LIPA CITY COLLEGES

INTRODUCTION

The Problem and its Background

Repeat Victimization, as defined by Nicholas & Farrel (2020) refers to

repeat offenses against targets with equivalent profiles such as nearby

households, the same type of electronic products, or individuals with similar

demographic or lifestyle characteristics. Repeat victimization has both a narrow

and a broad definition. The narrow definition refers to repeated offenses against

the same person, household, business, or other target however defined.

Repeat victimization is substantial and accounts for a large portion of all

crime. While revictimization occurs for virtually all crime problems, the precise

amount of crime associated with revictimization varies between crime problems,

over time, and across places. These variations reflect the local nature of crime

and important differences in the type and amount of data used for computing

repeat victimization. Three primary sources of information demonstrate that

repeat victimization is prevalent across the world: surveys of victims, interviews

with offenders, and crime reports. Although each of these sources has

limitations, the prevalence of revictimization is consistent across these different

sources.

Most violent and personal crime is repeat victimization. According to the

study of Grove & Farrel (2015), for all crime types covered by the International

Crime Victimization Survey (ICVS), more than 40% is repeated against the same

targets in any given year—a conservative estimate. Repeat victimization has a

heightened risk in the period immediately after victimization. Since society is

more informed about where, when, and to an extent repeat crime is likely to

occur, this means as members of society we really ought to be able to do

something to prevent it. It is often not intuitively obvious what should be done or

how, although sustainable measures will tackle both long- and short-term

repeats. Developing crime prevention tactics to tackle repeats is sorely

neglected, and most of the research remains to be done.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Offenders are creatures of habit, selecting the same or similar targets

because they have learned the likely amounts of time, effort, skill, and resources

they need, and the risks and rewards involved (Farrel, 2015). Hence, success

breeds repetition, although repeats can be driven by frustrated attempts.

According to Bernasco et. al, (2015) particularly attractive targets may also

draw crimes from different offenders. Some households or businesses may

contain particularly valuable products, or some persons may seem particularly

vulnerable and attractive. For example, targets of hate crimes who are visually

distinguishable may be repeatedly victimized by different offenders with a shared

motivation. Victims of personal crime are statistically more likely to also

experience property crime, and some explanations provided by lifestyle theory.

In the study of Laycock (2017), people who frequently go out, to bars and

clubs for example, may be at risk of alcohol-related violence and theft, while their

homes are left unguarded against property crime. Routine activity and crime

pattern theory provide the best explanation of aggregate patterns of repeats. The

same targets go to the same places where they interact with the same offenders,

whether on the streets, in the home, or online. This is as true for domestic

violence (typically with one offender and victim who routinely interact), neighbor

assaults (because of their proximity and frequent interaction), crimes that occur

along the routes that victims and offenders take to and from work and leisure

activities, and cybercrimes including fraud, identity theft, and hacking where the

same targets are repeatedly victimized. Murder seems to be the only crime

where repetition does not occur.

Lipa City as one of the developing cities in Batangas, is considered low

level in crime and recorded as High crime increasing in the past 3 years. In terms

of crime rate, there is a low report on home broken and things stolen, car stolen,

physical attack, people using or dealing drugs, and crimes such as assault and

armed robbery. Lastly, there is a moderate level of report on mugged or robbed,

car stolen, being insulted property crimes such as vandalism and theft and

corruption and bribery.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Data furnished from Lipa City Police Station, shows that the Crime Rate in

Lipa City from 2017 to 2018 has five major types of crimes namely Against

Person, Against Property, Non – Index Crime, Traffic Incidents and Special

Laws. Traffic Incidents ranked first with the highest recorded crimes

accommodating 40.37% crime rate. It was followed by Special Laws with 35.06%

crime rate and the Non – index Crime with 8.76% crime rate. Lastly, Crime

against Property ranked 4 th with 8.40% crime rate and on the bottom is Crime

against Person with 7.41% crime rate.

In terms of the year, PNP – Lipa City (2021) has a summarized report that

Year 2021 has the highest crime rate which is 23.78% It was followed by the

Year of 2018 with a crime rate of 20.47; third is Year 2020 with crime rate of

20.04%; 4th is Year 2017 with 17.92% crime rate and lastly Year 2019 with a

crime rate of 17.79% The data gathered from the PNP – Lipa City indicates that

there is no consistent of peaking or decreasing on the crime rate in Lipa City.

On the other hand, the report also from the PNP – Lipa City (2021) shows

the repeating crimes for the past five (5) years. In terms of Crime against Person,

it was found out that the three highest repeating crimes are Rape with a recorded

crime rate of 32.61%, followed by Physical Injury with crime rate of 30.63% and

lastly Murder with 26.09% crime rate. In terms of Crimes against Property, the

reported repeating crimes are Theft (Plain) with crime rate of 52.26%, Robbery

with crime rate of 23.69% and lastly Theft (Qualified) with crime rate of 11.85%.

In the report of recurring victimization in terms of Non – Index Crime, Attempt

Homicide ranked first with 19.23% crime rate, seconded by Attempt Murder with

11.87% crime rate and lastly was Grave Threats with crime rate of 11.20%.

In terms of Traffic Incidents, the report form PNP – Lipa CITY (2021)

shows that RIP is used to describe the “rip and tear” which are the damages that

are of removal and replacement of non-defective property required to repair

defective work, also known as “get to” damages. The report of PNP – Lipa City

showed that RIP Damage to Property was found to be repeatedly crime with

51.76% crime rate, followed by RIP Physical Injury with 45.05% repeating crime

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
rate and lastly was RIR Homicide with 3.08% crime rate. The last data focused

on the repeating crimes in terms of Special Laws. Dangerous drugs was found to

be most repeated crime with a crime rate of 39.93% followed by Illegal Number

Games with crime rate of 23.02% and lastly was the Anti – Gambling Law with

crime rate of 10.11%.

