CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION:

Crime it’s Concepts

Crimes in its legal sense are defined as acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be punished
by imprisonment and/or fine. While in its behavioral definition of crime focuses on criminality, a certain
personality profile that causes the most alarming sorts of crimes. The explanation why crime was
committed or the causes of crime is not an easy thing to do because there are so many factors and
circumstances to consider thus making it complex. This statement is supported by SCCJR emphasizing
that “there is no one ‘cause’ of crime. Crime is a highly complex phenomenon that changes across
cultures and across time”. Crime does not evolve from any single source and there are several reasons
behind a person’s criminal behavior (Pratap, 2016). Scholars pointed out their own views on the causes
of crimes and it has been observed that there are agreements and disagreements which would give an
idea of confusion to everyone. Many theories have common traits, but differences among them still
exist. Understanding these differences is the key to understanding the often contradictory views of
crime and deviance they purport to explain (Akers , Sellers, See and Kieser, 2013).

Theory: Its Concepts and Relevance

According to Okada (2015), theory is a series of statements that seek to understand and explain
a particular phenomenon. Theoretical explanations are very significant in providing a clear and wider
understanding of criminal behavior. It also provides a framework in coming up with new policies in
response with crimes like the development of political and social policies and treatment programs for
dealing with criminals and their victims.

In criminological perspectives, theories help us to understand the workings of the criminal

justice system and the factors in the system. It suggests the way things are, not the way things ought to
be. They are not inherently good or bad; however, they can be used for good or bad purposes. It also
explains crime in its macro or micro level (Akers, Sellers, See and Kieser, 2013)

Crime as a Problem

Crime is an aspect of life that all citizens must deal with as it seems to have been around as long
as civilization itself. According to Escareno, crime overpowered communities for centuries and becomes
more prevalent in poor inner-city neighborhoods than those who are rich which is also in agreement
with the report of the Secretary General on the state of crime and criminal justice in 2015 because
people living in low-income countries suffer the biggest threats to their security and well-being.

Crime has high and diverse costs. The direct physical, material, mental, and emotional injury
suffered by victims of crime is deplorable. Perhaps even more tragic, however, is the indirect damage to
society. Attempts to control crime through the criminal justice system increasingly intrude in our private
lives. Personal freedoms are threatened as we repeatedly choose between public order and individual
rights. Moreover, crime amplifies mistrust, feeds prejudice, and generally degrades social cohesion (Vila,
1994). People become more fearful, often imprisoning themselves in their own homes. Guns are kept
within reach, a knock on the door evokes terror, a stranger in need of assistance is ignored.

As regards to the international crime trend it has shown stability or a slight decrease in violent
crime like homicide, robbery and rape however the killing of women by intimate partners is becomes
prevalent. UNODC estimates that 43,600 women were killed by their intimate partner or a family
member in 2012, which is 47 per cent of all women killed that year. There was a significant increase on
homicide rates in Central America and Carribean after 2007 but it declines after 2011.

Developing countries experienced the most serious crime problems ( Natarajan, 2016). However
based on official statistics or victim surveys, crime rates in most developed countries have been falling
for many years ( Farrell et al. 2011; Elonheimo 2014 ), but there is limited evidence that developing
countries have enjoyed these same benefits. Many developing countries are plagued not just by
ordinary volume crimes, but also by culturally-sanctioned violence against women and gays and serious
form of transnational crime such as sex trafficking, drug trafficking, murderous incursion by militias, and
theft of natural resources including valuable mineral, endangered animals, fish stocks and timber. Most
of the serious crime problems of the world are now to be found in developing countries, but these
problems have received only scant attention from criminologist and crime scientists, who mostly work in
developed/Westernized nations. Crime scientists have a special role to play in studying these crimes
because their work is oriented to solution and it is this kind of practical help that the developing world
most needs.

In the Philippine setting, based on the 2017 Crime and Safety Report, crime remains a significant
concern in urban areas throughout the Philippines. The most common crimes reported are theft,
physical assault, and robbery in 2016 based on police records. Other common criminal acts include
pickpocketing, confidence schemes, and credit card fraud. Date-rape drug use has also been reported.
Carjacking, robberies, and violent assault also occur occasionally. There was a decline on robberies by
taxi drivers in 2016 and individuals using stolen taxi cabs also decrease from 2015. Drug related crimes
became prevalent up to present.

Crime is present in various forms in the Philippines, and remains a serious issue throughout the
country. Illegal drug trade, human trafficking, murder, corruption and domestic’s violence remain
significant concerns. The Philippines has a high rate of murder cases, which is the highest in Southeast
Asia as of 2014. Security problems are not new in the Philippines – Kidnapping and bombings have
plagued the south of the country for decades. Few crimes hit closer to home than those in mall. The
place where residents of the capital love to shop, eat and hang out.

A Systems Perspective on Crime

 Criminal Behavior is the product of a systematic process that involves complex interactions
between individual, societal, and ecological factors over the course of our lives. It explains that from the
beginning onward the intellectual, emotional, and physical attributes we develop are strongly influenced
by our personal behavior and physical processes, interactions with the physical environment and
interactions with other people, group and institutions.

These systematic processes affect the transmission from generation to generation of traits
associated with increased involvement in crime. To have a better understanding as to how they work
together the following are discussed below.

1. Ecological Factor

It involves interactions between people and their activities in a physical environment. It pertains to
physical environment like geography and topography, crowding, pollution, and recreational
opportunities which influences the physical and emotional development of people over their lives as
well as the level of hostility, fear, or well-being they feel from moment to moment as they experience,
for example, a crowded subway, dark lonely parking lots, or serene park.

It also determines what opportunities for crime exist because they include interaction between
people and the ways physical environment channel those interactions. The routine activities of people in
a physical setting can have important effects on when and where opportunities for crime occur. A crime
is not possible unless a motivated and able offender converges with a victim, property, or illicit
substance or behavior in the absence of capable guardianship (people or physical barriers to prevent the
crime).

2. Socital or Macrolevel Factor

Its deals with systematic interaction between social groups which describe the ways society is
structured. It includes the relative distribution of the population among groups and the flow of
information, resources, and people between groups. It also encompasses the variety and heterogeneity
of racial/ethnic/cultural/productive groups, their behaviors and beliefs, and economic relations.

3. Motivation and Opportunity

Individuals actually commit the crimes. Individual factor always intervene between any descriptions
of the causes of crime. Individual or micro level factor describe how a person becomes motivated
to commit a crime.

What is motivation?
 Is it just the driving force behind our actions? In this discussion, motivation is more than “I want.”
Portion of the equation. It includes “I could.” What will it cost me compared to what I think I’ll get?
And “Is this right and proper?”

Motivation is the outcome of a process in which a goal is formulated, cost and benefits are
assessed, and internal constraints on behavior are applied. Individual motivation varies, sometimes a
person’s motivation is influenced more by rational decision making, other times by emotions such as
gender, greed, or lush. To some extent there are similarities wherein some people tend to be more
motivated by cost/benefits calculations more of the time than others.

Can motivation stand alone?

No. Motivation alone cannot cause a crime to occur; Opportunity also is required. Opportunity
itself may influence motivation (Katz 1988).

In effect the interactions between biological, socio-cultural and developmental factor affect how
motivated a person is to use force, fraud, or stealth to obtain resources when an opportunity is
presented. It motivation is sufficiently high in the presence of an attractive opportunity, a crime may
occur so long as the person has the ability required to commit it.

Crime Causation: Its Historical Overview

Antique Philosophy (4th century BC) – Aristotle offers a philosophical standpoint on crime
causation who stated that the crime is poverty related describing poverty as a mother of all revolutions
and crime.

Medieval Philosophy (17th century) – According to Francis Bacon criminality will depend on social
situations. He described his standpoint in this sentence: “Opportunity makes a thief” Bacon pointed out
that human behavior will depend on situations.

French Renaissance Philosophy (18th century) – The famous encyclopedists Voltaire and Rousseau
introduce the concept of free will. Crime is the same as hedonistic behavior and failure to fulfill the
social contract obligation.

Chapter II
Traditional Explanation of Crime Causation
Bringing back the thoughts during the 16 th and 17th century, people are thoughts of being
possessed by demons or evil spirits when they commit crimes and deviant behavior. Their belief
influences the way they treat the wrong doers hence they are into the practice of exorcism and
banishment.

Demonological Theory
This is the earliest theory explaining crime and criminal behavior. It theorized that people
believer that evil spirits or demons entered human body to commit sins.
Terms like demons, witches and windigo were used for people who had turned criminals. The
society thought that it happened due to evil influence. Supernatural powers were considered the best
explanation behind the crime and sin. It was believed that a person did not commit crimes of his own
free will but under evil influence (Pratap, 2016). This theory relies upon unreal and mythical
explanations.

Spiritual vs. Natural Explanations

Spiritual explanation’s for crime is primarily attached into religious beliefs and superstitions and
there is a strong adherence with the divine intervention. Even at present, some religious individuals and
groups still attribute crime to the influence of the devil and to sinful human nature. The problem with
these theories is that, because spiritual, influences cannot be observed, they cannot be proved. Thus
these theories cannot be considered scientific.

Natural explanations for crimes were rooted in people’s ideas about the nature of reality in the
physical world based on observations of nature but were not scientific. For example, the natural world
was thought to include inherent good and evil, and cries often were regarded as crimes against nature
or the natural order rather than crime against victims or against god. Seeking explanation’s for crime in
the natural world provided a basis of the development of legal definitions and treatments of crime.
Natural explanations of crime make use of objects and events in the material world to account for what
happens.

Chapter III
 Classical and Neo Classical Explanation of Crime Causation

Classical Theory
This theory posits that human behavior as rational and assumes that people have the ability to
choose right from right. It explains that crime is a product of believes that benefits of committing crimes
are far greater therefore crime is a behavioral human characteristic and a choice. This theory expresses
that the humans did not act according to Gods will or under the influence of any other supernatural
power but acted in their own free will. They acted after having judged the rewards and punishments. It
only shows an individual has the ability to calculate the outcome of his own actions and can consider the
pleasure and pain to result from his activities. This is in response to the primitive and cruel European
justice system that existed prior to the French Revolution of 1789.

Proponents: Cesare Beccaria, Italian Criminologist Jeremy Bentham, from England

Principles underlying this theory

1. Viewed human behavior as essentially rational in nature;

2. Felt that people had the ability to choose right from wrong;
3. Believed that the major element governing a person’s choice of action was the basic human
desire to obtain pleasure and avoid pain

To sum up these principles under this theory it is mainly concern with an explanation of crime. It
completely concentrated on criminal act.

People have the ability to choose right from wrong, good from evil. His explanation for criminal
behavior included the idea that people are basically hedonistic, that is they desire a high degree of
pleasure and avoid pain. People who choose to commit acts think they stand to gain more than they
risk losing by committing the crime all these ideas of Jeremy Bentham was premised under the
principle of utilitarianism.

What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism is the doctrine that the purpose of all actions should bring about the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people. It means that human beings are hedonistic (pleasure-
seeking) and act only in their own self – interest.

What is felicitous calculus, or moral calculus?

