WRITING THESES AND

ACADEMIC ARTICLES
A Practical Handbook for Researchers
WRITING THESES AND
ACADEMIC ARTICLES
A Practical Handbook for Researchers

Muhammad Ahsan
Francesca Bocca
Mumtaz Akhter
©Muhammad Ahsan, Francesca Bocca and Mumtaz Akhter

Published by:
International Open University
21 Kanifing Mosque Road,
P.O. Box 2340,
Kanifing South, KMC,
The Gambia.

and
Institute of Education and Research
University of the Punjab
Lahore, PAKISTAN

Co-Publisher:
Dakwah Corner Bookstore (M) Sdn Bhd
7 Jalan Dato Abdul Aziz, Section 14,
46100 Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
www.dakwahbookstore.com.my

Published in January 2018

Printed by:
Print Times & Business Enterprises, Hyderabad, India.
printtimes@gmail.com; +91 99890 22928

Price: US$ 10

ISBN: 978-9983-953-48-0
© All rights are reserved under the Copyright Act. No part of this book may be reproduced and stored in any
form or by any mean, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without the written permission of
authors and publishers.
To Muslim rulers who cannot
see the importance of education
and research for the Ummah
Contents

- A Note from IOU’s Chancellor i

- How to Use this Handbook: A Note from the Authors iii

1. The Origins of Research and the Islamic Faith 1

1.1. The Definition of Research 1
1.2. Research and the Development of Knowledge
in Islamic History 2
1.3. The State of Research in the Contemporary Ummah 3
1.4. Conducting Islamic Research 5
1.5. Research Ethics in Islam 6
1.6. Research Strategy and Exploration of Relevant Sources 7

2. Basics of Research 12
2.1. What is Academic Research? 12
2.2. Thesis: What is Required? 13
2.3. Choosing and Phrasing your Research Topic 13
2.4. Preparation for the Research Proposal 15
2.5. Academic Writing: Main Issues and Challenges 18
2.6. The Art of Critical Writing 18
2.7. Critical Reading and Development of Thesis 19
2.8. Elements of Writing Strategy 20
2.9. How to Improve your Writing Style 21
2.10 Developing Linkage in the Text 23
2.11. Commonly used Command Words 23
2.12. Abbreviations and Words in Foreign Language 25
2.13. Use of Correct Tenses: No Grammatical Mistakes 26
2.14. Numbering of Headings and Sub-headings 27
2.15. Structural Consistency and Continuity 27
3. Constructing the Conceptual Base of a Thesis 29
3.1. What is a Theory? 29
3.2. Theory and Practice 30
3.3. How to Use a Theory or Theories in a Thesis 31
3.4. Application of Theories in Research 32
3.5. Application of Theory / Theories in a Thesis: An Example 33
3.6. Application of Theory / Theories in a Book: An Example 37
3.7. Application of Theory / Theories in a Research Paper:
An Example 44

4. Referencing and Citation 45

4.1. Reporting Verbs 45
4.2. Simplified Rules of Punctuations 47
4.3. Introducing Quotations 48
4.4. Systems of Citation 48
4.5. Bibliographic Comparison: Journal Article 49
4.6. Comparative Overview of Chicago, MLA and APA Citations 50
4.7. Examples of Comparative Overview of Citations 51
4.8. Basic APA Guidelines 55
4.9. Citations and Important Tips in Academic Writing 56
4.10 Commonly used Terms in Research and Reference 56
4.11. Useful Sources for Research and Reference 57
4.12 Common Problems Faced While Writing the Research Paper 58
4.13. Common Weaknesses in the Thesis 58

5. Publishing Your Work 60

5.1. Why Should You Publish Your Work? 60
5.2. Potential Publishing Sources 60
5.3. The Probability of Publishing Your Work 61
5.4. Publishing Your Thesis as a Research Report or a Book 63
5.5 Publishing in Newspapers and Magazines 64
5.6. How and Where to Publish your Research Paper 65
5.7. Structuring your Research Paper for an Academic Journal 66
5.8. Common Issues in Preparation of Research Papers 67
5.9. Checklist for Research Paper 69
5.10 How does Peer Review Work? 70
5.11. Outcome of the Feedback from Reviewers 71
5.12. Qualities of a Good Research Paper 72
5.13. Impact Factor and h-Index 72
5.14. Useful Tips to Enhance Publishing Skills 73
5.15. Understanding the Publishing Rights and Contracts 73
5.16. Research Misconduct 74