With the aforementioned data and information, this study is conducted in

order to identify the factors of recurring victimization in Lipa City. The researchers

come up with this research study to identify the risk factors of recurring

victimization in Lipa City and how these factors leave impact to its victim.

Related Literature

Repeat victimization has both a narrow and a broad definition. The narrow

definition refers to repeated offenses against the same person, household,

business, or other target however defined. The broad definition refers to repeat

offenses against targets with equivalent profiles such as nearby households, the

same type of electronic products, or individuals with similar demographic or

lifestyle characteristics.

In the study of Tilley (2016), crime is disproportionately concentrated not

only on a small subset of offenders but also small subsets of victims, targets, and

places. Patterns of repeat victimization—whereby experiencing one crime

increases the probability of experiencing another—have been found across

diverse crime types and in diverse places. Likewise, crime is concentrated on

hotpots, and, in the case of theft, on so-called “hot products. On the other hand,

Vidal (2018) stated that the causal relationship between police street deployment

and crime represents one of the most common tests of the deterrence

mechanism underlying the standard economic model of crime. It is also an

important policy parameter in its own right. In England, for instance, foot patrol is

at the core of Robert Peel’s pioneering vision of a modern police, and retains

enormous contemporary importance. There is a wide range that lack of patrolling

and the presence of police officers in a certain place leads the offenders to do

the crimes repeatedly.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
In the study of Reemst et. al (2017), factors of repeating crimes can be

categorized by characteristics of the victim and his or her environment (including

historical, socio-demographic, economic, physical, mental, behavioral and

environmental characteristics), characteristics of the offense (including the type

of offense, the context of the offense and the relationship with the offender) and

risk

perception (to what extent do people expect to be a victim in the future). Because

risk factors will vary for different types of offenses, the following offenses are

separately discussed: property crimes, (semi-public) violent crimes, sexual,

partner and family violence and violence against public service professionals.

Also, the risk of retaliation and harassment is discussed separately.

Tilley (2016) reported that the strongest risk factors for repeat victimization

after being a victim of property crime are living in a high crime area ('hotspot')

and living in a neighborhood with many terraced houses, compared to (semi)

detached houses. The strength of the relationship with regard to other risk factors

is either unknown or not strong. According to studies about socio-demographic

and economic characteristics, men and people who are younger, who have a

university degree and who live alone are more at risk.

The reported article from the website BNP Media Security (2019) reported

the recurring crimes at night. Larceny/theft, drug violations, simple assaults, and

property crimes were slightly more likely to happen while the sun was out, but

more violent crimes such as driving while impaired, murder, rape/sexual assault,

and robbery were more frequently reported at night. Midnight was the peak hour

for violent crimes like rape and sexual assault, while 2 a.m. was the ideal time to

stay off the roads – DWI/DUI police incidents happened the most then. Murder

peaked at 9 p.m. and aggravated assault peaked just an hour after.

Reemst et. al (2017) found out that people who have a lower income and

who live in a terraced house are more at risk for repeat victimization of burglary,

while people who have a higher income and who live in a detached house, are

more at risk of repeat victimization of other property crimes, such as theft and

vandalism. A behavioral risk factor for repeat victimization after property crime is

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
performing delinquent behavior. Also many environmental risk factors are related

to repeat victimization. People who live in the city center, who live in a big,

deprived and urban area and those who live in a house with a clear line of view

for neighbors, are more at risk.

A large number of risk factor for repeat victimization after (semi-public)

violent crime is strongly related to repeat victimization. People who have (also)

experienced other victimization, who have been in prison and who have a low

income, are at highly increased risk. Similarly, people who use heroin, who have

lost their job as a result of alcohol abuse and those who deal drugs, are at greatly

increased risk of repeat victimization. Finally, people who have threatened to

commit a violent crime, have fought with someone, have stabbed someone are at

greatly increased risk of repeat victimization, as well as people who live in a

hotspot.

Synthesis

On the study of Rocque et. al (2017), the relationship between age and

crime is one of the most robust relationships in all of criminology. This

relationship shows that crime increases in early adolescence, around the age of

14, peaks in the early to mid-20s, and then declines thereafter.

The article written on the Law Teacher (2021), there is a high positive

correlational between the repeating crime committed and the sex of the

offenders. Crime is “committed disproportionately by males.” Such a statement

appears to have a significant effect on the way that both law and society respond

to different kinds of crimes.

In the study of Andersen et. al (2015), it was found out that there is a

significant relationship between the spousal status and the committed crime.

Commonly, familied people are the offenders of repeating crime due to the highly

needs in their foods and necessities in the house.

In the article from Criminal Justice (2020), educational attainment has

significant relationship with the committed crimes. This is because most of the

crime offenders are found not finished their schooling due to involvement of

repeating crimes.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Sethi et. al (2020), found out that socioeconomic factors have significant

relationship with the committed crime. The income inequality gives the offenders

to do crime such as thief, robbery and even homicide.

Theoretical Framework

The following are the theories that support the study about recurring

victimization:

Routine Activity Theory (Cohen and Felson, 1997)

According to the article of Kitteringham & Lawrence (2020), Routine

activity theory, developed by Cohen and Felson, revolves around three things: a

“potential offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian. All

three must come together in order for criminal activity to be realized. Routine

activity theory relies on the same rational choice methodology as situational

crime prevention techniques. As in any theory, routine activity theory has its

criticisms. One of the primary criticisms is the assumption that criminals are

rational in their decision-making. They may not use the same rationale as the

person implementing the security measures. They may not even be aware of the

situational crime prevention techniques put into effect. They may be under the

influence of drugs or alcohol or, for whatever reason, they may simply not care

about the security measures.