This is used for estimating the probability that a person will engage in a particular kind of
behavior. People weigh the possibility that a particular behavior pattern or action will cause current of
future pleasure against the possibility that it will cause current or future pain. In response to the
question of why a person commits a crime, Bentham would probably reply that the pleasure that the
person anticipated from the criminals act was much greater than the subsequent pain that might be
expected from it.

Strength of Classical Theory

It considers bot juveniles and insane people as unable to commit crimes since they cannot
rationally calculate the outcomes of their actions. Our current criminal and juvenile justice system are
based on the basic propositions of this approach.

1. Deterrence theory

Deterrence theory highlight that an individual’s choice to commit or not to commit a crime is
influenced by the fear of punishment. It also includes the idea that forced retribution for a crime should
reduce crime rates. This theory is considered an extension of classical approach focusing on the link
between punishment and behavior at both individual and group levels.

What is deterrence?

Deterrence is the act of preventing a criminal act before it occurs, through the threat of
punishment and sanctions

What is retribution?

Retribution is the notion that a wrongdoer should be force to “pay back” or compensate for his
or her criminal acts.

Focus of deterrence theory

A. For punishment to be deterrence to criminal behavior, it must be certain, swift and severe.
B. The severity must be sufficient to outweigh any rewards that the criminal may obtain from
a criminal act.

Types of deterrence

1. Specific deterrence

This is aimed at the wrongdoer and tries to deter him from crime by punishment him.

2. General deterrence
 This is aimed at everyone. It deters everyone from crime by punishing the criminal and
thus establishing an example. The weakness is that it does not clearly consider the impact of
punishment on people which have not committed but might be ready to commit crime.

1. Routine activities theory (RAT)

This theory suggests that crime is a product of people’s daily activities influence by a
number of factors that can become the motivation behind crime. Living in the company of
delinquent peers or being to places frequently rounded by offenders can motivate anyone to
become one of them. It is used to explain the changing trends in crime.
It has the idea that criminals are not impulsive (thoughtless) or unpredictable, because
they balance the costs as well as benefits of committing crimes. This theory is a product of the
classical approach wherein they explain crime as a rational course of action by offenders who
seek to minimize pain and maximize pleasure.

According to Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson, trends in crime rates are influence
in terms of the changing routine activities of everyday life. It explain why crime and delinquency
occur in particular places under specific conditions like the merging of motivated offender,
suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians against a violation.

Suitable targets. Things that are valued (e.g. jewelry, cars, or cash) or people who, when
assaulted, provided positive rewards or pleasure to the perpetrator.

Guardians. Objects (e.g. gates, surveillance cameras or burglar or auto alarms) or

individuals (e.g., guards or police) who are capable of protecting possible targets or victims. To
the offender, the presences of protective guardians raise crime costs and lessen target
attractiveness.

What are the assumptions in RAT?

1. Self-interest motivates criminal offenders to commit criminal acts;
2. Many individuals may be motivated to break laws.

RAT examines how structural changes in everyday activity patterns influence crime rates by
affecting the convergence in time and space of three requisite conditions for a crime to occur.

These three conditions include

 1. A perpetrator;
2. A victim and/or an object of property (criminal victimization increases when motivated
offenders and targets converge);
3. A relationship or an opportunity (criminal victimization decreases with the presence of capable
guardians).

Neo Classical Theory

This theory considers age, gender and social class of the perpetrators. The perpetrators are
people who think feel, act criminal behavior is learned within groups by imitation and identification. It
suggests the understanding of individuals differences of the perpetrators and sought have to improve
the stances towards perpetrators who should have an impact on the level of guilt and severity of
punishment. Consequently, not all perpetrators should be treated in the same fashion, because the
evident differences exist among them. Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately
influenced on the perpetrators to commit it.

Proponent: Gabriel Tarde

Profile:
 French sociologist
 Founder of neoclassical criminology school
 Published the book “ Penal Philosophy, 1890”

Chapter IV
Positivist Explanation of Crime Causation

Phrenology and Physiognomy

Theories of crime before positivist theory existed

1. Phrenology (Doctrine of the Mental Phenomena)
Greek words: phren – mind
Logos - knowledge

Phrenology is based on the belief that human behavior originated in the brain.

Johann Spurzheim (1776-1832) a German physician and a student of Gall’s, actually coined the
term phrenology to replace cranioscopy. He also expanded the map of the brain organs, developed a
hierarchical system of the organs, and created a model “phrenology bust” that depicted the locationof
the brain organs.

2. Physiognomy
 According to Johann Lavater, a physiognomist, states that the shape of the skull and some
facial features had an impact on human behavior and actions.

Augusts Comte is known as the founder of sociology and positivism, believed that both
external and internal forces are important for understanding human behavior.

Positivist Theories
Positivism emphasizes the techniques of observation, the comparative method, and
experimentation in the development of knowledge concerning human behavior and the nature of
society. It also stressed the idea that much of our behavior is a function of external social forces beyond
individual control, as well as internal forces such as our mental capabilities and biological makeup. This
theory further argued that human behavior is pre disposed and fully determined by individual
differences and biological traits meaning it is not freewill that drives people to commit crimes.

In positivism it highlights the relevance of empirical or scientific study of crime, criminals and
criminal behavior. In this theory it presumed that scientific study of criminal behavior should find the
“causes” of such behavior believing that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the individual. In
short positivist theory shows a deterministic explanation. It played an important role in the
development of modern criminology. Positivist held that environment and hereditary factors could be
important causal factors behind crime.

Effects of positivism
1. People were beginning to be perceived and understood as organism that are part of the animal
kingdom whose behavior is very much influence (if not determined by social, cultural, and
biological antecedents, rather than as self-determined beings who are free to do what they
want.
2. There is great diversity in positivist theories on the causes of crime: some stress external (or
social) factors more, and others stress internal (or individual) factors more.

Based on Comte positivism, Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) and his distinguished pupils Enrico
Ferri (1856-1929) and Raffaele Garofalo (1852-1934) founded positivist criminology-the modern,
positivist school of penal jurisprudence-and led what has been called the Italian school of criminology.

1. Bioloical Theory
Biological explanations of crime assume that some people are “born criminals” who are
physiologically distinct from non-criminals. According to biological positivists the basic cause of
crime is biological inferiority, which is indicated by physical or genetic characteristic that
distinguish criminals from non-criminals. Biological theorist also advocate brain surgery,
chemical treatment, improved diets, and better mother and child care.
 Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior is the result of some
flaw in the biological makeup of the individual. This physical flaw could be due to.

a. Heredity
b. Neurotransmitter dysfunction
c. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper development, or trauma
(Raine, 2002)

Early Biological Theories vs. Modern Biological Theories

Early biological theories viewed that structure determines function- that is, individuals behave
differently because of the fundamental fact that they are somehow structurally different. It focus
strongly on inherited characteristics.

Modern biological theories examine the entire range of biological characteristics, including
those that the result from genetic defects (and thus are not inherited) and those that are
environmentally induced. This theory do not suggest that biological characteristics directly “cause”
crime but it claimed that biological conditions increase the likelihood that an individual will engage in
maladaptive behavior patterns (e.g. violent or antisocial behavior), and that those behavior patterns can
include actions that are legally defined as criminal. It focus on the interaction between biological
characteristics and the social environment, rather than looking solely at the effects of biology itself being
called as biosocial theories of crime, and most biological criminologists recognize that this is where the
field must go in the future.

Proponent: Cesare Lombroso – Father of criminology

Profile:
 Born in Venice, Italy, in 1835
 Educated in medicine and psychiatry
 Became a professor of criminal anthropology at the University of Turin in 1906
 Published a book entitled, “Criminal Man” in 1876.

He pointed out in his book the explanation of criminal behavior basing it on biological
characteristics and heredity therefore advocating the scientific explanations, focused engage in crime
are throwbacks.

What was the study of Lombroso?

With the idea on phrenology and physiognomy it became the basis of Cesare Lombroso
(criminal anthropologist) in exploring the physical traits of a body wherein he researched the facial
features and the shape of the skull. Using various physiological and cranial measurements of known
criminals he theorized that certain persons who engage in criminal behavior are “born criminals” and
believed that criminals could be distinguished from non-criminal by a variety of what he termed physical
stigmata, such as a long lower jaw, flattened nose, and long, apelike arms.

Using various physiological and cranial measurements of known criminals. With this Lombroso
developed the theory that certain persons who engage in criminal behavior are “born criminal” and
believed that criminals could be distinguished from non-criminals by a variety of what he termed
physical stigmata, such as a long lower jaw, flattened nose, and long, apelike arms.

The stigmata themselves did not cause criminal behavior; rather they were visible indicators of
a personality type that was, in a essence, a primitive atavism, a throwback on the Darwinian scale of
human evolution.

He also compared a large number of criminals and non-criminals using human physical traits
like: ear size, hair length and other. Lombroso stated that atavistic features are more similar to savages
and criminal offenders. This view was held by many biological positivist. Lombroso was influenced by
Darwinian principles of evolution and used these ideas to support a thesis on inferiority of criminals.

Atavism: Its concept

Atavism (from Latin atavus, ancestor) claimed a return to a primitive or subhuman type of man,
characterized physically by a variety of inferior morphological features reminiscent of apes and lower
primates, occurring in the more simian fossil men and, to some extent, preserved in modern “savages.”

What is the implication of Lombroso’s Theory?

The “mentality of atavistic individuals is that of primitive man, that these are biological
“throwbacks” to an earlier stage of evolution, and that the behavior of these “throwbacks” will
inevitably be contrary to the rules and expectations of modern civilized society.”

Lombroso not only focused on the “born criminal,” atavism, and degeneracy; as q positivist, he
also expressed concern for factors such as the social and physical environment of the offender. He
emphasized a mutual interactive relationship between heredity and environment and, in other written
works, stressed environmental conditions as a causing or having an effect on criminality.

The Five Fold Scientific Classification of Criminals

Proponent: Enrico Ferri

Profile:
 Born in Mantua, Italy, in 1856
 Published his dissertation entitled criminal sociology in 1878
 An acknowledge leader of the positivist school of criminology
 Student of Lombroso at the University of Turin
  Coined the term “born criminal”

The following are the classifications established by Ferri:

1. Born or Instinctive Criminal – one who carries from the birth, through unfortunate heredity
from his ancestors, a reduced resistance to criminal stimuli and also an evident and developed
tendency to crime.
2. Insane Criminal – one who is affected by a clinically identified mental disease or by a
neuropsycopathic condition which groups him with the mentally disease.
3. Passional Criminal – one who, in two varieties, the criminal through passion ( a prolonged and
chronic mental state), or through emotion (explosive and unexpected mental state), represents
a type at the opposite pole from the criminal due to congenital tendencies
4. Occasional Criminal – one whoconstitute the majority of lawbreakers and is the product of
family and social milieu more than of abnormal personal physiomental conditions.
5. Habitual Criminal – the criminal by acquired habit, who is mostly a product of the social
environment in which, due to abandonment by his family, lack of education, poverty, [and] bad
companions, already in his childhood begins as an occasional offender.

According to Ferri, “classes of criminals do not exist in nature however, they are a necessary
“instrument by which the human mind can better understand the multiform reality of things.” On the
other hand he also emphasize the significance and interrelatedness of social, economic, and political
factors.