6. Publishing Your Thesis as a Book 75

6.1. Conversion of a Thesis into a Book 75
6.2. Basic Difference between a Book and Thesis 76
6.3. Extent of Changes in Converting a Thesis into a Book 77
6.4. Challenges of Converting a Thesis into a Book 77
6.5. Types of Redundancies Required in during Conversion 78
6.6. Removal of Undigested Work 79
6.7. Post-Removal Stage 82
6.8. The Size of a Book does Matter 83
6.9. The Opening of a Book 83
6.10. Creation of an Index 84
6.11. Writing Your Book Proposal and Having it Evaluated by the Publisher 85
6.12. Submission of the Manuscript 86
6.13. When Manuscript is in the Hands of Editor/Publisher 86
6.14. When Your Book is Published 87
6.15. Useful Sources of Information for Authors 88

- Appendixes 89
1. Theories of Learning 89
2. Barriers and Bridges between the Ummah and the West 114
 i

A Note from IOU’s Chancellor

Since the second half of the 20th century, the Third World in general, and the Muslim World,
in particular, have been struggling to catch up with the West, trying to maintain satisfactory
progress in the higher education sector. Due to the shortage of advanced institutions in the
Third World countries, outstanding students and leading academics of the underdeveloped
world have flocked to the West for brighter futures. The subsequent “brain-drain” has
threatened to stifle economic development and leave these countries eternally dependent
on Western nations for technological advancements. In response to this challenge, most Third
World countries boldly have embarked on a course establishing thousands of institutions of
higher learning in most if not all the major fields of learning. This course of action, to a degree,
stemmed the tide of migration and helped the countries of the underdeveloped world develop
their resources without overdependence on the West. Local graduates have begun to pour out
of these institutions into leading positions in the workplace to take up many of the jobs which
were previously only held by Western expatriates.

However, it is important to note that in spite of various encouraging signs in the higher education
sector, the Muslim Ummah and the Third World, in general, is far behind in the field of academic
research. Even general research papers, MA and PhD theses being produced by Muslim scholars
globally are not of the high quality that they should be. Only those from the Third World who
continue to emigrate to the West manage, with few exceptions, to produce outstanding research
papers and become leading experts in their various chosen fields of specialisation.

The International Open University (IOU) therefore aims to provide global access to quality
education for students at virtually no cost. Its mission is to change the Muslim nation and through
accessible education for all. No student will be prevented from studying at the IOU regardless
of his or her religious, ethnic or social background. The IOU affirms that its doors will remain
open for all, irrespective of the borders existing in the real world. It has already spawned a global
community of over 180,000 students who seek knowledge from all countries of the world.

It is noteworthy that over the years, a number of useful books have been written on many issues
relating to producing good quality theses and research papers. However, it is a major challenge for
young Muslim researchers spread all over the world to access those books. Therefore, there is a
need to produce a comprehensive handbook addressing the major challenges relating to academic
research. I am pleased to say that the present handbook which is jointly published by International
 ii

Open University and the Institute of Education and Research, University of the Punjab (Pakistan), is
an attempt to fulfil the requirements of our students. I am particularly thankful to Dr Muhammad
Ahsan, Dr Francesca Bocca and Dr Mumtaz Akhtar for this work. I pray that Allah Subhanahu wa
Ta’ala bless them and hope that their work will benefit a large number of young researchers across
the world.

Dr Bilal Philips
Founder and Chancellor
International Open University
 iii

How to Use This Handbook

A Note from the Authors

In his note, Dr. Bilal Philips (Chancellor of the International Open University) highlighted at least
three main points, i.e.: i) the Muslim world has improved concerning its higher education but still,
there is a long way to go to achieve the desired goals, ii) due to limited institutions of higher learning
in Muslim countries, many leading academics have flocked to the West to obtain graduate degrees
and conduct research in various disciplines, and, iii) there is a need to produce a comprehensive
handbook addressing all major challenges faced by IOU’s young researchers around the world.
There exists a gap between supply and demand in this area. The present document, therefore, can
be considered an attempt to bridge this gap.

During the past few decades, we have been involved in a variety of academic activities relating to
research, teaching and training. Over the years, we have delivered numerous lectures and online
training at several universities. This has been a good experience in helping us to gain an insight
into the problems faced by Muslim researchers, particularly MA, MPhil and PhD students. Many
students do not have adequate access to relevant books or other resources and have requested a
comprehensive guidebook that would discuss and address the major challenges they face when
they are engaged in research. We, therefore, wanted to produce a unique guidebook, one that is
different from other books in the market.