The used of routine activity theory in this study opens the researchers to

come up with the three main factors of recurring victimizations in certain place

such as in Lipa City. The researchers found out those environmental factors,

characteristics of offense and risk perceptions are the three things which are

leading to have recurring victimization in a certain place such as the explanation

of Cohen and Felson. These three factors are the main reasons in order for

criminal activity to be done repeatedly.

Concentric Zone Theory (Ernest Burgess, 1925)

Rubin and Pesce (2017) introduced the used of Burgess Model to the field

of criminology as a variation that argues that crime increases toward the inner

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
city area. According to Rubin and Pesce’s (2017) article, studies of the rates of

crime and delinquency, especially by sociologists Henry Shaw and David McKay

in Chicago, demonstrated that over an extended period, the highest rates were

found within the first three zones no matter who lived there. These high rates

were strongly correlated with such social problems as mental illness,

unemployment, poverty, infant mortality, and many others.

This theory explained “Why is Crime So High the nearer you get into the

inner-city just like in Lipa City?” According to the Concentric Zone view, this is

caused by a breakdown of institutional, community-based controls, which in turn

is caused by three general factors: industrialization, urbanization, and

immigration. People living within these areas often lack a sense of community

because the local institutions (e.g., schools, families, and churches) are not

strong enough to provide nurturing and guidance for the area’s children. It is

important to note that there are important political and economic forces at work

here. The concentration of human and social problems within these zones is not

the inevitable “natural” result of some abstract laws of nature but rather the

actions of some of the most powerful groups in a city (urban planners, politicians,

wealthy business leaders, and so on).

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the the conceptual framework of the study. The framework

shows the interplay of different variables involved in the study. Included were the

profile of the respondents with indirect relationship to the factors of recurring

victimization in Lipa City in terms of environmental factor; characteristics of

offense; and risk perception. Thereafter, through assessing the factors of

recurring victimization, the researchers will propose a program to contribute to

the crime prevention programs.

Figure 1. Research Paradigm of the Study

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

Statement of the Problem

This research study is conducted in order to determine the factors of

recurring victimization in Lipa City. Thus, this study is sought to answer the

following questions:

1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1. age,

1.2. sex,

1.3. marital status; and

1.4. highest educational attainment and

1.5. socio economic status?

2. What are the factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of:

2.1. environmental factor;

2.2. characteristics of offense; and

2.3. risk perception?

3. Is there a significant relationship between the profile of the respondents and

the factors affecting recurring of victimization?

4. Based on the result of the study what program can be proposed?

Hypothesis of the Study

In the process of analysis and interpretation of the different variables, the

following hypotheses were tested:

Ho1: There is no significant relationship between the profile of the respondents

and the factors affecting recurring of victimization

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The researchers used the Quantitative Research as this research study

will collect and analyze the data about recurring victimization in Lipa. Bhandari

(2020) stated that using Quantitative Research the researchers will be able to

find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and

generalize results to wider populations.

The researchers adopted the descriptive research method in which it can

be used to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or

phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why

questions. According to McCombes (2019), a descriptive research design can

use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables.

Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control or manipulate

any of the variables, but only observes and measures them. In this study, the

researchers focus on the description of the risky factors that can cause the

recurring victimization.

Sampling Design, Respondents and Locale of the Study

The researchers used purposive sampling for this study. According to

Crossman (2020), a purposive sample is a non-probability sample that is

selected based on characteristics of a population and the objective of the study.

Purposive sampling is different from convenience sampling and is also known as

judgmental, selective, or subjective sampling. In this study, the researchers will

conduct the study in Lipa City and its respondents are mainly the citizens

especially who experienced recurring victimization.

On the other hand, the used of purposive sampling technique is to easily

identify the respondents of the study. The researchers will be using 100

respondents for the study who are the common victims of recurring

victimizations. With the data from the PNP – Lipa City (2021), the top five (5)

barangays with highest crimes rate are Tambo, Marawoy, Sabang, Inosluban

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
and Lodlod which are commonly identify as central barangays within the inter –

city. Thus, the 100 respondents will come from these barangays. Respondents

who will agree to undergo the study will be kept confidential.

Research Instrument

The data gathered from the Philippine National Police – Lipa City Station

will be used for the research instrument. The researchers used a self – made

questionnaire as it is the most suitable instrument in this study. The formulated

questions of the study were appropriate to assess the nature and risky factors or

recurring victimization in the City of Lipa.

The questionnaire is composed of two parts. The first one focuses on the

profile of the respondents in terms of age; gender; marital status and educational

attainment. The second part focuses on the assessment of the level of extent of

the risk factors of the recurring victimization in Lipa City. The statements are

validated by some of the professionals in this field.

Data Gathering Procedure

The conduct of this study is to assess the nature and reasons of recurring

victimization in the city of Lipa using the risk factors. The researchers cane up

with this study as it is very alarming about this problem happening in Lipa City.

The researchers sent a proposal to their adviser. After the approval of the study,

the researchers look for data to be used in the study as the support. Through

letter of request, the researcher went to their adviser and dean for the approval.

Revision was made to the letter of request.

After the approval, the researchers went to the Philippine National Police –

Lipa City Station to request for the needed data about the records of recurring

victimization. Construction of questionnaire will be made.

The survey questionnaire will serve as the data gathering instrument.

Survey questionnaire will be submitted to the research adviser. The validation will

be done after the revision of paper to some technical errors. The concepts and

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
content of the survey questionnaire will be checked to some experts to the field

of crime victimization. After checking and validation will be made for the

accurateness of the survey questionnaire. Distribution of the survey

questionnaire will be done within the barangays with highest rate of crimes based

on the data given by the PNP – Lipa City.