In the book of Ferri on Criminal Sociology he pointed out the following as the causes of crimes:

 Physical (race, climate, geographic location, seasonal effects, temperature, etc.)

 Anthropological (age, sex, somatic [body] conditions, psychological conditions, etc.)
 Social (density of populations, customs, religion, organization of government, economic and
industrial conditions, etc.)

Four Types of Criminals

Proponent: Raffaele Garofalo

Profile:
 Born of Italian nobility in Naples in 1852
 Third of the leading exponents of positivism
 Professor of criminal law at the University of Naples
 Known principally in the United States for his major work, Criminology
 Four Types of Criminals on the Basis of Moral Defecits

1. Murderer

The man in whom altruism is wholly lacking and whose sentiments of both pity and
probity are absent and such a criminal will steal or kill as the occasion arises

2. Violent Criminal

Those characterized by the lack of pity (may also commit crimes of passion, sometimes
under the influence of alcohol; such crimes are indicative of inferior innate moral capacities;
certain environments contribute to crimes against property)

3. Thief

Those thieves who lacks probity (such offenses are committed by a small minority of the
population)

4. Lascivious Criminal

A group of sexual offenders whose conduct is characterized less by the absence of the sentiment
of pity than by a low level of moral energy and deficient moral perception

Raffaele Garofalo rejected the doctrine of free will because he believed that crime and criminal
behavior can be understood only by using scientific methods, and that science deals with universals.

Garofalo’s Sociological Definition of Crime:

“Those acts which no civilized society can refuse to recognize as criminal and repress by
punishment.”

Natural Crime. Conduct which offends the basic moral sentiments of pity (revulsion against the
voluntary infliction of suffering on others) and probity (respect for property rights of others
(Garofalo).

Natural Crime is a behavior which violates certain basic moral sentiments. The true criminal is
the one whose altruistic (humane) sensibilities are lacking or are in a deficient state of development and
considered as abnormal. The concepts of crime and the criminal are thus integrally related.”

Garofalo’s concepts of crime and criminals provide base for his “social defense” against
criminality because of the “absence or deficiency of the basic altruistic sentiments ,” the criminal
demonstrates his “unfitness” or lack of adaptation” to his social environment.
 1. Somatotype theory

This theory relates to the distinctive body types to personality characteristics and relates
criminal behavior to the body types (Morin, R., 2014). People are born with an inherited body type
based on skeletal frame and body composition

Somatotyping is the classifying of people into types according to body build.

Proponent: William Sheldon

Profile:
 American psychologist practicing in the early to mid-1900s

Research

He observed the varieties of human bodies and came up with three types: ectomorphs,
endomorphs, and mesomorphs.

1. Ectomorphs
 thin and fragile
 flat-chested, fragile, lean lightly muscled, small shouldered and thin
 likely to commit suicide

2. Endomorphs
 soft and fat
 underdeveloped muscles and a round physique
 have the difficulty losing weight
 likely to be mentally ill

3. Mesomorphs

 muscular and athletic

 hour glass-shaped when they’re female, or rectangular shape in males
 have excellent posture, they gain muscle easily and they have thick skin
 most prone to commit crime or other deviant behaviors
 Similar classification of somatotypes was developed by German psychiatrist E. Kretschmer in
1921. Kretschmers classification system introduced three body types:

 asthenic / leptosomic
 athletic
 pyknic

2. Y Chromosome Theory
This theory holds that criminal have an extra Y chromosome that gives them an XYY
chromosomal makeup rather than an XY makeup. This creates a strong compulsion within them to
commit crimes and being known as “super male”. According to studies the proportion XYY males in
the prison population is higher than general male population.

3. Neuroscience

The brain is a complex and fragile organ which can be damaged by traumatic injury, tumors,
neurodevelopmental disorders, neurodegenerative disorders, vascular lesions and many other
causes. Episodic or chronic substance abuse can alter both the structure and functioning of the
brain. These various forms of injury can affect regions of the brain associated with higher intellectual
functioning, memory and emotion, and are particularly relevant to behavioral change. Data has
shown that behavioral changes are the result of a complex interplay between the nature and
severity of the brain injury and a host of other social and psychological factors. In addition, some of
these illness or injuries may have genetic contributions, and recent discoveries in behavioral
genetics may have implications regarding the heritability of neurologic and psychiatric conditions.
However, these relationship are neither linear nor simple.

Rapid development of neuroscience has brought to form of new theories of crime.

Neuroscience point out that crime is a psychopathological or psychological disorder. The proponents
of using neuroscience evidence in the courtroom argue that the introduction of these brain scans
will empower judges and injuries to draw more accurate conclusions about whether a defendant is
responsible for his or her actions.

Despite the uncertainty , brain images and genetic tests are currently being introduced in
legal proceedings for the purpose of characterizing these conditions or injuries. Evidence is typically
introduced to support the proposition that a criminal defendant should be excused from criminal
responsibility because an underlying brain defect caused the individual to commit a criminal act. It
has also been introduced as mitigating evidence in the sentencing phase of trials for a capital crimes.

Neuroscience will provide unique possibilities and advantages in understanding motivations

and causes for staying lawful or for becoming unlawful. Neuroscientific models on brain behavior
interactions have profited considerably from the advent of neuroimaging techniques and genetic
 analyses. Furthermore, advantages in interdisciplinary investigations, which combine conventional
psychological and sociological explorations with biological examinations (Markowitsch, 2008)

4. Genetics

Genetics explain the causes of crime. In a family studies focus on the criminal history and
background of families it was found out that families with criminal backgrounds, are said to be more
likely to produce children with criminal tendencies also, almost as through crime is a gene carried
through generations.

Characteristics and traits of a person can be inherited through genes and it is argued that criminal
behavior may be an inheritable, polygenic trait much like eye color, height and skin tone etc.

Researches

1. Family studies
Researchers; Osborne and West (1982)
They undertook the study of families and family history comparing of sons and fathers, criminal
fathers and non-criminal fathers.
Findings:
 Fathers with criminal convictions meant that 40% of sons also have criminal convictions.

 Even when a father had no trace of a criminal conviction, still 13% of sons did. Genes do not
completely determine criminality but yet still may have an influence

 Criminality is higher in sons with criminal fathers, is still necessary to understand as to why 60%
of them did not commit crimes and why 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers did (ainsworth,
2000)

2. Adaptation Studies
Researchers; Hutchings and Mednick (1975)
Findings:
 Even if the adoptive or biological father did not have a record of criminal behavior, their sons
still had one about 10% of the time.

 With an adoptive father with a criminal record, 11% of the time sons would too and a biological
father with criminal record 21% of the time as did their sons. The significant 36 per cent where
both parents had traced criminal records

 No relationship between the number of convictions of adoptive parents and their adopted
children
 There is a significant correlation between the number of criminal convictions of biological
parents and their offspring, although this did not include violent crimes

 There is a genetic influence on criminality but other factors such as environment must be
considered.

Researchers; Bohman et al, 1982

Findings:
 Criminality may not be genetically inherited but other traits may be. Traits such as alcoholism
and addiction can be genetically inherited and research shows that genes are responsible for
about half the risk of alcoholism and addiction. These traits are associated with violent behavior
which can help to explain the genetic link to crime.

 Although genetics has an influence, it may not be crime which is inherited but other genes
which may lead to criminal behavior. Adopted children may have been adopted months after
birth and the possibility of their early life experiences contributing to criminal behavior in later
life

 Stress the being the inherited gene causing behavioral disorder in offspring.

3. Twin Studies
Researchers; studies of twins and the link to criminality
Findings:
 An inheritable trait may increase the risk of criminal behavior. They compare the concordance
rate of MZ and DZ twins to assess the role of genetic and environmental influences. To support
the biological approach , the concordance rate of MZ twins would be higher than DZ twins,
(tehrani and mednick,2000)

 Karl Christiansen undertook a study of twin’s studies which support this statement where
concordance for MZ was 35% and only 13% for DZ, his studies were based on twins he gathered
from Denmark between1880 and 1910. He studied their police and court records through these
years. MZ and DZ is that MZ are identical which may suggest this had an influence on the results.
Being identical may mean they are treated similarly throughout their lives. Being aware of their
physical similarities may also mean they mimic each other throughout life and so any criminal
behavior may also be mimicked but the behavior isn’t solely influenced by genetics. The fact DZ
twins are different sex twins most of the time, may mean that gender has more of an influence
on criminal behavior than genetics do.
 2. Sociological Theories

The sociological approach theorizes that crime is shaped by factors external to the
individual: their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the family. It means
that society “construct” criminality. It attempts to connect the issues of the individuals
criminality with the broader social structures and cultural values of society, familiar, or peer
group.

It suggest that crime is caused by anomie, or the dissociation of the individual from the
collective conscience: by social disorganization: by anomie resulting from a lack of opportunity
to achieve aspirations: by the learning criminal values and behavior: and by the failure to
properly socialize individuals.

This theory suggest that the explanations of criminal behavior lie outside the individual.
It is attributed on the criminogenic social conditions.

What are the social conditions responsible for criminality?

 Broken families
 Poor parenting
 Low quality educational experiences
 Delinquent peer relations
 Poverty
 Lack of equal economic opportunity
 Inadequate socialization

What are the major sociological theories?

1. Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization refers to the breakdown in traditional social control and organization
in the society, community neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity result. It
states a person’s physical and social environments are primarily responsible for the behavioral
choices that a person’s makes. At the core of social disorganization theory, is that location matters
when it comes to predicting illegal activity. It is most often applied to urban crime. It simply focus on
the immediate social environment, like the family, peer group, and school.

this is a macro theory looking across different communities or neighborhoods because it

focused on the larger social environment, especially the community and the total society. It
attempts to explain why some groups – like communities and societies – have higher crime rates
than other groups.

It seeks to explain community differences in crime rates by identifying the characteristics of

communities with high crime rates and draws on social control theory to explain why these
characteristics contribute to crime.
Characteristics of communities where crime is more likely to happen:

 Economically deprived
 Large in size
 High in multiunit housing like apartments
 High in residential mobility (people frequently move into and out of the community)
 High in family disruption (high rates of divorce, single parent families)

Proponents: Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. Mckay

Profile: Sociologist at the University of Chicago (1920s AND 1930s)

What was the research of Shaw and McKay all about in relation with social disorganization theory?

A spatial mapping to examine the residential locations of juveniles referred to court was
conducted and it was found out that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor
housing, poor health, socio – economic disadvantage and transient populations. They were able to
establish a pattern that the highest rates of deviance concentrated in the inner city and diminishing
outward from the core city. With their findings they suggest that crime was a function of neighborhood
dynamics and not due to individual actors and their actions. Factors in a city that have been examined
by others include the poverty rate, unemployment rest, percentage of female- headed households,
percentage of those under the age of 18, and various measures of community involvement.

2. Strain/Anomie Theory

Proponent: Emile Durkheim

Profile: One of the founding gathers of sociology

This theory explains the breakdown of social norms that often accompanies rapid social change.
A concrete example is when old rules or values are no longer relevant and new values or rules in direct
conflict with old rules and values are no longer relevant and new values or rules are in direct conflict
with old rules and values. It is also on this context that, criminal behavior arises when confronted with
the inability to achieve success and when faced with the strain that ensures following the realization
that personal talents, training, or desires cannot achieve that which is desire.

