Taborites, killing Prokops.
The rising power of the
Sukhothai kingdom of Thailand
had increasingly threatened the
Khmer Empire (see 1201–05)
through the 14th century. Repeated
Thai raids, particularly an
incursion in 1431, may have helped
The Windrose
The Windrose mosaic at Sagres in
Portugal – possibly a sundial – was
commissioned by Portuguese
navigator, Prince Henry.
trigger the 1434 abandonment of
Angkor (see 1146–50) and the
transfer of the Khmer capital to
Phnom Penh, further south,
although it is also possible that
the new location offered better
connections for foreign trade.
Sponsored by Prince Henry the
Navigator (see 1416–20),
Portuguese explorers pushing out
into the Atlantic had discovered
the islands of Madeira and the
Azores. Henry personally
oversaw the colonization of these
Atlantic outposts, successfully
establishing them as centres of
agricultural production and
forward bases for Portuguese
exploration. Henry’s next target
was to round Cape Bojador on the
coast of West Africa, the furthest
limit of Portuguese exploration;
contemporary European sailors’
lore viewed the seas beyond as a
dangerous and terrifying
otherworld. Cape Bojador was
finally rounded by Gil Eannes in
1434. The experiences of his
sailors on these voyages of
discovery convinced Henry that
the traditional barca ships in use
were unsuitable, and he worked
with shipwrights to design a new
type of vessel, the caravel. This
was smaller, lighter, and swifter,
with a shallow draft for near-
shore operations and more space
for stores to allow the ships to
stay at sea for longer.

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 1435–37 1438–40 1441–44

This manuscript illustration shows Founded by King Henry VI of England, construction of Eton college was Fresco by Domenico di Bartolo, (c.1410-1461), of the Sienese school,
Charles VII entering Paris in triumph. halted when the king was deposed during the War of the Roses. from Siena’s hospital of Santa Maria della Scala.

,,THE
KINGDOM OF
IN 1438, PACHACUTEC (C.1438–
1472) BECAME THE NINTH INCA
KING, or Sapa Inca. His reign
Quito
MACHU PICCHU (meaning “Old
Peak” in Quechua, the language of
the Incas) is a mountaintop citadel
attempted to entrust his crown. At
Adrianople, Murad made a
10-year truce with Albanian
Latacunga

FRANCE… heralded the beginning of a great

expansion of the Inca realm,
Ingapirca Amazon
Basin
about 70km (43 miles) northwest of
Cuzco. Construction probably
military leader Hunyadi
Skandebeg and other resistors of
WILL BE THUS which had been confined to the Piura Huancabamba
began in the 1440s, under the Ottoman advance. However, with
RULED BY KING immediate area around Cuzco auspices of Pachacutec. The the pope preaching crusade, the
since its foundation (see 1201– maximum population of Machu resistors were absolved of their
CHARLES VII… Chiquitoy

,,
Chan Chan
1205). It began with invasion by Picchu was possibly only around oaths of peace and they launched
An
Huánuco
HE WILL ENTER the rival Chancas, who besieged
de
1,000, and it is thought that it a new attack. Led by Hunyadi and
s
Cuzco, and were completely Jauja served as a ceremonial centre, Wladyslaw III of Poland and
PARIS IN GOOD defeated. Inca expansion was
Pachacamac

Vilcas
Machu Picchu
Cuzco as well as being an impregnable Hungary (1424–1444), the
COMPANY. facilitated by the sophisticated Nazca
Lake
Titicaca stronghold for the Inca elite in crusading army – the last major
nature of most of the kingdoms PA C I F I C Pomata
Juli case of attack.
Joan of Arc, Christian visionary and tribes they conquered; OCEAN Resistance to Ottoman
tight-knit, centralized occupation of the Balkans Machu Picchu
KEY High above the Urubamba
administration focused on the increased, and in 1443, a
Expansion by 1400 Valley in the Peruvian
THOUGH ALLIED WITH THE emperor; a genius for crusading army defeated the
Expansion in the reign of Pachacutec Andes, on an
ENGLISH OCCUPATION OF FRANCE, organization and record-keeping Ottomans at Nis, in Bulgaria. The
inaccessible ridge,
the Burgundians (see 1404–07) (despite having no writing); and an Ottoman sultan, Murad II (see lies Machu Picchu,
Inca expansion
were increasingly concerned at imperial road-building The Inca Empire had expanded 1421–22), was forced out of sacred citadel of
English gains. With the Treaty of programme rivalled only by the greatly between 1400 and the end of retirement to take over from his the Inca
Arras, the Burgundians and the Roman Empire. Pachacutec’s reign. It would triple in son, Mehmed II, to whom he had kings.
French king, Charles VII, made In 1440, the young king of size by the 16th century.
peace but the English, unwilling to England founded a new
accept the terms, withdrew from college at Eton. The King’s to receive free education before
negotiations. The following year, College of Our Lady of going on to King’s College,
the French alliance took Paris Eton near Windsor, now Cambridge.
from English control. known as Eton College, With the Ottomans (see
The 1430s saw increasing was intended to be part of 1286–90) occupying
tension between the papacy and a large foundation territories on all sides of the
the conciliar movement, which including a massive tiny remnants of the
held that the Church ought to be church, an almshouse, Byzantine Empire, and
governed by a Church council, and 70 scholars who were threatening Constantinople itself,
rather than an individual pope. the embattled Byzantine emperor
Pope Eugenius IV summoned a John VIII Palaeologus (see
General Council at Basel in 1448–49) arrived in Europe to
1431, but it was dominated by plead for help from the Council
anti-papal sentiment and, in of Ferrara in 1438.
1437, he tried to transfer the
Council to Ferrara, where it would
Gold llama statuette
be more amenable to his influence. The Inca were so rich in gold that
Most of the delegates refused to emperor Atahualpa was able to offer
leave Basel, resulting in two a ransom of 750 tonnes of it when
concurrent councils. captured by conquistadors in 1532.