Ethical Consideration

The researchers go to considerable efforts to ensure the dignity and safety

of research participants, given the significance of ethics in doing research and

the issues that come with it. To comply with the ethical issues when doing

research, all the participants gave their consent to participate in the research

study’s survey questionnaire.

As a result, after being approached by the researcher and having the

research goal and method explained to them, the participants readily agreed to

participate in the study important principles that the researchers use in ethical

considerations are the following participants in research should not be subjected

to any kind of harm, dignity of the participants should be a top priority,

participants’ full consent should be acquired, the privacy of research participant

must be protected, the confidentiality of research data must be maintained, and

the anonymity of respondents participating in the study must be maintained.

Data analysis

The researchers used statistical tool in order to have a depth analysis of

the study:

Frequency Distribution. This was used to identify the total number of

respondents in terms of their demographic profile.

Weighted Mean. This was used to determine the average of the responses on

the factors of repeating crimes in the Lipa City.

Composite Mean. This was used to determine the over-all responses of the

respondents to determine the central tendency of each factor on the study.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
The used of interval range and its verbal interpretation will be as follows:

Weight/Scale Mean Range Verbal Interpretation

4 3.51 – 4.00 Always
3 2.51 – 3.50 Often
2 1.51 – 2.50 Sometimes
1 1.00 – 1.50 Never

Pearson Correlation (r) was used to determine the value of relationship

between and among the given variables. Positive or negative relativity were

shown based on the given data of the respondents.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Profile of the Respondents.

Table 1 shows the distribution of profile of the chosen respondents.

Table 1
Profile of the Respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage Rank

Age
50 - 59 2 2 4
40 - 49 18 18 3
30 - 39 43 43 1
20 - 29 37 37 2
Total 100 100
Sex
Female 47 47 2
Male 53 53 1
Total 100 100
Civil Status
Single 29 29 2
Married 49 49 1
Separated 8 8 4
Widowed 14 14 3
Total 100 100
Highest Educational Attainment
Master’s Degree 6 6 4
College Graduate 16 16 3
College Undergraduate 36 36 2
High School Undergraduate 38 38 1
Elementary Graduate 1 1 6
Elementary Undergraduate 3 3 5
Total 100 100
Socio-Economic Status
More than 50,000 3 3 6.5
40,001 - 50,000 13 13 4
30,001 - 40,000 23 23 2
20,001 - 30,000 30 30 1

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
10,001 - 20,000 19 19 3
5,001 - 10,000 3 3 6.5
5,000 and below 9 9 5
Total 100 100

As given in Table 1, the age range of 30 - 39 years old gained the highest

frequency count of 43 or 43% at rank 1 while the age range of 50 - 59 years old

obtained the least frequency count of two or 2% at ranks 4.

With respect to the respondents’ sex, male got the highest frequency

count of 53 or 53% at rank 1 whereas female garnered the least frequency count

of 47 or 47% at rank 2.

For the respondents’ civil status,49 of them or 49% at rank 1 were

married. On the other hand, eight or 8% at rank 4 were separated.

With regard to the respondent’s highest educational attainment, high

school undergraduate garnered the highest frequency count of 38 or 38% at rank

1. Meanwhile, elementary graduate obtained the least frequency count of one or

1% at rank 6.

Furthermore, in terms of the respondents’ socio-economic status, P20,001

- P30,000 got the highest frequency count of 30 or 30% at rank 1 while P5,001 -

P10,000 and more than P50,000 made the least and equal frequency counts of

three or 3% at ranks 6.5.

Generally, the majority of the respondents can be described as 30 – 39

years old, male, married, high school undergraduate and earn P20,001 –

P30,000. In the study of Cornelius et. al (2017), the most common victims of

crime in Urban and Rural areas are the adults from 24 years old up to 35 years

old. The results on their study found out that these victims are merely those who

worked late at night, involved on the street fights, having family or relationship

problem, involved in illegal drugs and work. According to the statement of Smith

(2020), men are the common victims of crimes and also the perpetrators of these

crimes. On the other hand, one of the mainly reasons of the recurring crime in a

certain place such as civilized is the socioeconomic status of the victims.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

2. Factors Affecting Recurring of Crime

Tables 2 - 4 show the assessment of the respondents on the factors

affecting recurring victimization.

2.1 In Terms of Environmental Factor

Table 2
Factors Affecting Recurring of Crime
in Terms of Environment

Weighted
Items Mean Interpretation Rank
Paulit- ulit na may nangyayaring krimen sa aming lugar dahil sa:
1.Ang lugar na aking tinitirahan ay 3.84 Palagi 2
maraming kawatan at kriminal.
2. Maraming mga eskinita na maaring 3.85 Palagi 1
pagtaguan ng mga kriminal sa aming
lugar.
3. Kawalan ng “street lights” o mga 3.79 Palagi 4.5
hindi gumagana kaya’t nagkakaron ng
lakas ng loob ang kawatan na gumawa
ng krimen.
4. May mga negosyong bukas 3.80 Palagi 3
magdamag ngunit wala namang mga
guwardya.
5. Hindi regular ang pagpapatrolya ng 3.65 Palagi 10
mga barangay-tanod o maging mga
pulis.
6.Malayo sa kabayanan ang aming 3.69 Paagi 7
barangay kung kayat di din kagaad
nakakaresponde ang mga kapulisan
sakaling may nangyaring krimen.
7. Maraming taga-ibang lugar na doon 3.79 Palagi 4.5
na naninirahan sa aming barangay.
8. Malimit ay may pasugalan at inuman 3.70 Palagi 6
sa mga kalsada sa aming barangay.
9. Maraming adik sa aming lugar. 3.68 Palagi 8.5
10.Ang malimit na nagiging mga 3.68 Palagi 8.5
biktima ng kawatan ay yung mga bahay
na malimit walang tao.
Composite Mean 3.75 Palagi