Merton states that, “Anomie refers to a psychological state of confusion caused by rapidly
changing industrial evolution and accompanying social dislocation and the effect this change has on
people. This state is popularly conceptualized as “normlessness”. It is a feeling, an attitude a
psychological perspective that causes those who experience is to feel confused, frustrated, annoyed
angry, hostile, embarrassed, and even resigned or doomed. He contended that those who feel this way
may attempt to relieve themselves by committing deviant acts while others may resort to an extreme
aggravated resolution and commit suicide. It can be said as an overreaction but many are ill equipped
with the pushes and pulls they face and for some, those extreme measures described by him may have
been the only viable solution.
 According to Robert Merton (1957), an American sociologist drew on this idea in explaining
criminality and deviance in the USA arguing that crime occurs when there is a gap between the cultural
goals of a society (e.g. material wealth, status) and the structural means to achieve these (e.g.
education, employment). This strain between means and goals results in frustration and resentment,
and encourages some people to illegitimate or illegal means to secure success. He saw that
psychological stress results from a perceived inability to successfully compete for social capital. To
illustrate, those who have access or successfully compete for social capital (money), are more contented
(have less anomie), where those who do not are less satisfied and therefore experience more anomie.

People experience strain or stress, they become upset, and they sometimes engage in crime as a
result. They may engage in crime to reduce or escape from the strain they are experiencing. For
example, they may engage in violence to end harassment from others, they may steal to reduce
financial problems, or they may run away from home to escape abusive parents. They may also engage
in crime to seek revenge against those who have wronged them. And they may engage in the crime of
illicit drug use to make themselves feel better.

Merton developed the concept of ‘anomie’ to describe this imbalance between cultural goals
and institutionalized means. He argued that such an imbalanced society produces anomie – there is a
strain or tension between the goals and means which produce unsatisfied aspirations.

Merton argued that when individuals are faced with a gap between their goals (usually
finances/money related) and their current status, strain occurs. When faced with strain, people have
five ways to adapt:

1. Conformity: pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means.

2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved
goals. Example: dealing drugs o stealing to achieve financial security.
3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest
and humble).
4. Retriatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to
escape it.
5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them.

Strain Theory: Robert Agnew (1992)

Strain may result from the failure to attain a variety of goals. The theorists focus on the failure to
achieve three related goals: money, status/respect, and – for adolescents- autonomy from adults. It
explains that the failure to achieve ones goal, strain may result when people take something one values
or present one with noxious or negative stimuli. Such negative treatment may upset or anger people
and crime may be the result.
Research Findings:

1. A range of negative events and conditions increase the likelihood of crime.

2. Crime has been linked to child abuse and neglect, criminal victimization, physical punishment by
parents, negative relations with parents , negative relationship with teachers, negative school
experiences, negative relations with peers, neighborhood problems, and a wide range of
stressful life events – like the divorce/separation of a parent, parental unemployment, and
changing schools.

Major Types of Strain (Agnew)

1. Others prevent you from achieving your goals, and

2. Others take things you value or present you with negative or noxious stimuli

3. Subcultural Theory

This theory is linked to anomie and strain exemplifying concepts of status frustration and
differential opportunity, which North American subcultural theorists used to explain the delinquent
activities of disadvantaged groups in the 1950s and 60s.

In the study of Albert Cohen in relation with status frustration, he argued that lower-class
youths could not aspire to middle-class cultural goals and so, frustrated they rejected them to create
their own subcultural system of values.

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) built on these ideas, pointing to the differential
opportunity structures available to lower-class young people in different neighborhoods: criminal
(making a living from crime), conflict (territorial violence and gang fighting) and retreatist (drugs and
alcohol).

4. Social Control Theory

This theory does not address the causes of crime, but rather focuses on why people obey
the law. In other words, it explains conformity rather than deviance. This theory is associated with
the work of Travis Hirshi (1969), an American social scientist who proposed that people general
conform to social norms due to strong social bonds. Conversely, they engage in delinquent acts
when these bonds are broken or weak. It is non-traditional criminological perspective because they
seek to explain why individuals conform to societal norms, and not why they commit crime.

It simply suggests that individuals will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties
(bonds) to society are weakened or have broken. When the bonds are strong, an individual will
refrain from criminal activity.

Key components of social bonds are:

  Attachment

How strong or weak is an individual’s relationship with others? Do these others expect
certain kinds of behavior (such as obeying the law) from this individual? The stronger the
attachment and the stronger the expectations, the more likely it is that the individual will conform.

 Commitment

The more an individual commits his/herself to a particular lifestyle (for example, being
married, being a parent, having a job), the more he/she has to lose if he/she becomes involved in
crime (and so deviate from the lifestyle).

 Involvement

This component comes down to time – the more time the individual spends engaging in law
abiding behavior, the less time he/she has to engage in law breaking behavior.

 Belief

This relates to upbringing. If an individual has been brought up to be law abiding, they are less
likely to become involved in crime.

5. Differential Association Theory

Proponents: Edwin E. Sutherland

This theory emphasized that crime is a result of social learning by engaging in deviant
behaviors by those with whom we socially interact. It is a learning theory that concentrates on ones
associates and the normative definitions one learns from them.

Sutherlands Propositions for Differential Association Theory

1. Criminal behavior is learned

2. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication
3. The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups
4. When criminal behavior is learned, the learning includes (a) techniques of committing the crime,
which are sometimes very complicated, sometimes very simple, and (b) the specific direction of
motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as
favorable or unfavorable
6. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions unfavorable to violation of the
law.
 7. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns
involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning
8. Although criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by
those general needs and values, because noncriminal behavior is an expression of the same
needs and values
9. Differential association varies in frequency duration, priority, and intensity. The most frequent,
longest running, earliest and closest influences will be most efficacious or determinant of
learned behavior.

6. Cultural Deviance Theory

This theory signifies that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower class society
causes crime. Lower class subculture has a unique set of values and beliefs, which are invariably in
conflict with the conventional social norms. Criminality is an expression of conformity to lower class
subcultural values. Members of the working class commit crimes as they respond to the cultural
norms of their own class in an effort to deal with problems of social – middle class – adjustment.

7. Social Learning Theory

This theory underscored that people learn to engage in crime, primarily through their
association with others. They are reinforced for crime, and they are exposed to criminal models.
They view crime as something that is desirable or at least justifiable in certain situations. Juveniles
learn to engage in crime in the same way they learn to engage in conforming behavior: through
association with or exposure to others. Primary or intimate groups like the family and peer group
have an especially large impact on what we learn. In fact, association with delinquent friends is the
best predictor of delinquency other than prior delinquency. However, one does not have to be in
direct contact with others to learn from them: for example, one may learn to engage in violence
from observation of others in the media.

The primary version of social learning theory in criminology is that of Ronald Akers and the
description that follows draws heavily on his work. Akers theory, in turn, represents an elaboration
of Edwin Sutherlands differential association theory.

Three mechanisms by which individuals learn to engage in crime

1. Differential Reinforcement of crime.

Individuals may teach others to engage in crime through the reinforcement and punishments
they provide for behavior.
What are the instances wherein crime is more likely to occur?

 Is frequently reinforced and infrequently punished

 Results in large amounts of reinforcement ((e.g. s lot of money, social approval, or pleasure) and
little punishment: and
 Is more likely to be reinforced than alternative behaviors.

Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement

 Positive Reinforcement

The behavior results in something good – some positive consequence like money, the
pleasurable feelings associated with drug use, attention from parents, approval from friends, or an
increase in social status.

 Negative Reinforcement

The behavior results in the removal of something bad – a punisher is removed or avoided.

Example: suppose ones friends have been calling her a coward because she refuses to use
drugs with them. The individual eventually takes drugs with them, after which time they
stop calling her a coward. The individual’s drug use has been negatively reinforced.

2. Beliefs Favorable to crime.

Other individuals may not only reinforce our crime, they may also teach us beliefs favorable to
crime. Most individuals, of course, are taught that crime is bad or wrong. They eventually accept
or “internalize” this belief, and they are less likely to engage in crime as a result. Some
individuals, however, learn beliefs that are favorable to crime and they are more likely to
engage in crime as a result.

Three categories of beliefs favoring crime.

 Some people generally approve of certain minor forms of crime, like certain forms of consensual
sexual behavior, gambling, “soft” drug use, and for adolescents – alcohol use, truancy, and
curfew violation.

 Some people conditionally approve of or justify certain forms of crime, including some serious
crimes. They believe that crime is generally wrong, but that some criminal acts are justifiable or
even desirable in certain conditions.

 Some people hold certain general values that are reinforcement and punishment individuals
receive, but also of the behavior of those around them. Individuals often imitate or model the
 behavior of others – especially when they like or respect these others and have reason to
believe that imitating their behavior will result in reinforcement.

Example: Individuals are more likely to imitate others behavior if they observe them receive
reinforcement for their acts.

3. The imitation of criminal models.

Behavior is not only a function of beliefs and the reinforcements and punishment individuals
receive, but also of the behavior of those around them. Individuals often imitate or model the
behavior of others – especially when they like or respect these others and have reason to believe
that imitating their behavior will result in reinforcement.

Example: individuals are more likely to imitate others behavior if they observe them receive
reinforcement for their acts.

3. Environmental Criminology

Environmental criminology is the study of crime, criminality, and victimization as they relate,
first, to particular places, and secondly, to the way that individuals and organizations shape their
activities spatially, and in so doing are in turn influenced by place – based or spatial factors. Further
it is a positivist theory that suggests crime is influenced, if not caused, by a person’s spatial
environments which include space (geography), time, law, offender, and target or victim.

Proponents: Paul and Patricia Brantingham

4. Psychological Theory

This theory has a general perspective that looks to the psychological functioning,
development, and adjustment of an individual in explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this
approach, the criminal act itself is important only in that it highlights an underlying mental issue
( Akers and Seller, 2013). It focuses on the association among intelligence, personality, learning and
criminal behavior. It further explains criminal behavior, in part, as a factors affecting individuals such
as negative childhood experiences, or incomplete cognitive development.

What are the probes of the Psychological Theory?

1. Charles Goring (1870-1919)

Findings:
 There was a relationship between crime and flawed intelligence. Goring examined more than
3,000 convicts in England
 Criminals are more likely to be insane, to be unintelligence, and exhibit poor social behavior
 2. Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904)
Findings:
 Maintained that individuals learn from each other and ultimately imitate one another
 Out of 100 individuals, only 1 was creative or inventive and the remainder were prone to
imitation ( Jacoby, 2004)

1. Psychodynamic Theory

A theory individual’s personality is controlled by unconscious mental processes that are

grounded in early childhood. Child experiences influences his or her likelihood for committing future
crimes. This theory was originated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the founder of psychoanalysis. He
thought that human behavior, including violent behavior, was the product of “unconscious” forces
operating within a person’s mind and felt that early childhood experiences had a profound impact on
adolescent and adult behavior.

