FUNCTIONAL ENGLISH II (FENG 2102) NOTES

SECTION B: MECHANICS OF WRITING

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALISATION
Period/Full stop [.]
It is used at the end of a sentence: The game is scheduled for tomorrow.
After an indirect question: He wants to know if she is your girlfriend.
In abbreviations: Ph.D, M.A, Dr., M.D, etc
To separate a whole number from a decimal: 33.5, 66.05 etc

Apostrophe [’]
To indicate possession: Peter’s car, the boys’ room, Sarah’s boyfriend etc
To indicate contraction: that’s, it’s

Question mark [?]

At the end of interrogative sentences: Are we going to the club?
To indicate uncertainty with date or spelling: J.N Foncha (?1920-1999), arteriasclerosis (sp?)

Comma [,]
- Separate two main clause or complete sentences joined by a conjunction i.e
I will go on the trip, but will only take her along if she satisfies me.
- Separate words and phrases in a series
His job description includes cleaning offices, emptying the bins, incinerating waste and tidying the
lobby.
- To set off explanatory but inessential information or interrupting expressions in a sentence
Dr Nebangu, the medic from Maryland, has a private clinic.
- Before and after the name of a person being addressed directly
Yes, Emma, I agree with you

Semi Colon [;]

- In place of a full stop to separate two sentences where the conjunction has been left out i.e
See me tomorrow; I’ll give you the money you asked.
- To separate items in a series or closely related independent clauses or sentences i.e
Our guests are coming from Jakiri, Bui; Benakuma, Menchum; Bambalang, Ngo Ketunjia and
Mbinju, Donga Mantung.

Colon [:]
To indicate that an example follows or a list of items follows i.e
The seminar shall provide training in research skills: research design, proposal writing and data
analyses.

Exclamation mark [!]

Shows the emotional state of the writer, either positive or negative e.g
Stop, I have enough of your nagging!

Quotation marks [“…”]

Enclose the direct words of the speaker or writer
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“I shall never hurt my kid sister again,” said Tatah remorsefully.

Parentheses [()]
- Set off explanatory material considered unnecessary to understanding the meaning of the
sentence e.g I will offer you twenty thousand francs (20,000) for the shoe.
- Enclose dates that accompany a person’s name, publication etc J.N Foncha (1921-1999) was the
first Vice President of the Federal Republic of Cameroon.

Capitalization
- The first letter of the first word in a sentence: The teachers are deliberating on the results.
- Geographical names, personal names and titles e.g Colonel Patterson is in Nairobi.
- Names of organisations, government bodies and institutions
e.g The United Nations Organisation has sent some experts to the National Assembly and the
Ministry of Higher Education.
- Historical periods, days and months
The Second World War ended in August 1944
- Business enterprises and religious bodies
e.g The proprietor of Guarantee Express is a faithful of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon

N.B:
- Periods and commas always go inside the quotation marks
He said, “I will take you out next week.”
“Are you sure,” he enquired, “that she is the one we spoke about?”
- A question or exclamation mark is placed outside the closing quotation mark if it applies to the
entire sentence i.e Why did he say, “Obama the one-term president”?

PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
A paragraph is a group of sentences that handle one main idea. It is set off from other text by
indenting or an extra line spacing i.e in terms of layout. We have the following parts in a paragraph:

- Topic sentence
The topic of a paragraph is the central idea and the topic sentence contains the central idea.
- Supporting sentences
These sentences explain, illustrate or exemplify the idea stated by the topic sentence.
- Unity
Sentences in a paragraph are in unity if they all develop the topic i.e they have a neat connection to
the topic.
Transitions within the paragraph
- Spatial relationship i.e distance, location, direction etc
Above Under Near Through Below Back Inside/outside Left/right
Rear Beyond Behind Far Close In front
- Time relationship
After Before During Earlier Soon Finally Meanwhile Now
Once At last First Next/then Second Later
- Logical relationship i.e cause and effect
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Therefore As a result Thus Because of
Due to It is obvious So For this reason
- Comparison and contrast
Like Similarly Just as Same as
Unlike Different from Instead of In contrast Less than On the other hand

Types of paragraphs
a) Descriptive paragraph
Seeks to present an object or person as in the mind of the reader; it usually pays much attention to
detail. Words or expressions with specific reference are preferred to general words and expressions.
Consider the sentences below:
The boys were wailing behind us / The boys were crying behind us.
The melons are rotten / The melons are bad.
I hate the food / I hate salty food.
b) Narrative paragraph
Narrates a sequence of events or recounts a story and usually employs a chronological or
sequential order. When the narrator is part of the story, we use the first person point of view but if
the narrator is an observer, we use the third person point of view. When the narrator seems to know
all about the thoughts and actions of the characters, we use the omniscient point of view.
c) Argumentative paragraph
Here, the writer presents points for and against a particular view before proceeding to demonstrate
which view is better. Argumentative writing relies more on rational arguments than emotional
appeal and personal opinion.
d) Persuasive paragraph
Persuasive writing appears in many forms; it is when we present a view and use facts to support it.
This paragraph type usually begins with a topic sentence and then supporting sentences come to
add.

HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARY

Summaries are a brief explanation of a story of piece of writing. You will need to include only
the main idea and supporting facts. You can include some other things, but do not re-write the
story. In other words, it requires reduction in text volume while at the same time retaining essential
content.
a) Reviewing
1- Skim the piece: Do not take any notes this time… just take in the bare minimum to wrap
your mind around the basic plot of the article. You will be able to concentrate on the smaller
things later. Think of the focus while you are reading. Get down the most basic of questions:
Who? What? Where? How? How? This bare bones thinking can help you to effectively and
quickly write a pertinent summary.
2- Read the Piece thoroughly: In order to write an accurate summary, you must understand
what you are reading. Try reading with the author’s purpose in mind.
- Take notes and highlights as you read. Take note of the subheadings, even if there aren’t any.
Dividing it into sections in your mind will help you organize your summary.

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- Consider why you have been assigned the text. Write down the author’s main points of each
section. Look for the writer’s thesis and underline it. This is the main idea of the work.
3- Outline the article: This serves as the skeleton of your summary. Write down the support
points of each section but do not go into minor details. It will benefit you to write in your own
words now; that will save you time translating it later. If you can’t get around copying from the
original, put quotation marks around it. Only do this with very important sentences that cannot be
reworded.

b) Writing
1- Start with a clear identification of the work
This automatically lets your readers know your intentions and that you are covering the work of
another author.
- Clearly identify (in the present tense) the background information needed for your summary: the
type of work, title, author and main point. Example: In the featured article ‘Five Kinds of
Learning, Holland Oates justifies his opinion on the hot topic of learning styles…and adds a few
himself’

2- Summarize the piece of work as a whole

Omit nothing important and strive for overall coherence through appropriate transitions. Write
using ‘summarizing language’. Your reader needs to be reminded that this is not your own work.
Use phrases like ‘the article claims… the author suggests… etc
- Use your own words, learn to categorise and avoid examples
You are not rewriting the article. Elements that can be grouped together should be categorized as
such e.g tourist sites, playgrounds, school infrastructure etc. The use of examples no longer makes
the work a summary.
- Present the article in a neutral fashion
Your opinions, ideas, and interpretations should be left in your brain, do not put them into your
summary. Be conscious of choosing your words. Only include what was in the original work and
do not correct/criticise the author.
- Be concise
This is a summary. It should be much shorter than the original piece. If you are working on an
article, give yourself the word limit as your target.

3- Conclude with a Final Statement

This is not a statement of your own point of view, however; it should reflect the significance of the
article from the author’s standpoint or perspective.
- Without rewriting the article, summarize what the author wanted to get across. Be careful not to
evaluate in the conclusion or insert any of your own assumptions or opinion. Remember that a
summary is not a commentary.
c) Revising
1 – Check for Accuracy
A summary is slightly different than any other creative work. You must maintain a voice that is
current with the author’s 100% of the time. Revisit the article as you go over your work… are you
jumping to any conclusions?
Don’t forget to check for spelling, grammar and punctuation errors. Your credibility will seriously
be questioned if you have glossed over the most basic of mistakes.
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PARAPHRASING
It refers to that technique of writing wherein we reword, explain or restate so as to clarify i.e it
makes a text more easily understood. It implies we must understand a text so as to paraphrase. A
paraphrase must
- Express the meaning of a text in different words,
- Bring the full meaning of the text without any omission,
- Not contain any additional personal remarks or comments of the writer paraphrasing
NB: Leave scientific names, abbreviations and phenomena as they are.
We can paraphrase by:
a) Expansion
When the original text is too compressed and packed with meaning.
e.g Studies serve for delight, ornament and for ability
i.e There are various uses of studies. The stud of books brings delight. It provides distraction to
man and enables him carry out his business with ability.
b) Compression
When the passage is too verbose, we can compress it.
e.g Of all living or lifeless creatures upon the strange earth, there is but one, which having reached
the mid-term of appointed human endurance on it, I still regard with unmitigated amazement.
i.e At middle age, I am greatly struck only by one thing out of all things on this earth.