As presented in Table 2, the respondents assessed that paulit- ulit at

palagi na may nangyayaring krimen sa kanilang lugar dahil sa maraming mga

eskinita na maaring pagtaguan ng mga kriminal sa kanilang lugar as given by the

highest computed weighted mean of 3.85 and highest rank of 1. Lipa City has

barangays in which the industrialization and housing had been expounded. This

results to the many houses being connected and having shallow and small
Lipa City Colleges
10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
pathway so – called eskinita. Because of this, crimes are usually happened in

eskinita. According to the study of Tilley (2016), the recurrence of crimes is

usually happened in small side street or the alley. Also, criminals who usually do

the repeating crimes can escape easily because of these areas letting them to

run away from officials who are trying to catch them. Meanwhile, the said group

of respondents answered that paulit- ulit na may nangyayaring krimen sa

kanilang lugar dahil sa palaging hindi regular ang pagpapatrolya ng mga

barangay-tanod o maging mga pulis which got the least weighted mean of 3.65

and the least rank of 10. The researchers believe that even though the patrolling

of the police officers is also a big factor to crime recurrence. Crime offenders

guard themselves to any appearances of the police officers every time they are

making crimes. In the study of Vidal (2018), the police street deployment for

patrolling should be given more emphasize especially on the secluded places

wherein crimes happened regularly. This is to ensure that they will give

immediate actions to all the offenders of the repeating crimes.

Generally, the composite mean of 3.75 signified that the respondents

assessed that environment is always a factor affecting recurring of crime.

Environmental factors contribute much in the recurrence of crimes especially on

the secluded places in Lipa City as shown in the result of the study. Researchers

found out that crime offenders can commit crimes repeatedly because of the

environmental factor such as not functioning of streetlights, CCTV, lacked of

police patrolling, secluded areas, small street side lane and unguarded houses

and properties. Tilley (2016) found out that environment factors are the biggest

contributors of crime repeating in the community. These factors gave the crime

offenders to commit repeating crimes due to disadvantaged neighborhood,

community disorganization and neglect, availability of drugs, high population

turnover, lack of neighborhood attachment, and low collective efficacy (social

cohesion and informal social control).

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

2.2. In Terms of Characteristics of Offense

Table 3
Factors Affecting Recurring of Crimes in Terms
of Characteristics of Offense

Weighte
Items d Interpretation Rank
Mean
Paulit-ulit na may nangyayaring krimen sa aming lugar dahil:
1. May mga naninirahan dito na dating 3.75 Palagi 3.5
nakakulong at sila ang gumagawa ng
krimen.
2. Madaming dumadayo rito sa aming 3.70 Palagi 8
lugar at sila ang nagiging target ng
mga kawatan na naninirahan rito.
3. May mga naninirahan dito na 3.75 Palagi 3.5
miyembro ng LGBT na syang malimit
na nagiging biktima.
4. Karamihan ng mga nagiging biktima 3.73 Palagi 5
ay pang gabi na kung umuwi ng bahay
galing trabaho.
5. Karamihan ng nagiging biktima ng 3.71 Palagi 7
krimen ay yaong mga mahihina at di
kayang lumaban.
6. Karamihan ng mga nagiging biktima 3.69 Paagi 9.5
ay yaong mga malimit makitaan ng
mamahaling kagamitan sa katawan
gaya ng selpon o alahas.
7. Ang away ng mag kakamag anak 3.69 Palagi 9.5
ang malimit nagiging sanhi ng krimen
dto sa aming lugar.
8. Ang alitan sa lupa ang malimit na 3.76 Palagi 1.5
pinag mumulan ng paulit ulit na krimen
dito sa aming lugar
9. Ang karamihang nagiging biktima ng 3.72 Palagi 6
krimen ay yaong may mga problema
sa pag- iisip o may kapansanan
10.May mga kriminal na naninirahan 3.76 Palagi 1.5
dito sa aming lugar na nanakot o nag
uudyok sa iba na gumawa din ng mga
krimen.
Composite Mean 3.73 Palagi

As revealed in Table 3, the respondents answered that paulit-ulit na may

nangyayaring krimen sa kanilang lugar dahil palagi ang alitan sa lupa ang

malimit na pinag mumulan ng paulit ulit na krimen doon sa kanilang lugar, at

palaging may mga kriminal na naninirahan doon sa kanilang lugar na nanakot o

nag uudyok sa iba na gumawa din ng mga krimen which gained the highest

equal weighted means of 3.76 and highest ranks of 1.5. Community – related

and family – related risks indicators are the highest contributors of the
Lipa City Colleges
10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Characteristics of Offense based on the obtained results. These include the land

property problem and also the capability of crime offenders to commit crime in a

certain place. The researchers believe that due to the high demand of land

property in our country, family members tend to fight and cause to crime

recurrence. Also, the researchers found out that most of the crime offenders are

persons deprived liberty. In the study of Reemst et. al (2017), characteristics of

offense include the type of offense, context of the offense and the relationship

with the offender. With the example given by Reemst et. al (2017), family –

related risk factors contribute much in the crime recurrence due to the

misunderstanding and fight against the property. On the other hand, the said

group of respondents responded that paulit-ulit na may nangyayaring krimen sa

kanilang lugar dahil palaging karamihan ng mga nagiging biktima ay yaong mga

malimit makitaan ng mamahaling kagamitan sa katawan gaya ng selpon o

alahas, at palagi ang away ng mag kakamag anak at malimit na nagiging sanhi

ng krimen doon sa kanilang lugar which gained the least and equal weighted

means of 3.69 and the least ranks of 9.5. Nowadays, thieves are the most

recorded crime offenders in rural areas. This is because some of the victims of

this crime are included on the lowest socio – economic status family income and

suffer from poverty and hunger causing them to do crimes every time they are

seeing valuable things such as jewelries, gadgets and properties. Abella (2016)

found out that the common offenders of repeating robbery are children and

cannot be convicted with punishable laws. This is because of their young age

and due to process of delinquent acts among them. On the other hand, family –

related risk factors are part of crime recurrence.