This theory considers that criminal offenders are frustrated and aggravated and are constantly
drawn to past events that occur in their early childhood. Because of a negligent, unhappy, or miserable
childhood, this is most often characterized by a lack of love and/or nurturing, a criminal offender has a
weak (or absent) ego. Most important, research suggests that having a weak ego is linked with poor or
absence of social etiquette, immaturity, and dependence on others. Research further suggests that
individuals with weak egos may be more likely to engage in drug abuse.

According to Freud, aggression was thus a basic (id based) human impulse that is a repressed in
well-adjusted people who have experienced a normal childhood. However, if the aggressive impulse is
not controlled, or is repressed to an unusual degree, some aggression can “leak out” of the unconscious
and a person can engage in random acts of violence. Freud referred to this as “displaced aggression”
(see Englander, 2007; Bartol, 2002)

Three elements of structures that make up the human personality (Freud)

1. The Id (pleasure principle)

It represents the unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other necessities over the
life span which is concerned with instant pleasure or gratification while disregarding concern for
others. This is known as the pleasure principle, and it is often paramount when discussing criminal
behavior.

2. The Ego (Reality Principle)

It is thought to develop early in person’s life. For example, when children learn that their
wishes cannot be gratified instantaneously, they often throw a tantrum. It compensate for the
demands of the id by guiding and individuals actions or behaviors to keep him or her within the
boundaries of society.
 3. The Superego (Morality)

It develops as a person incorporates the moral standards and values of the community:
parents, and significant others, such as friends and clergy members. It serves to pass judgment on
the behavior and actions of individuals (Freud, 1993). The ego mediates between the ids desire for
instant gratification and the strict morality of the superego. One can assume that young adults as
well as adults understand right from wrong. However, when a crime is committed, advocates of
psychodynamic theory would suggest that an individual committed a crime because he or she has
and underdeveloped superego.

What are the types of mood disorders?

1. Conduct Disorder

Children who have difficulty in following rules and behaving in socially acceptable ways
(Boccaccini, Murrie, Clark, & Comell, 2008). It is manifested as a group of behavioral and emotional
problems in young adults. These children diagnosed with conduct disorder are viewed by adults,
other children, and agencies of the state as “trouble, bad, delinquent, or even mentally ill. The most
prominent causes are child abuse, brain damage, genetics, poor school performance , and traumatic
event.

Sign and Symptoms:

1. Exhibit aggressive behaviors toward others (Boccacini et al., 2008), and cruel to animals
2. Engaged in bullying, intimidation, fear, initiating fights and using weapon such as a gun, a knife,
a box cutter, rocks, a broken bottle, a golf club, or a baseball bat.
3. Teenagers force someone into unwanted sexual activity
4. Property damage may also be a concern: one may observe these children starting fires with the
ultimate intent to destruct property or even kill someone.
5. Other unacceptable behaviors associated with conduct disorder include lying and stealing,
breaking into an individuals house or an unoccupied building or car, lying to obtain desirable
goods, avoiding obligations, and taking possessions from individuals or stores.
6. Violate curfews despite their parents desires
7. Run away from home and to be late for or truant from school

Possible Treatments

Medical doctor or psychological clinician to consider is convincing the child to develop a good
attitude, learn to cooperate, trust others, and eliminate fear in their lives.

Behavior therapy and psychotherapy may be necessary to help the child learn how to control
and express anger. Moreover, special education classes may be required for children with learning
disabilities. In some cases, treatment may include prescribed medication, although medicine would
ideally be reserved for children experiencing problems with depression, attention, or spontaneity/
impulsivity.
 2. Oppositional Defiant Disorder (Siegal, 2008)

Children showing defiance, uncooperativeness, irritability, a very negative attitude a tendency to

lose ones temper and exhibiting deliberately annoying behaviors toward peers, parents, teachers and
other authority figures such as police officers (Siegal, 2008)

Theories explaining this disorder

1. Problems begin in children as early as the toddler years

2. Adolescents and small children who develop oppositional defiant disorder may have
experienced a difficult time developing independent or autonomous skills and learning to
separate from their primary caretaker or attachment figure. In essence, the bad attitudes that
are characteristics of oppositional defiant disorder are viewed as a continuation of
developmental issues that were not resolved during the early toddler years.

Symptoms

1. Frequent temper tantrums

2. Excessive argument with adults
3. Refusal to comply with adult requests
4. Questioning rules
5. Refusing to follow rules
6. Engaging in behavior intended to annoy or upset others
7. Blaming others for ones misbehavior or mistake
8. Being easily annoyed by others
9. Frequently having an angry attitude
10. Speaking harshly or unkindly
11. Deliberately behaving in ways that seek revenge

Treatment

1. Psychotherapy that teaches problem-solving skills, communication skills, impulse control, and
anger management skills
2. Family therapy focused on making changes within the family system with the desired goal of
improved family interaction ad communication skills.
3. Peer group therapy, which is focused on developing social skills, also is an option
4. Medication

Examples of Mental Health Disorders

 Bipolar Disorder

It is marked by extreme highs and lows the person alternates between excited, assertive,
and loud behavior and lethargic, listless, and melancholic behavior.
  Schizophrenia

Individuals often exhibit illogical and incoherent thought processes, and they often lack
insight into their behavior and do not understand reality. A person with paranoid schizophrenia also
experiences complex behavior delusions that involve wrongdoing or persecution (Jacoby, 2004).
Individuals with paranoid schizophrenia often believe everyone is out to get them. It is important to
note the research shows that female offenders appear to have a higher probability of serious mental
health symptoms than male offenders. These include symptoms of schizophrenia, paranoia, and
obsessive behaviors.

At the same time, studies of males accused of murder have found that three quarters could
be classified as having some form of mental illness. Another interesting fact is that individuals who
have been diagnosed with a mental illness are more likely to be arrested, and they appear in court
at, a disproportionate rate. Last, research suggests that delinquent children have a higher rate of
clinical mental disorders compared with adolescents in the general population (Siegal, 2008)

3. Behavioral Theory
It focuses on behavior modeling and social learning. It maintains that all human behavior – including
violent behavior – learn through the interaction with the social environment. Behaviorist argues that
people are not born with a violent disposition. Rather, they learn to think and act violently as a
result of their day-to-day experience (Bandura, 1977). These experiences, proponents of the
behaviorist tradition maintain, might include observing friends or family being rewarded for violent
behavior or even observing the glorification of violence in the media. Studies of family life, for
example, show that aggressive children often model the violent behaviors of their parent. Studies
have also found that people who live in violent communities learn to model the aggressive behavior
of their neighbor’s (Bartol, 2002).

Four factors help produce violence

 A stressful event or stimulus – like a threat, challenge or assault – that heightens arousal
 Aggressive skills or techniques learned through observing others
 A belief that aggression or violence will be socially rewarded (by, for example, reducing
frustration, enhancing self-esteem, providing material goods or earning the praise of other
people) and
 A value system that condones violent acts within certain social contexts. Early empirical tests of
these four principles were promising ( Bartol, 2002).

4. Cognitive Theory

This theory signifies that an individual perception and how it is manifested affect his or her
potential to commit crime (Jacoby, 2004). It focus on how people perceive their social environment
and learn to solve problems. The moral and intellectual development perspective is the branch of
cognitive theory that is most associated with the study of crime and violence.
Development of Reasoning Abilities (Piaget, 1932)

1. The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening.
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.

2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from perspective of
others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking they still tend to think about things in
very concrete terms.

3. The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation: that the amount of liquid in a short, wide
cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle,

4. The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and political issues that
require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.

Six Different Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg, 1969)

Level I: Pre-conventional Morality

Age Range: seen in preschool children, most elementary school students, some junior high
school students, and a few high school students

Stage 1. Punishment-avoidance and obedience

Nature of Moral Reasoning: people make decisions based on what is best for themselves, without
regard for others needs of feelings. They obey rules only if established by more powerful individuals,
they may disobey if they aren’t likely to get caught. “Wrong behaviors are those that will be
punished”

Stage 2: exchange of favors

Nature of Moral Reasoning: People recognize that others also have needs. They may try to satisfy
others needs if their own needs are also met (you scratch my back, ill scratch yours). They continue
to define right and wrong primarily in terms of consequences to themselves.

Level II:Conventional Morality

Age Range: Seen in a few older elementary school students, some junior high school students,
and many high school students (stage 4 typically does not appear until the high school years)

Stage 3: good boy/girl

Nature of Moral Reasoning: people make decisions based on what actions will please others,
especially authority figures and other individuals with high status (e.g. teachers, popular peers).
They are concerned about maintaining relationship through sharing, trust, and loyalty, and they take
other peoples perspectives and intentions into account when making decisions

Stage 4: Law and other

Nature of Moral Reasoning: People look to society as a whole for guidelines about right or wrong.
They know rules are necessary for keeping society running smoothly and believe it is their “duty” to
obey them. However, they perceive rules to be flexible they don’t necessarily recognize that as
society’s needs change, rules should change as well.

Level III: Post-conventional Morality

Age Range: Rarely seen before college (Stage 6 is extremely rare even in adults)
Stage 5: Social Contract

Nature of Moral Reasoning: People recognize that rules represent agreements among many
individuals about appropriate behavior. Rules are seen as potentially useful mechanisms that can
maintain the general social order and protect individual rights, rather than as absolute dictates that
must be obeyed simply because they are “the law”. People also recognize the flexibility of rules;
rules that no longer serve society’s best interests can and should be changed.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle

Nature of Moral Reasoning: Stage 6 is a hypothetical, “ideal” stage that few people ever reach.
People in this stage adhere to a few abstract, universal principles (e.g. equality of all people, respect
for human dignity, commitment to justice) that transcend specific norms and rules. They answer to a
strong inner conscience and willingly disobey laws that violate their own ethical principles.

Research Findings of Kohlberg:

1. Violent youth were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youth –
even after controlling for social background
2. People who obey the law simply to avoid punishment (e.g. out of self-interest) are more likely to
commit acts of violence than are people who recognize and sympathize with the fundamental
rights of others. Higher levels of moral reasoning, on the other hand, are associated with acts of
altruism, generosity and non-violence (Veneziano, 1992). In sum, the weight of the evidence
suggest that people with lower levels of moral reasoning will engage in crime and violence when
they think they can get away with it. On the other hand, even when presented with the
opportunity, people with higher levels of moral reasoning will refrain from criminal behavior
because they think it is wrong.

Psychological research suggests that when people make decisions, they engage in a
series of a complex thought processes. First they encode and interpret the information or
stimuli they are presented with, then they search for a proper response or appropriate action,
and finally, act on their decision (Dodge, 1986). According to information processing theorists,
violent individuals may be using information incorrectly when they make their decision.
Violence-prone youth, for example, may see people as more threatening or aggressive than they
actually are. This may cause some youth to react with violence at the slightest provocation.
According to this perspective, aggressive children are more vigilant and suspicious than normal
youth are –a factor that greatly increases their likelihood of engaging in violent behavior.
Consistent with this perspective, research suggests that some youth who engage in violent
attacks on others actually believe that they are defending themselves, even when they have
totally misinterpreted the level of threat (Lochman, 1987). Recent research also indicates that
male rapists often have little sympathy for their own victims, but do in fact empathize with the
female victims of other sexual offenders. This finding suggests that, because of information
processing issues, some offenders can’t recognize the harm they are doing others (Langton and
Marshall, 2001; Liptonet al. 1987)
 4. Personal Theory

This theory believes that criminal activity is the result of a defective, deviant, or
inadequate personality. In short criminal behavior is associated with defective personality traits.
Examples of deviant personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-
seeking. The criminal does not have the ability to feel empathy, remorse, or guilt for his or her
actions, and has not developed a sense of right and wrong.