SECTION C: CORRESPONDENCE
1) Formal Letter
These correspondences go UP, DOWN, and ACROSS hierarchy. It is an official correspondence
and should be concise but formal in all respect. Parts of the formal letter include
- Sender’s address
It includes the full mailing address to which a reply can be sent and appears on the top right corner
of the page. The name does not appear here.
- Date
It is one space below the sender’s address
- Recipient’s address
It contains the full mailing address of the official receiving the letter. Generally, use the position of
the recipient.
- Salutation
It is formal to say “Sir” or “Madam” but if the sex of the recipient is not known you may use
“Sir/Madam”. Avoid including “Dear”
- Subject
It is a fragment (not a full sentence) and states the precise purpose of the letter. Craft the subject by
making it as precise as possible. Capitalize the first letter of every content word and underline it or
if you capitalize the subject, you don’t need to underline. e.g
A Request for Permission
A REQUEST FOR PERMISSION
- Body
This section contains the purpose of the correspondence and the conclusion.
- Complimentary close
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This section contains the words of courtesy used at the end of the letter.
NB: In indented format, it aligns with the senders address while in block format, it aligns with the
recipient’s address.
Capitalize the first letter of the complimentary close and end with a comma.
If you use the recipient’s title, use “Yours faithfully” but if you used the recipient’s name, you can
use “Yours sincerely”.
- Signature
Comes after the complimentary close
- Sender’s name
It is written below the signature. Always leave enough space for the signature if your letter is typed.
- Attachments/enclosures
Any supporting documents enclosed with the letter have to be mentioned.
- Copy (CC)
If you copy any person(s), mention the list of persons copied.

Some expressions to note

a) In opening a letter
I write to…. I am writing to…….. I wish to…..
In relation to the advert in….I write to
I am writing to draw or bring to your attention…..
I am writing to express my approval/disapproval of…..
I write to in my capacity as……

b) In concluding a letter
I/we look forward to hearing/receiving/working….
I/we am/are available on contact for….
I/we would be grateful if I/we should….
I/we hope to/that
Thank you for …
I hope you will give this matter your urgent consideration
I hope that you will give this matter further attention/consideration

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 SAMPLE LAY OUT OF A FORMAL LETTER
1 - Sender’s address

2 - Date

3 – Recipient’s address

4 - Sir / Madam

5 – A COMPLAINT FOR THE NON PUBLICATION OF C A MARKS

6 - BODY

7* – Complimentary close 7* – Complimentary close

8* - Signature 8* - Signature

9* – Sender’s name 9* – Sender’s name

10 - Enclosures

11 - CC

2) Curriculum Vitae
It is a brief account of a person’s education, qualifications and previous occupations.it is usually
attached to an application for a job, scholarship, internship etc. The structure of a CV is usually as
follows:
1 – Personal information
Name (all upper case), address, contact (telephone and email), date and place of birth, marital status
2 – Educational background
Begin from the most recent to the least recent especially as regards the most relevant for the
intended application
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 3 – Work experience
You are allowed to be selective here and use those that will attract the reader/employer
4 – Positions of responsibility
If you have managed people; school team, student union, etc we state it here
5 – Activities/hobbies/interests
Skills (language, others)
6 – Referees / References
Mention the addresses of persons who may be contacted to attest to the truth value of your CV.
7 – Date and signature
A CV is always dated and signed

SECTION D: VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT

Noises made by animals and machines
Barking of dogs Bleating of calves Braying of donkeys Whinnying of Zebras
Cackling of chickens Cackling of geese Gibbering of apes Chirping/tweeting/whistling/singing of birds
Gobbling of turkeys Growling of bears Grunting of camels Croaking of toads/geckos
Hissing of snakes Mewing of cats Grunting of pigs/hogs Howling of dogs/wolves
Neighing of horses Peals of laughter Roaring of lions Grunting of crocodiles and alligators
Quacking of ducks Trumpeting of Mooing/bellowing of Screeching of cars/brakes
elephants cattle
Wailing of sirens Buzzing of flies Growling of badgers Hooting/shrieking of owls

How to spell:
- Spelling is a visual process so look for patterns to always remember
- Learn difficult words by the look-cover-write-check method
- Test doubtful spellings by writing them down and looking them up in a good dictionary