Generally, the composite mean of 3.73 inferred that the respondents

evaluated that characteristics of offense is always a factor affecting recurring of

crime. The researchers found out based on the results of the study that

characteristics of the offense contribute much on the repeating crimes in the Lipa

City. In the study of Reemst et. al (2017), characteristics of offense are the

context, content and relationship of the offenders on the crimes committed. Thus,

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
characteristics of offense is a factor that give the offenders the ways on how

they, when and why they commit crime repeatedly.

2.3.In Terms of Risk Perception

Table 4
Factors Affecting Recurring of Crime
in Terms of Risk Perception

Weighted
Items Mean Interpretation Rank
Ako ay biktima ng paulit-ulit na krimen dahil…
1. Hindi kayang lumaban ng biktima. 3.82 Palagi 2
2. Ang kalimitang gumagawa ng 3.80 Palagi 3
krimen ay yaong may kapangyarihan
sa lipunan at may pera.
3. Madalas mapagkitaan ng malaking 3.78 Palagi 5.5
halagang pera at mamahaling gamit
ang biktima.
4.Maraming makikipot at madidilim na 3.83 Palagi 1
eskinita sa lugar namin.
5. Madalas ay yung nagiisa sa 3.79 Palagi 4
kanilang bahay o apartment.
6.Madalas ay yung nag-iisa sa 3.77 Paagi 7
kanilang bahay o sa inuupahang
bahay.
7. Grupo – grupong kabataan, 3.78 Palagi 5.5
organisasyon o praterniti ang s’yang
nasasangkot sa kaguluhan at krimen
sa daanan.
8.Madalas na umuwe ng hating gabi o 3.72 Palagi 9.5
madaling araw
9. Karamihan sa mga gumagawa ng 3.75 Palagi 8
krimen ay may galit o personal na
alitan sa biktima.
10. May mga taong bagong 3.72 Palagi 9.5
naninirahan na syang target ng
kawatan.
Composite Mean 3.78 Palagi

As discussed in Table 4, the respondents appraised that sila ay biktima ng

paulit-ulit na krimen dahil palaging maraming makikipot at madidilim na eskinita

sa lugar nila which got the highest weighted mean of 3.83 and highest rank of 1.

Lipa City is one of the known cities in the country with the highest population and

being industrialized due to its economic growth and being designated as city –

district in the province of Batangas. Because of this, there lots of houses in each

barangay providing small street lane. Crimes frequently occur in small street lane

as a result of this. The study by Tilley (2016) found that narrow side streets and

alleys are where crimes tend to repeat. Additionally, because these regions allow

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
criminals to flee from authorities who are attempting to apprehend them, repeat

offenders can escape with ease. Moreover, the said group of respondents

assessed that sila ay biktima ng paulit-ulit na krimen dahil palaging madalas na

umuwi ng hating gabi o madaling araw, at palaging may mga taong bagong

naninirahan na syang target ng kawatan which got the least and equal weighted

means of 3.72 and the least ranks of 9.5. Crime at nights is given emphasized by

the police officers due to its high rate of occurrence and repeatedly recorded.

According to the report of BNP Media Security (2019), midnight was the peak

hour for violent crimes like rape and sexual assault, while 2 a.m. was the ideal

time to stay off the roads – DWI/DUI police incidents happened the most then.

Murder peaked at 9 p.m. and aggravated assault peaked just an hour after.

Generally, composite mean of 3.78 concluded that the respondents

evaluated that risk perception is always a factor affecting recurring of crimes.

The researchers found out that risk perception is a highly affected factor of

recurring of crimes in the Lipa City. Risk perceptions of crimes defines to what

extent do people expect to be a victim in the future (Reemst et. al, 2017). People

who tend to make repeating crimes are more likely to see their capable to do

after they committed the crimes.

3. Relationship Between the Profile of the Respondents and their

Assessment on the Factors Affecting Recurring of Victimization .

Table 5 reveals the relationship on the assessment of the respondents on

the on the factors when grouped according to their profile.

Table 5
Relationship Between the Profile of the Respondents and their
Assessment on the Factors Affecting
Recurring of Victimization

Variables Corr. p-value Decision Interpretation

Coeff.
Age
Environment 0.40 0.00004 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Characteristics of 0.22 0.02785 p<0.05, Reject Ho Significant
Offense
Risk Perception 0.55 0.00000 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Sex
Environment 0.62 0.00000 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Characteristics of 0.23 0.02133 p<0.05, Reject Ho Significant
Offense
Risk Perception 0.53 0.00000 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Lipa City Colleges
10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Civil Status
Environment 0.36 0.00023 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Characteristics of 0.38 0.0010 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Offense
Risk Perception 0.30 0.00243 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Highest Educational Attainment
Environment 0.51 0.00000 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Characteristics of 0.23 0.02133 p<0.05, Reject Ho Significant
Offense
Risk Perception 0.20 0.04604 p<0.05, Reject Ho Significant
Socio-economic Status
Environment 0.35 0.00035 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant
Characteristics of 0.20 0.04604 p<0.05, Reject Ho Significant
Offense
Risk Perception 0.38 0.00010 p<0.01, Reject Ho Highly Significant

As presented in Table 5, when the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization were compared according to their age,

the computed correlation coefficients of 0.40 for environmental factor and 0.55

for risk perception have corresponding p-values of less than 0.01, thus rejecting

the null hypothesis. In addition, the correlation coefficient of 0.22 for

characteristics of offense has a corresponding p-value of less than 0.05, thus

rejecting also the null hypothesis.