5. Psychoanalytical Theory

A general perspective stating that the causes of criminal behavior can be found in the mind
of the individual. The criminal behavior is the result of a mental disturbance.

According to Sigmund, this may have been caused by a conflict between the id, ego, and
superego, or it may be the result of an improper fixation during a stage of emotional development.

Psychoanalysis believes that man is a cannibalistic wild creature in its beginning, which will
form in a mature and responsible person through a process of socialization which has a significant
role in the formation of our conscience. Psychoanalytic theory also holds that people are not always
are of motives of their behavior. Motives are sometimes hidden in “Id” (sub consciousness” and are
often related with conflicts from our childhood. Crime can be caused by a lack of ability to control
“Id”.

Who is a Psychopathic?

A general term referring to a variety of anti-social personality disorders.

6. Theory of Frustration Aggressiveness

This theory claims that frustration always leads to aggression and every aggression is the
result of frustration which is one of the possible causes of crime.

Proponent: John Dollard and his colleagues from Yale University (1993)

What is Frustration?

It is a psychological state of discomfort due to the inability to achieve certain goals or find
solutions for problems.

Example: Inability to graduate is often a source of frustration among juvenile delinquents.

According to the research of Harris Berkowitz (1974), he found out that when someone is closer
to achieving its goal an obstacle to his imaginary target causes more frustration. Frustration creates a
will to aggressively respond with anger, and that does not always result with aggressive behavior. An
odd that aggression will occur as a result of frustration depends on a large number of specific conditions
and circumstances. He concluded that moderate frustration does not necessarily lead to aggression.
 7. Humanisitc Psychological Theory

Proponents: Abraham Maslow and Helleck

This theory explains crime and criminal behavior in terms of human needs. People tend to adopt
criminal behavior because they do not have other options available for sustenance.

Crime for such people can be a way of adapting. People have physiological needs., safety needs,
belongingness needs as well self-esteem needs but remain unfulfilled most of the time and people feel
helpless because of suppression. People may need to adapt when they feel helpless. In such situations,
they adopt criminal behavior as an option for release from suppression and the resulting helplessness.
Crime can release someone from the stress born of oppression.

In history there are several examples of people having adopted deviant behavior solely to free
themselves. There are several historical figures that turn criminals to fight oppression. For example,
Pancho Villa of Mexico.

Its Relevance:

This theory was found to be more relevant than the others because it explains crime in real
terms by providing explanations as to how criminal behavior is born of people’s needs. It provided a
greater enlighten of deviance than most of theories. With this theory it assumed that people are
basically good but tend to adopt criminal behavior to fulfill their unfulfilled needs. This theory considers
both physical and psychological factors to explain criminal behavior.

Chapter V

Critical Explanations of Crime Causation

Critical theories do not only rejects traditional theories of crime causation, but challenges
conventional understanding of crime and punishment by uncovering false beliefs and perspectives. It is
anchored in the paradigm of inequalities of capitalist society.

Critical theories also try to explain group differences in crime rates in terms of the larger social
environment; some focus on class differences, some on gender differences, and some societal
differences in crime. Several versions of critical theory exist, but all explain crime in terms of group
differences in power.

1. Labeling Theory

The theory that the formal and informal application of stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags
applied to an individual by society will not deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.
Labeling theory is not concerned with why people originally engage in act that results in their being
labeled but it is with criminal career formation and not the origin of criminal acts. A person is deviant
primarily because of the social distance between the labeler and the labeled.

People become criminals when significant members of society label them as much and they
accept those labels as a personal identity. Throughout their lives people are given a variety of symbolic
labels in their interactions with others. These labels imply a variety of behaviors and attitudes; labels
thus help define not just one trait but the whole person. If a devalued status is conferred by a significant
other, the negative label may cause permanent harm to the target. Being perceived as a social deviant
may affect their treatment at home, at work, at school and in the other social situations.

Labeled persons may find themselves turning to others similarly stigmatized for support and
companionship. Law is differentially applied, benefiting those who hold economic and social power and
penalizing the powerless. Labeled individuals may find that conventional people are reluctant to
associate with them, and they may associate with other criminals as a result. This reduces their bond
with conventional others and fosters the social learning of crime. Finally, labeled individuals may
eventually come to view themselves as criminals and act in accord with self-concept. Once a person has
been labeled as deviant, the other aspects of his life and personality become secondary. Once deviance
becomes central to a person’s identity, a deviant career follows. It means that the labels applied on
people can change the course of their lives and careers and turn them into criminals. Deviance is not
inherent to an act but instead it is a product of labeling. A person becomes deviant after being labeled as
one. Similarly, acts after being labeled so. Moreover the most important concept underlying this theory
is that of self-identity and how people’s lives and behavior are influenced by labeling. However, this also
provides insufficient explanation related to criminal behavior.

What are the two effects of labeling?

1. The creation of a stigma

A public record of the deviant act caused the denounced person to be ritually separated
from a place in the legitimate order of society through successful degradation ceremonies.

2. The effect on self-image

Stigmatized offenders may begin to reevaluate their own identities around the label

Two stages of deviance

1. Primary deviance

These are crimes that have little influence on the actor and can quickly the label
 2. Secondary deviance

It arises when deviant comes to the attention of significant others or social control agencies
who apply a negative label. The person then reorganizes his or her own behavior and personality
around the consequences of the deviant act.

It involves re socialization into a deviant role. The labeled person is transformed into one
who employs his behavior or a role based upon the label as a means of defense, attack or
adjustment. Secondary deviance produces a deviance amplification effect. This is a self-fulfilling
prophecy.

2. Conflict Theory

The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values. The
groups with the most power makes the laws controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make
the rules still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior, which is now viewed as
criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law criminal justice (why some acts are
legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts
defined as criminal)

3. Marxist Theory

Marxist theories argue that those who own the means of production (e.g. factories, businesses)
have the greatest power. This group – the capitalist class – uses its power for its own advantage.
Capitalists work for the passage of laws that criminalize and severely sanction the “street” crimes of
lower-class persons, but ignore or mildly sanction the harmful actions of business and industry (e.g.
pollution, unsafe working conditions).

What are the Characteristics of a Capitalist?

1. Act to increase their profits

 They resist improvements in working conditions
 They attempt to hold down the wages of workers
2. Acknowledge that disputes sometimes arise within the capitalist class and that the government
sometimes makes concessions to workers in an effort to protect the long-term interests of
capitalists.

4. Feminist Theory

This theory focus on gender differences in power as a source of crime. It address two issue: why
are males more involved in most forms of crime that females, and why do females engage in crime.
Most theories of crime were developed with males in mind: feminists argue that the causes of female
crime differ somewhat from the causes of male crime.
 Gender differences in crime are said to be due largely to gender differences in socialized to be
passive, subservient, and focused on the needs of others. Further, females are more closely supervised
than males, partly because fathers and husbands desire to protect their “property” from other males.
Females are more closely tied to household and to child-rearing tasks, which limits their opportunities to
engage in many crimes.

Some females, of course, do engage in crime. It has been also claimed that much female crime
stems from the fact that juvenile females are often sexually abused by family members. This high rate of
sexual abuse is fostered by the power of males over females, the sexualization of females – especially
young females – and a system that often fails to sanction sexual abuse. Abused females frequently run
away, but they have difficulty surviving on the street. They are labeled as delinquents, making it difficult
for them to obtain legitimate work.

Juvenile justice officials, in fact, often arrest such females and return them to the families where
they were abused. Further, these females are frequently abused and exploited by men on the street. As
a consequence, they often turn to crimes like prostitution and theft to survive. Theorists have pointed to
still other types of strain to explain female crime, like the financial and other difficulties experienced by
women trying to raise families without financial support from fathers. The rapid increase female-headed
families in recent decades, in fact, has been used to explain the increase in rates of female property
crime. It is also argued that some female crime stems from frustration over the constricted roles
available to females in our society (http:/ /law.jrank. org).

5. Rational Choice Theory (Right Realism)

Proponents: Derek Cornish and Ronald Clarke

The theorist under the Rational Choice Theory (RTC) posits that a criminal rationally chooses the
crime to commit and the target of crime. Criminals evaluate available information to decide whether a
crime is attractive and worthwhile. Criminal behavior is centered on the situational aspects because
society can achieve a high degree of crime prevention by focusing on the situational aspects that
influence particular types of criminal behavior. It emphasized that individual as rational actors wherein
they are capable of making their own choices which includes choosing to commit crime. They even
weigh up the benefits and disadvantages they derived from their acts. This theory implies that
individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when where to commit crime.

Rational choice theory states that freely choose their behavior and are motivated by the
avoidance of pain and the pursuit of pleasure. Individuals evaluate their choice of actions in accordance
with each options ability to produce advantage, pleasure and happiness. It also provides a micro
perspective on why individual offenders decide to commit specific crime; people choose to engage in
crime because it can be rewarding easy, satisfying and fun. It simply suggests that crime is a personal
choice which is the result of individual decision-making processes. Therefore individuals are responsible
for their choices and thus individual offenders are subject to blame for their criminality.
 The central premise of this theory is that people are rational beings whose behavior can be
controlled or modified by a fear of punishment. In this way, it is believed offenders can be persuaded to
desist from offending by intensifying their fear of punishment. In terms of setting the quantum of
punishment, according to this theory, sanctions should be limited to what is necessary to deter people
from choosing crime (Siegal and McCormick, 2006)

This theory emerged in the USA and the UK around the 1980’s, in response to rising crime rates
and a perceived failure of sociological approaches to adequately address the real causes of crime.
Prominent right realists such as James Q. Wilson (1975) and Charles Murray (1990) come from political
backgrounds and claim that criminological theory should inform criminal justice policy.

This theory is one of the integrated classical theories that have merged the classical and
positivist perspective to crime and crime prevention based on a person’s rationality and freedom of
choice.

Integrated Theory one in which two or more of the major criminological theories are used
together in a new theoretical perspective.

Economic Model of Crime

It assumes that an individual will choose the same course of action when confronted with the
same alternatives regarding costs, rewards, and risks. It also based on the assumption that a person
chooses to commit crime. It means that criminal behavior follows a calculation whereby criminals
explore the perceived costs, rewards, and risks of alternative actions.

Justice Model

It stresses the idea that offenders are responsible people and therefore deserve to be punished
if they violate the law.

Just Deserts

It is a justice perspective according to which those who violate others rights deserve to be
punished.

Self – Control Theory (General Theory of Crime)

This theory constituted a reassertion of the classical schools initial contention that individuals
seek personal pleasure while avoiding pain (Beccaria, 1764/1963) which simply means that people are
motivated by self-interest. Low self-control was the general, antecedent cause of forceful/fraudulent
acts “undertaken in pursuit of self-interests” (Gottfredson and Hirschi,1990).