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160
 1445–47 1448–49

The rocky north coast between Paul and Ribeira Grande Illustration from a Muromachi period manuscript, the arts flourished in
in Santa Antao in the Cape Verde islands. Japan under Ashikaga patronage.

HENRY THE NAVIGATOR’S (see 1421–22). There were IN 1449, ASHIKAGA YOSHIMASA
EXPENSIVE PROJECT to open up multiple claimants to the ducal (1435–90) BECAME SHOGUN, or
the coast of Africa (see 1434) was throne, and eager to avoid military dictator, of Japan.
met with scepticism at home in domination by a foreigner, the Although his reign marked a
Portugal, until in 1441, one of his Milanese powers immediately cultural highpoint of the Ashikaga,
ships returned with gold dust and constituted the Aurea Repubblica or Muromachi period (1336–1573)

2:1
slaves, prompting an acceleration Ambrosiana of Milan, or the it was also a period of increasing
Battle of Varna Ambrosian Republic, but they
of activity. Between 1444 and civil strife. Repeated famines
The Hungarian-led
crusader army, with a 1446, around 35 of Henry’s vessels faced insurmountable obstacles. triggered constant uprisings,
strength of 30,000, suffered heavy sailed for the West African coast. Riven by internal dissension and while the Ashikaga practice of
losses at the hands of the Ottoman In 1445, sailing in one of Henry’s unwilling to lose control of the issuing tokuseirei or “acts of
troops, who numbered 60,000. new caravels, explorer Dinis Dias other cities controlled by Milan, grace” to cancel debts, damaged
sighted the mouth of the Senegal they were soon forced to turn the economy. Despite this,
attempt to expel the Ottomans River, which offered a trade route military control over to a Yoshimasa presided over a
from the Balkans and relieve deep into the African interior, and condotierre, or mercenary soldier- cultural flowering at his PALAEOLOGUS
Constantinople – was decisively rounded Cape Verde, the leader - the powerful Muzio Higashiyama estate. (1404–53)
crushed by Murad at the Battle of westernmost point of Africa. Dias Attendolo, nicknamed Sforza The new pope, Nicholas V,
Varna. Wladyslaw disappeared in returned the following year as meaning “exert” or “force”. elected in 1447, was intent on Constantine XI Palaeologus
the battle and was presumed part of a fleet of caravels In the mid-15th century, the bringing an end to the schism succeeded to the remnants of
dead, despite rumours of his intending to plant the Portuguese Shona kingdom of Mwene Mutapa, caused by his predecessor’s clash a once-great empire, left
miraculous survival. flag and explore what Henry also known as Great Zimbabwe with the Council of Basel (see without the resources to
believed might be the western (see 1106–10), was nearing the end 1435–37), and on restoring peace defend itself. He was the last
branch of the Nile, while another of its glory days. By this time, the to Italy and achieving harmonious emperor of Byzantium, a state
of Henry’s captains, Nuño Tristão, riches of the gold fields had funded relations with other rulers. At the that had lasted throughout the
sighted the Gambia River. construction of the Great Concordat of Vienna in 1448, he medieval period, providing a
The marriage of Margaret of Enclosure, an elliptical space made concessions to Emperor unique bridge between east
Anjou (c.1430–82) to Henry VI of enclosed by a giant wall 244m Frederick III and the other and west, ancient and
England in 1445 was negotiated by (800ft) around, and up to 11m (36ft) German princes, who in return modern. He died on the walls
William de la Pole, chief advisor to high in places, built from almost a abandoned the Council of Basel of Constantinople, having
the king and power behind the million granite blocks. and recognized some papal done everything in his power
throne, whose aim was to stop the powers. The following year, the to secure its defence.
war in France (see 1435–37). At Population Council of Basel finally disbanded
first, the match and the bride were of Great and the anti-pope, Felix V,
popular in England, but in 1448, the Zimbabwe abdicated in return for a them from the Balkans at the
territory of Maine in northern cardinalship. This marked the second Battle of Kosovo in 1448,
France was lost to Charles VII and
the queen was blamed for her
50,000 final victory of the papacy over
the conciliar movement.
regaining control of Albania. It
was clear that there would be no
influence over the weak king. POPULATION
OF LONDON
20,000 Following the death of Byzantine European rescue for the
Margaret would survive this, emperor John VIII, his brother embattled Byzantines. The
however, and become an important Constantine XI Palaeologus (see Ottomans were closing in on
player in the Wars of the Roses panel, right) acceded to the throne Constantinople.
Golden age of Great Zimbabwe
(see 1454–55). In the mid-15th century, the in Constantinople – he would be
The death of Filippo Maria population of Great Zimbabwe was the last Byzantine emperor. The
Visconti in 1447 signalled the end just under half the size of the Ottomans had defeated another of
of the Visconti ducal line of Milan population of London. Jan Hunyadi’s crusades to clear

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 DISCOVER HOW
WORLD WAR I
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8,000,000 BCE 1449

YEAR BY YEAR

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A COMPLETE GUIDE TO THE EVENTS THAT SHAPED THE WORLD

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