These safely inferred that the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of environmental factor and

risk perception have high significant relationships and significant relationship in

terms of characteristics of offense when compared according to their age. The

relation on age and crime in terms of characteristics of offense is given

emphasize in the field of criminal justice. There are many studies that focus on

the delinquent acts, adulthood crime commitment and even the late adults crime

sentences. This is because there is a big relationship between the characteristics

of what crimes can these groups of people in terms of age can do. According to

the study of Rocque et. al (2017), the relationship between age and crime is one

of the most robust relationships in all of criminology. This relationship shows that

crime increases in early adolescence, around the age of 14, peaks in the early to

mid-20s, and then declines thereafter. This standard shape, which has been

termed the “age–crime curve,” is not questioned by scholars. However, questions

surrounding how much variation occurs in the age–crime curve by crime type,

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
social group, and historical period remain. In addition, the meaning of the shape

of the curve is not clear

When the assessment of the respondents on the factors affecting

recurring of victimization were compared according to their sex, the computed

correlation coefficients of 0.62 for environmental factor and 0.53 for risk

perception have corresponding p-values of less than 0.01, thus rejecting the null

hypothesis. Moreover, the correlation coefficient of 0.23 for characteristics of

offense has a corresponding p-value of less than 0.05, thus rejecting also the null

hypothesis.

These safely implied that the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of environmental factor and

risk perception have high significant relationships and significant relationship in

terms of characteristics of offense when compared according to their sex. The

relations between gender and crime are deep, persistent and paradoxical.

Gender has been recognized as one of the most important factors that play a

significant role in dealing with different kinds of crimes within criminal justice

systems. It has long been considered that men and women differ in their offence

rates and patterns and in their victimization experiences. In the article of Law

Teacher (2021), crime is “committed disproportionately by males.” Such a

statement appears to have a significant effect on the way that both law and

society respond to different kinds of crimes. The idea that crimes are committed

primarily by males has had a major effect on criminological thinking and on

criminal justice policies. This effect is different from one society to another and

from time to time within one society, since gender roles and expectations are

changing.

When the assessment of the respondents on the factors affecting

recurring of victimization were compared according to their civil status, the

computed correlation coefficients of 0.36 for environmental factor, 0.38

characteristics of offense and 0.30 for risk perception have corresponding p-

values of less than 0.01, thus rejecting the null hypothesis.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
These safely concluded that the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of environmental factor,

characteristics of offense and risk perception have high significant relationships

when compared according to their civil status. People who tend to commit crime

are mostly those with family but not totally. Researchers found out that poverty

and hunger pushed these people to commit repeated crimes. In the study of

Andersen et. al (2015), it was found out that there is a significant relationship

between the spousal status and the committed crime. Commonly, familied people

are the offenders of repeating crime due to the highly needs in their foods and

necessities in the house.

In addition, when the assessment of the respondents on the factors

affecting recurring of victimization were compared according to their highest

educational attainment, the computed correlation coefficient of 0.51 for

environmental factor has a corresponding p-value of less than 0.01, thus

rejecting the null hypothesis. Moreover, the correlation coefficients of 0.23

characteristics of offense and 0.20 for risk perception have corresponding p-

values of less than 0.05, thus rejecting also the null hypothesis.

These safely judged that the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of environmental factor has

high significant relationship; and significant relationships in terms of

characteristics of offense and risk perception when compared according to their

highest educational attainment. One of the most dominant ideas under the

umbrella concept of education’s impact on crime is the belief that a reduction in

crime can most often be achieved by increased crime prevention and that the

most effective form of crime prevention is achieved through education. Most

people would argue that education can be an important element in preventing

individuals from engaging in criminal behavior. In the article from Criminal Justice

(2020), educational attainment has significant relationship with the committed

crimes. This is because most of the crime offenders are found not finished their

schooling due to involvement of repeating crimes.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
Lastly, when the assessment of the respondents on the factors affecting

recurring of victimization were compared according to their socio-economic

status , the computed correlation coefficients of 0.35 for environmental factor and

0.38 for risk perception have corresponding p-values of less than 0.01, thus

rejecting the null hypothesis. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient of 0.20 for

characteristics of offense has a corresponding p-value of less than 0.05, thus

rejecting also the null hypothesis.

These safely generalized that the assessment of the respondents on the

factors affecting recurring of victimization in terms of environmental factor and

risk perception have high significant relationships and significant relationship in

terms of characteristics of offense when compared according to their socio-

economic status. This result gives the researchers the concept how significant is

the socio – economic status to the repeating crimes. Sethi et. al (2020), found out

that socioeconomic factors have significant relationship with the committed

crime. The income inequality gives the offenders to do crime such as thief,

robbery and even homicide.

4. Based on the result of the study what program can be proposed?

Table 6.

Action Plan

Key Factors Activities Objectives Persons Time Frame

Involved

Checking of To give  Citizens of  Once a

Streetlights enough Lipa City month

and CCTV footage and  PNP – Lipa

Camera in safety lights City

the Street for all the  Barangay

citizens of Officials

Environmenta Lipa City.

l Factors Night To maintain  PNP – Lipa  Every

Patrolling the peace City night

and crime –

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
free  Barangay

environment Officials

in the Lipa

City

Characteristics Seminar on To provide  Citizens of  Twice

of Offense Personal the citizens Lipa in a

Safety and of Lipa City  PNP – Lipa year

Defense about City

against knowledge

Offenders on self –

defense and

protecting

themselves

from crime

offenders

Risk Free leaflets To give the  Citizens of  Once

Perceptions or lectures citizens of Lipa City in a

about the Lipa City  PNP – Lipa Year

Possible about the City

Things to do learning on

to Report reporting

and Fight those

against the offenders

Crime and also to

Offenders learn how to

fight against

them through

leaflets or

lectures.