Self – Control Theory is a theory about the “redirected attention of criminologists to the family
and to what parents do, or do not, during childhood that affects the likelihood of delinquency.
 On the other hand, SCT is similar to learning theory because learning theory believes that lack of
self – control is a basic component or element of the deviant learning process. Even though one learns
from the stimuli around them, behavior is also the result of something within them, which is self –
control (“Self – Control Theory of Crime,” 2015)

Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi argue that those who learn early in life to exercise self –
control will have much less involvement in delinquency, crime, and other problem behaviors (such as
substance abuse, accidents, and employment problems) later in life. Those who develop high levels of
self – control in childhood will be less likely to be delinquent as adolescents and less likely to be arrested
or convicted as a adults: have greater success in school; obtain more successful employment; attain
higher incomes; and even experience many and better health outcomes throughout life.

Main Proposition of SCT: “Individuals commit crimes because they have low self –
control”

However, the proponents further argue that a lack of self – control is neither a sufficient nor
necessary condition for crime to occur, because other properties of the individual or of the situation
may counteract ones likelihood of committing deviant acts. Everything else being equal, low self –
control and a weak bond to society should positively and significantly predict a variety of deviant and
criminal conduct. Though lack of self – control and the family’s role in its failed development do not
mean that one will become deviant but it will provide circumstances that will make conditions favorable
for delinquency.

Proponent; Gottfredson and Hirschi

Research: They started by looking at what criminologists do know about crime and criminals.

Findings:

1. Criminal events are generally based on immediate gratification or removal of an irritant, are
easy, and are varied
2. Criminals displayed characteristics similar to crime events:
3. Criminals were found among individuals seeking immediate and easy gratification and whose
behavior included numerous types of crime and other deviant behaviors
4. Crime and the criminal were contiguous elements.

What is self – control?

A person’s abilty to alter his or her own states and responses

Note: Low self-control is the main individual-level source of crime.

What are the types of self-control?

1. Impulse Control – control over the contents of the mind

2. Control over performance – control over emotion and moods
 3. Low self – control (Harold G. Grasmick)
People with low self-control are impulsive and seek immediate gratification
Lack, diligence, tenacity and persistence
Want money without work
Self – control is through parental emotional investment in child-need to monitor child’s
behavior.

Why do individual resist engaging criminal acts.

The answer is that they have high self – control. That is, these individual are able to delay
gratification of immediate impulses and pursue long term goals. However, individuals who lack self-
control engage in risky behavior, including criminal acts, to satisfy their immediate needs.

Self – control is directed to the fact that “individual differences in the tendency to commit criminal acts,
remain reasonably stable with change in the social location of individuals and change in their knowledge
of the operation of sanction systems. This is the problem of self – control, the differential tendency of
people to avoid criminal acts whatever the circumstances in which they find themselves. Since this
difference among people has attracted a wide variety of names, we begin by arguing the merits of the
concept of self – control.

Those with high self – control will be “substantially less likely at all periods of life to engage in
criminal acts.” Low self – control can be counteracted by circumstances and therefore does not ‘require
crime”. Crime and “analogous behavior” such a smoking, drinking, drug use, illicit sex, and even
accidents are “ manifestations of” low self – control and committed at a high rate by persons with low
self – control. Therefore, there is great versatility in the types of crime and analogous behavior they
commit.

The cause of low self – control is ineffective or incomplete socialization, especially ineffective
child rearing. Parents who are attached to their children, supervise their children closely recognize lack
of self – control and punish deviant acts will socialize children into self – control. The explicit disapproval
of parents or others about whom one cares is the most important negative sanction. This perspective is
then applied to the criminality of parents, family size, single parent families, working mothers, and the
school.

Socialization occurs throughout life, but once formed in childhood, self – control remains
relatively stable throughout life (although apparently not the actual commission of crimes, since these
always decline with age). Self – control accounts for all variations by sex, culture, age, and circumstances
and “explains all crime, at all times, and for that matter many forms of behavior that are not sanctioned
by the state”

Self – control is defined as the ability to forego acts that provide immediate or near-term
pleasure, but that ability to act in favor of longer – term interests (Gottfredson and Hirschi). Self –
control is a person’s ability to alter his or her own states and responses. It is related to concepts such as
self – regulation and impulsivity in psychology (Baumeister and Heartherton,1996; Moffitt, Poulton, &
Caspi, 2013) , time discounting and skill formation in economics (Heckman, 2006), and social control in
sociology ( Hirscho , 1969). Self – control is defined as the propensity to refrain from acts that are long –
term costs outweigh their immediate advantages. Self – control is the sole variable responsible for
individual differences in the propensity to offend. It is the individual characteristics relevant to the
commission of criminal acts. Self - control then is viewed to be main factor behind criminal behavior or
conformity.

Individuals with high self – control are able to forgo the immediate benefits that crimes offer
because they extend their considerations into the future and recognize that such benefits risk much
more painful delayed consequences. Persons with relatively high levels of self – control do better in
school, have stronger job prospects, establish more stable interpersonal relationships, and attain higher
income and better health outcomes. People who lack self – control are not constrained from crime by
the potential long – term consequences of crime because they do not consider these consequences
when making decisions.

Low self – control is defined as “the tendency of individuals to pursue short – term gratification
without consideration of the long – term consequences of their acts” or “tendency to ignore the long –
term consequences of ones acts. Low self – control is supposed to explain an individual’s propensity to
commit or refrain from committing crimes, just as high self – control explains an individual’s likelihood of
conforming to social norms and laws.

Self – control is not regarded as either a predisposition to crime or a personality trait for crime
and delinquency. Rather , self – control is understood as an inclination to focus on the short term rather
than the long term, on immediate gratification of needs, and on wants and desires (whatever they may
be), and not on the longer – term negative consequences of behavior. An individual’s level of self -
control is influenced by family or other caregiver behavior early in life. Once established, differences in
self – control affect the likelihood and adolescence and crime in later life.

Self – control acts as a “self-selection” mechanism in that individuals are “sorted into a variety of
circumstances that are as a result correlated with crime” according to Gottfredson and Hirschi, people
with high self – control should exhibit success in legitimate social institutions, educational arenas, high
income potentials, quality of interpersonal relationship with others, marriage, and the like. Conversely,
those with low self – control will have poor friendships, fail in school, not fare well in economic arena,
and have unhappy marriages.

6. Displacement Theory

What is crime Displacement?

Crime displacement is the relocation of crime (or criminals) as a result of police crime –
prevention efforts. Crime displacement has been linked to problem – oriented policing, but it may occur
at other levels and for other reasons. Community – development efforts may be a reason why criminals
move to other areas for their criminal activity.
 The displacement theory argues that by removing the opportunity for crime or seeking to
prevent a crime by changing the situation or seeking to prevent a crime by changing the situation in
which it occurs does not actually prevent crime but merely moves it to a new environment with less
obstacles. Crime displacement is one probable explanation the criminal pattern changes in a certain
system. A practical and common belief about crime displacement is that if perpetrators have the ability,
mobility and flexibility to exploit the weakest link in the chain, they will do so to commit the crime
(Ekwall & Lumsden, 2007).

What are the types of Displacement?

 Geographical displacement – crime can be moved from one location to another

 Temporal displacement – crime can be moved from one time to another
 Target displacement – crime can be directed away from one target to another
 Crime type displacement – one kind of crime can be substituted for another placement theory
suggests crime is moved around.

Five categories of situational crime prevention

 Increasing the efforts

 Increasing the risk
 Reducing the rewards
 Reducing the provocations, and
 Removing the excuses

What are the factors that cause crime displacement?

 Offenders motivation
 Offenders familiarity
 Crime opportunity

CHAPTER VI
Biosocial Theories of Crime Causation

The idea that biological and environmental factors are related to criminal behavior is central to
biosocial criminology. Biosocial criminology is best understood as a general paradigm of research that
analyzes all factors related to the etiology of antisocial behavior, meaning that genetic influences,
biological influences such as hormone levels, and neurological factors are considered in combination
with environmental influences like socialization, exposure to poverty, and external sources of control
(Eichelberger, R. and Barnes, JC.).

This theory stress out importance of biochemical conditions, genetic code, neurological
conditions and influences of social environment on the behavior. There is the combined effect of
personal biological traits and social environment will result in conformity with social norms or with
crime. A biosocial approach to behavior rests on a few relatively simple assumptions humans are as
much a part of nature as any other animal and are thus subject to the same evolutionary, biological, and
genetic processes that influence the rest of the natural world (Nedelec, J.2015).

Biosocial criminology incorporates the effects of genetics, physiological and neurological factors,
as well as influences of society and family in the causes of antisocial behavior. It is emerging perspective
that highlights the interdependence between genetic and environmental factors in the etiology of
antisocial behaviors.

Other biosocial theorist point out the influence of low level of chemical nutrients and minerals
on criminal behavior. Lack of nutrients and minerals has an impact on physical growth, cognitive and
intellectual development.

What are the four major domains of biosocial criminology?

1. Evolutionary Criminology

It suggests that criminal behavior stems from an evolutionary focus wherein it seeks the
ultimate causes of criminal behavior, which address the broader questions that ask “why” it recognized
that humans are the product of selection pressures that were present throughout our ancestral history
(Daly&Wilson, 1988). It explain human behavior (especially “universal” behaviors that are displayed in
many human cultures” in the context of evolutionary pressures and responses (i.e.adaptaions) to those
influences (Barnes et al., 2015).

2. Biological Criminology

It focuses on the physiological factors, not just genetic factors, which may be related to
antisocial behavior. Although this perspective is broad, there are certain types of biological criminology
research that tend to appear more often than others: hormonal associations (e.g. testosterone) with
antisocial behavior (Mazur, 2009) resting heart – rate levels which are thought to influence sensation –
seeking behaviors (Portnoy et al 2014) and the role of pubertal onset development in the etiology of
delinquency in adolescence (Barnes & Beaver, 2010). Studies have shown that testosterone levels in the
brain at various stages in development are quite influential on offending probabilities (Mazur, 2009).
Furthermore on average the resting heart and pulse rates of convicted offenders are lower than the
general population, including adult and juvenile offenders (Portnoy et al 2014)

3. Neurocriminology

It links brain structure and functions to behavioral outcomes and, in general sense, provides a
“clear” causal pathway between genes, the brain, and behavior. Genetic factors influence brain
functioning structure, which goes on to impact behavioral outcomes.

4. Behavioral Genetics: Nature vs. Nurture

 Behavioral genetics is a field of study that aims to unpack the genetic and environmental
influences on human behavioral outcomes (Barnes et al 2014 Beaver, 2013). It focuses on the three
components of behavioral genetics (heritability, the shared environment, and the non –shared
environment).

Behavioral genetics offers scientists an avenue by which both genetic and environmental
influences on human behavior and personality traits can be analyzed. It has been a centerpiece of
biosocial criminology representing the integrative nature of biosocial criminology by giving equal weight
and attention to biological and environmental factors.

Research Findings

1. Excessively high or low levels of some chemicals and minerals such as sodium, calcium, amino-
acids and others could lead to cognitive dysfunction ally, loss of memory, depression or manic
behavior
2. Excessive intake of metals like iron and manganese can lead to attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD) and neurological dysfunctions
3. Neurological conditions are linked with criminal behavior.