Bibliography
Neba, A. F. & Tabah, E. N. (2016). An English grammar and writing course, new edition. Buea:
Anucam Educational Book Plc
Wandji, E. F. (). From ideas to essay: A writing coach for writers. ISBN 978-9956-621-75-7

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 EXERCISES
Tick the correct expression in the columns below:
A B
You’re taking it personally You’re taking it personal
Excuse my right Excuse my left
He is matured He is mature
What is your name? What are your names?
I was for a night vigil I was for a vigil
Rest assured Be rest assured
We sell phones at considerable prices We sell phones at considerate prices
You should not repeat this same mistake again You should not repeat this same mistake
The deadline for the payment of fees is close The dateline for the payment of fees is close
I have came to invigilate the exam I have come to invigilate the exam
all invited guests were visibly satisfied All guests were visibly satisfied

Rewrite the following passage paying keen attention to punctuation and/or spelling.

(NB: Avoid changing numbers in words to numbers in figures and vice versa).

A) When I was 12 years old I played for a baseball team called puerto rico. what a hard
and unhappy season I had I had practiced very hard and at first I was hot. in my first five
games I hit 6 home and 14 rbi’s run batted in. everyone taught that we were going to be a
championship team. But after the fifth game I went into a teribble slump In the next four
games I was 1 for 16 And we lost one game because I droped an easy pop up

B) i simply can’t believe my eyes paul are you alive where have you been all these years
wonderful seeing you today is as if im dreaming please have a seat and let us chat i hope
you don’t mine if i smoke near you now could you just tell me where you have been all
these years and what you have been dong.

SUMMARY WRITING (150 words)

It is commonplace in Cameroon to find young girls before the age of 18 being propelled into early
marriages, especially in the Eastern, Western and Northern regions. A parent of low socio-
economic standing, having many children and in an overcrowded home, may send off one of the
daughters prematurely into marriage as the only means of reducing the family load or of amassing
wealth for their livelihood. Our brothers of the Northern regions would tell you it is inherent in
their religious belief and culture not only to get married to virgins but to marry as many as they are
capable. It is this urge to get married to a virgin that pushes them to go for the unspoiled teenagers,
which in most cases are aged between nine and thirteen.
In a bid to avoid shame and disgrace, some parents force their teenage daughters with unwanted
pregnancies into early marriages. Such parents consider this a better option than to allow their
daughters go in for an abortion, an act which is criminal before man and sinful in the eyes of God.
Some lazy young girls see early marriages as a way out of a long and tedious education, or as a
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short-cut to a comfortable and very easy life, especially if married to a man of good socio-
economic standing. No matter the reasons, the health consequences may be disastrous.
Immature or incomplete development of the female child may be physical or hormonal. The
anatomical structures involved in sexual intercourse, labour and child birth include the bony pelvis,
the perineum made up of faecal and ligaments of the muscles, the urethra, cervix, vagina, rectum,
pelvic sympathetic nerves and blood vessels. Also, any woman less than 1,5metres in height should
be considered as high risk for delivery.
Any traumatic exercises such as forceful sex or difficult delivery may cause perinea tear or rupture
of the uterus, the vagina and surrounding structures. These may lead to fistulas between the urethra
due to ruptured surrounding blood vessels, and may also cause faecal or urinary incontinence.
Infections may ensue resulting from poor treatment or from direct contamination by a chronically
infected older, promiscuous or polygamous husband. Some of these chronic infections like
gonorrhea or genital TB can lead to infertility. Trauma to her genital organs due to forceful sexual
intercourse may form scar tissues that may also cause infertility or painful intercourse
subsequently, and this may be so for the rest of her marriage life. Even if the girl child succeeds in
getting pregnant, she may have miscarriages before term, or have difficult or slow labour (dystocia)
if the pregnancy reaches full term. She may even lose the child (still birth) or lose her own life in
the process (maternal death).
Female hormones alter the chemical constitution of connective tissue making it more pliable,
making the stretching of the cervix possible. Making the relaxation of the joint capsule possible and
making the pelvic joints mobile.
Early girl child marriages should be completely discouraged and vehemently condemned in our
society. Our civil and religious authorities have a moral role to play by rejecting such couples and
refusing to legalize or bless such marriages

COMPOSITION (250 words)

The advantages and disadvantages of on-line dating

CORRESPONDENCE
Write a letter to the Manager of Bambili Cooperative Credit Union Ltd applying for the
position of a Teller. Your address is Meyanui Cynthia, PO Box 05, Mmuom-nebi in Tubah
Subdivision, Mezam Division

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