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

CONCLUSIONS

This research study is conducted in order to determine the factors

affecting the recurring crimes in the Lipa City. After the results were gathered,

interpreted and presented, the researchers concluded the following:

1. The majority of the respondents are middle adults, married, high school

undergraduate and earn P20,001 – P30,000.

2. Environmental factors are considered great factors of crime recurrence as

the respondents stated always experiencing the indicators of these risk

factors.

3. The respondents always agreed that Characteristics of Offense is a factor

of recurring crime in terms of the context, content and the relationship of

crime offenders to the crime victims in the Lipa City.

4. On the other hand, risk perception is found to be the highest contributor of

the recurring crime in the Lipa City as stated by the respondents.

5. There are plan of actions that can be used to lessen or totally address the

factors of recurring crimes in the Lipa City.

RECOMMENDATION

With the derived conclusions of the study, the researchers would like to

recommend the following:

1. Additional of demographic profile is recommended as it will help the study

to identify more on the personal information of the respondents and to

group them;

2. The coverage of Environmental Factors is very wide to understand in this

study thus the researchers want to emphasize on the most contributed

indicators of environmental factors on the recurring crimes;

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
3. In terms of Characteristics of Offense, the researchers want to

recommend a wide and more clear concepts of this factor in order for the

readers to easily understand why this factor is a considered a high

contributor of recurring crimes;

4. The researchers want to emphasize the study on the Risk Perceptions as

this was recorded as the highest contributors of the recurring crimes in the

Lipa City by means of providing clear and broaden explanation and

understanding about this factor; and

5. Further research and improvement for this study is highly recommended

as this is the most crucial and needed study in the Lipa City.

References

1. Grove et.al (2010). Repeat victimization.

DOI:10.4135/9781412979993.n258

Retrieve from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274312594_Repeat_victimizatio

2. Reemst et.al (2017). Risk factors for repeat victimization: A literature scan.

Retrieve from

https://repository.wodc.nl/bitstream/handle/20.500.12832/2038/2318a-

summary_tcm2872966.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y#:~:text=Socio%2D

%20demographic%20and%20economic%20risk,income%20are%20more

%20at%20risk.

3. Chainey (2017). Repeat victimisation: PURPOSE & THEORY. Retrieve

from https://www.ucl.ac.uk/jill-dando-institute/sites/jill-dando-institute/

files/repeat_victimisation_2-purpose_theory.pdf

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
4. Hanson et. al (2018). The Impact of Crime Victimization on Quality of Life.

doi: 10.1002/jts.20508 Retrieve from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2910433/

5. Weisel (2018). Analyzing Repeat Victimization. Retrieve from

https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/analyzing-repeat-victimization

6. Blesch (2020). Impacts and Consequences of Victimization. Retrieve from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344331747_Impacts_and_Cons

equences_of_Victimization

7. Tilley (2016). Analyzing and Responding to Repeat Offending. Retrieve

from Analyzing and Responding to Repeat Offending | ASU Center for

Problem-Oriented Policing | ASU

8. Abella (2016). Extent of the Factors Influencing the Delinquent Acts

among Children in Conflict with the Law. doi:10.4172/2375-4494.1000288

Retrieve from Extent of the Factors Influencing the Delinquent Acts among

Children in Conflict with the Law | OMICS International (omicsonline.org)

9. Andersen et.al (2015). Effect of Marriage and Spousal Criminality on

Recidivism. doi: 10.1111/jomf.12176 Retrieve from

https:// www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov./pmc/articles/PMC4964922/

10. Sethi et.al (2020). The Relationship between Crime and Socioeconomic

Status, A geospatial analysis of the correlation between crime and

socioeconomic status. Retrieve from

https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/b5ab6df3741649c4bcc0a5fbd9e3b45

11. Nicholas & Farrel (2020). The Concept of Repeat Victimization. Oxford

Bibliographies. Retrieved from

Lipa City Colleges
10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES
https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-

9780195396607/obo-9780195396607-0119.xml

12. Bernasco et. al (2015). Co-offending and the choice of target area in

burglary. Research Gate Publisher. Retrieved from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229930077_Co-

offending_and_the_choice_of_target_area_in_burglary

13. Laycock (2017). Trajectories of Recurring Victimization Among People

With Major Mental Disorders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence Volume:

29 Issue: 6 Dated: April 2014 Pages: 987-1005

14. Vidal (2018). Police Patrols and Crime. ZA – Institute of Labor

Economics. Retrieved from

https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/180411/1/dp11393.pdf

15. BSP Media Security (2019). Violent Crimes Most Likely to Occur At Night.

Retrieved from https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/90384-murder-

robbery-and-driving-while-impaired-happen-at-night

16. Rocque et. al (2017). Age and Crime. Retrieved from

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118519639.wbecpx27

17. Criminal Justice (2020). Education and Crime. Criminal Justice Research.

Retrieved from http://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/crime/education-

and-crime/4/

18. Law Teacher (2021). Relationship between Gender and Crime. Free Law

Study Resources. Retrieved from https://www.lawteacher.net/free-law-

essays/criminology/relations-between-gender-and-crime.php

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net
 LIPA CITY COLLEGES

Lipa City Colleges

10 G.A. Solis St., Lipa City Batangas
Telephone Number: 756-1943
Fax Number: 756-3768 local 300
www.lipacitycolleges.net