Situational Crime Prevention Strategies

Knowing all the theories on crime causation it is very significant to study about the situational
crime prevention to study about the situational crime prevention strategies which could serve as a
coping mechanism to prevent and control crimes. This ensures the safety of everybody as a result
sustainable peace and order situation is enjoyed at all times.

The Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) is a primary crime prevention which refers to the art and
science of reducing opportunities for crimes based on new crime theories like rational choice and
routine activity. It also seeks to influence the offender’s decision or ability to commit crimes at particular
places and times by way of particularly designed measures.

SCP involves the management, design, or manipulation of the immediate physical environment
and its primary objective is to reduce the opportunity for criminal activity.

Focus of New Crime Theories

1. Crime, not criminality

2. Events, not dispositions
3. Near, not distant causes of crime
4. How crime occurs, not why it happens
5. Situational and opportunity factors

Crime Prevention

Intervening in the causal chain to prevent crime from occurring at all.

Types of Crime Prevention

1. Primary prevention – effecting conditions of the physical and social environment that provide
opportunities for or precipitate criminal acts.
2. Secondary Prevention – engages in early identification of potential offenders and seeks to
intervene before the commission of illegal activity.
3. Tertiary Prevention - dealing with actual offenders and intervention

Two ways to Prevent Crimes

1. Change people’s criminal motivations

2. Reduce opportunities for crime

Ways to Modify a Situation

1. Increasing the effort the offender must make to carry out the crime
2. Increasing the risks the offender must face in completing the crime
3. Reducing the rewards or benefits the offender expects to obtain from the crime
4. Reducing or avoiding provocations that may tempt or incite offenders into criminal acts
5. Removing excuses that offenders may use to “rationalize” or justify their actions.

Reducing Opportunity

Criminal Opportunity is reduces by:

1. Increasing the effort involved in crime by making the targets harder to get at or hindering the
commission of crime (e.g. target hardening, access control, exit and entrance screening)
2. Increasing the risks whether real or perceive, of detection and apprehension (e.g. surveillance,
screening, profiling)
3. Reducing the rewards of crime (target removal, property marking, merchandise ink – tags)
4. Reducing or avoiding provocations that may tempt or incite offenders into criminal acts
5. Removing excuses that offenders may use to “rationalize” or justify their actions.

What are the ways to increase the effort?

 Harden Targets
 Control Access
 Screen Exits
 Deflect Offenders
 Control Tools/Weapons

What are the ways to increase risks?

 Extend Guardianship
 Assist Natural Surveillance
 Reduce Anonymity
  Utilize Place Managers
 Strengthen Formal Surveillance

What are the ways to reduce the rewards?

 Conceal Targets
 Remove Targets
 Identify Property
 Disrupt Markets
 Deny Benefits

What are the ways to reduce the Provocations?

 Reduce Frustrations and Stress

 Avoid Disputes
 Reduce Emotional Arousal
 Neutralize Peer Pressure
 Discourage Imitation

Remove the excuses

 Set Rules
 Post Instructions
 Alert Conscience
 Assist Compliance
 Control Drugs and Alcohol
 Post Evaluation
Chapter I

Test I: Answer the question briefly

1. Explain crime in your own words.

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2. Read a news about a crime whether local, national or international and determine the following:

a. Who are the perpetrators?

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b. How did they commit the crime(s)?

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c. Why did the perpetrator(s) commit the crime(s)?

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3. In your own point of view, is the crime situation in your community becoming worst or better? Justify
your answer.
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4. Do you agree that crime has high and diverse cost? Explain you answer.
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Test II: Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked? Write the letter only.
Strictly no erasures.

A. Theory F. Criminal Behavior

B. Motivation G. Francis Bacon
C. Behavioral Definition H. Voltaire and Rousseau
D. Ecological Factor I. Aristotle
E. Societal or Macro level Factor J. Crime

________1. Crime is poverty related describing poverty as a mother of all revolutions and crimes.

________2. Interactions between people and their activities in a physical environment.

________3. Acts or omissions forbidden by law that can be punished by imprisonment and/ or fine.

________4.The outcome of a process in which a goal is formulated, costs and benefits are assessed,
and internal constraints on behavior are applied.

________5. A series of statements that seek to understand and explain a particular phenomenon.

________6. Crime focuses on, criminality, a certain personality profile that causes the most alarming
sorts of crimes.

________7. The product of a systematic process that involves complex interactions between individual,
societal, and ecological factors over the course of our lives.

________8. Criminality will depend on social situations

________9. Systematic interactions between social groups which describe the ways society is
structured.
________10. Introduce the concept of free will.

Checked by:

___________________________
Instructor
 Post Evaluation
Chapter II

Answer the following question briefly

1. What was the effect of the traditional explanation of crimes in the treatment of offenders?
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2. At present do you believe that the beliefs under demonological theory are still recognized?
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3. Give the distinctions between spiritual and natural explanations for crime.
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 Post Evaluation
Chapter III

Test I: Read and analyze the given statements and identify what is being asked? Write the letter only.
Strictly no erasures.

A. Deterrence Theory F. Routine Activities Theory

B. Retribution G. Classical Theory

C. Specific Deterrence H. Utilitarianism
D. Cesare Beccaria I. Jeremy Bentham
E. Felicitous Calculus J. Deterrence

________1. This theory posits that human behavior as rational and assumes that people have the ability
to choose right from wrong.

________2. Doctrine that the purpose of al actions should be brings about the greatest happiness for
the greatest number of people.

________3. This is use for estimating the probability that a person will engage in a particular kind of
behavior.

________4. His ideas were all premised under the principle of utilitarianism.

________5. An individual’s choice to commit or not to commit a crime is influenced by the fear of
punishment.

________6. Italian criminologist

________7. It has a concept that a wrongdoer should be forced to “pay back” or compensate for his or
her criminal act.

________8. This is aimed at the wrongdoer and tries to deter him from crime by punishing him.

________9. Act of preventing criminal act before it occurs, through the threat of punishment and
sanctions.
________10. Crime is a product of people’s daily activities influence by a number of factors that can
become the motivation behind crime.

Test II: Essay read the question and writes your answers legibly and in paragraph form.

a. Give the distinctions between the classical and Neo Classical Theory. In these theories what
do you appreciate most? Why?
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b. Read and understand the essay on crimes and punishment by Cesare Beccaria. What are the
insights you learned from it. How do these ideas influence your views on crimes as a
criminology student?
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Checked by:
 ___________________________
Instructor

Post Evaluation
Chapter IV

I. Read and understand the given items. Give the correct answer by writing the letter only.
Strictly no erasures or alterations. (1 point each)

a. Murderer f. Somatotype Theory

b. Auguste g. Positivist Theories
c. Early Biological Theories h. Atavism
d. Born or Instinctive Criminal i. Phrenology
e. Johann Lavater j. Biological Theory

____1. Human behavior originated in the brain.

____2. The shape of the skull and some facial features had an impact on a human behavior and actions.
____3. Human behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by individual differences and biological
traits meaning it is not free-will that drives people to commit crimes
____4. Founder of sociology and positivism
____5. A theory which assume that some people are “born criminals”, who are physiologically distinct
from non-criminals
____6. Focus strongly on inherited characteristics.
____7. Claimed a return to a primitive or subhuman type of human.
____8. One who carries from birth, through unfortunate heredity from his ancestors, a reduced
resistance to criminal stimuli and also an evident and developed tendency to crime.
____9. The man in whom altruism is wholly lacking and whose sentiments of both pity and probity are
absent, and such a criminal will steal or kill as the occasion arises.
____10. People are born with an inherited body type based on skeletal frame and body composition.

II. Modified True or False. Write KAYNE if the statement is true and CRIM if the statement is
FALSE. Strictly no Erasures. (1 point each)
____________1. Ectomorphs are likely to commit suicide
____________2. People having an XY chromosomal makeup have a strong compulsion to commit crime.
____________3. Neurosciences will provide unique possibilities and advantages in understanding
motivations and causes for staying lawful or for becoming unlawful.
____________4. Biological theory theorized crime is shaped by factors external to the individual: their
experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the family
____________5. Social disorganization theory is a macro theory looking across different communities or
neighborhood because it focused on the larger social environment, especially the community and the
total society.

III. Essay read the questions and write your answer legibly and in paragraph form.

a. Explain strain/anomie theory? Create a scenario wherein this theory exist

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b. According to Edwin Sutherland “ Criminal behavior is learned” agree or disagree? Justify you
answer by giving a concrete example.

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Checked by:

___________________________
Instructor
 Post Evaluation
Chapter V
I. Read and understand the given items. Give the correct answer by writing the letter
only. Strictly no erasures or alterations. (1 point each)

A. Secondary Deviance f. Labelling Theory

B. Marxist theory g. Self-Control Theory
C. Rational Choice Theory h. Conflict Theory
D. Critical Theories i. Just Deserts
E. Economic Model of Crime j. Feminist Theory

____1. Challenges conventional understandings of crime and punishment by uncovering false beliefs
and perspectives
____2. People become criminals when significant members of society label them as such and they
accept those labels as a personal identity
____3. It arises when a deviant comes to the attention of significant others social control agencies who
apply a negative label
____4. The view that society is divided into two or more groups with competing ideas and values
____5. Those who own the means of production (e.g factories, businesses) have the greatest power
____6. Focus on gender differences in power as a source of crime
____7. A criminal rationally chooses the crime to commit and the target of crime
____8. It assumes that an individual will choose the same course of action when confronted with the
same alternatives regarding costs, rewards, and risks
____9. It is a justice perspective according to which those who violate others rights deserve to be
punished
____10. Reasserts that individuals seek personal pleasure while avoiding pain which simply means that
people are motivated by self – interest.
 II. Modified True or False. Write KAYNE if the statement is true and CRIM if the statement
is FALSE. Strictly no Erasures. (1 point each)

____________1. Labels applied on people can change the course of their lives and careers and turns
them into criminals
____________2. Conflict theory emphasized on the creation of stigmata.
____________3. The capitalist class uses its power for its own advantage.
____________4. Capitalist act to increase their profit.
____________5. The causes of female and male crime are just the same.
____________6. Individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when and where to commit
crime.
____________7. Two or more of the major criminological theories cannot be integrated in explaining
crime
____________8. Low self – control was the general, antecedent cause of forceful/fraudulent acts
“undertaken in pursuit of self – interest.
____________9. Criminal behavior follows a calculation
____________10. Individuals are rational actors.

Checked by:

___________________________
Instructor
 Post Evaluation
Chapter VI
I. Modified True or False. Write KAYNE if the statement is true and CRIM if the statement is
FALSE. Strictly no Erasures. (1 point each)

____________1. Evolutionary criminology highlights the combined effect of personal biological traits
and social environment.

____________2. Genetic factors influence brain functioning.

____________3. Testosterone levels in the brain at various stages in development do not influence
offending probabilities

____________4. Lack of nutrients and minerals has no impact on physical growth, cognitive and
intellectual development.

____________5. Neurological conditions are linked with criminal behavior.

II. Answer the questions below and provide further explanation. Write your answers in
paragraph form.

a. Give your own understanding about biosocial criminology. (5 points)

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b. Explain in your own words “situational crime prevention”? Give example (5 points)
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Checked by:

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Instructor