Unlike other books, this handbook provides information in the form of points and sub-points. This
method is used to make you feel that you are not reading an ordinary book; rather, that the issues
that you actually encounter in the course of your research are actually being addressed here,
point by point. Examples of such issues are basic challenges and research techniques, referencing
and quotation, application of theories in academic research, some important tips with regard to
improving the quality of your work, producing research papers, and after the completion of your
thesis, how to convert it into a book.

This handbook is designed to give you techniques for conducting research and to increase
your overall understanding of academic research. We do not claim that this brief document
covers everything in this field; rather, it is aimed at helping you with your coursework. It is
presented as an independent and self-contained handbook, and is designed for users familiar
with academic research.
 iv

While chapter one provides an Islamic reflection on research, the upcoming chapters
are particularly focused on issues related to theses and research papers. At the end, the purpose
of Appendix One (Theories of Learning) is to give students an insight of various theories and
their possible application in research. Similarly, Appendix Two (Barriers and Bridges between the
Ummah and the West) is a sample research paper aiming to give students a better understanding
of the features of an academic document.

We are indebted to Shaykh Bilal Philip (Chancellor of IOU) and Shaykh Sameer Khan Vice Chancellor,
IOU for their continued support and valuable comments on an earlier draft of this document. We
are also thankful to Sr. Rasheedah who assisted us with editing this book and to several other
scholars who helped in this project in various capacities. We pray to Allah SWT that He make you
successful in your research and in your future endeavours.

Dr Muhammad Ahsan (FRSA)

Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic)
Professor of International Political Economy
International Open University, Gambia.

Dr Francesca Bocca
Professor: Department of Psychology
Member: University Research Committee
International Open University, Gambia.
Professor: Italian Institute for Islamic Studies
(IISI), Italy.

Dr Mumtaz Akhter
Professor of Education
Dean: Faculty of Education
University of the Punjab, Pakistan.
 1

1. The Origins of Research and the Islamic Faith

1.1. The Definition of Research

Before we discuss the roots of research in Islam, it is important to know the meaning of
research. According to French et. al., the word research was derived from the Latin word
circare, which means to ‘go around’ or ‘to seek’. It later came to be used to refer to the
systematic enquiry of any issue.1 McNabb asserts, however, that research means gather,
processing and interpreting data. It also means ‘intelligently and cogently communicating
results in a report that describes what was discovered from the research.’2 According
to the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), ‘research is defined as any form of
disciplined inquiry that aims to contribute to a body of knowledge or theory.’3

Why do we need to do research? The Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary provides
the answer to this question. It says: ‘When you do research, you collect and analyse facts
and information and try to gain new knowledge or new understanding.’4 In essence, the
basic objective of research is the acquisition and expansion of knowledge about a specific
issue. This leads to another question- what is the position of the acquisition of knowledge
in Islam?

According to the Islamic faith, the Quran is the primary source of guidance for Muslims,
and it repeatedly emphasises the importance of acquiring knowledge. There are many
verses in the Quran which refer to three human faculties, i.e., ‘hearing’, ‘seeing’ and
‘thinking’, thus demonstrating the importance of obtaining knowledge (e.g., 16:78; 17:36;
23:78; 32:9, 67:23).5 In fact, in the first verse that was revealed, Allah (Subhanahu wa
Ta’ala) asks man to read: ‘Read in the name of your Lord and Cherisher who created. He
created man out of a clot of concealed blood’ (96:1-2). The same truth is also reiterated
at other places (20: 114; 58: 11). Upon studying the Quran, one can see that Allah directs
humankind to reflect upon natural phenomena such as the creation of the heavens and
the earth, seasonal changes, alternation of day and night and the laws of nature governing
the seas, clouds, winds, the moon and the sun.6

The Quran also asks humankind to think about the factors responsible for the rise and
fall of nations. A human being should study the rising and setting of the sun, the flowing
 2
spring, valleys and mountains, orchids of date palm, vineyards, the bright blue sky
and the ships sailing in the seas. Apart from the Quran, the Prophet Mohammad ()
also conveyed to us the importance of knowledge. In Islam, faith and knowledge are
inextricably interwoven. Some of the sayings of the Prophet () regarding the importance
of knowledge are: ‘Whoever seeks a way to pursue knowledge, Allah will facilitate his
admission to Paradise’ (Muslim). ‘He who goes forth in search of knowledge is considered
as struggling in the cause of Allah until he returns.’ (Tirmithi). ‘It is obligatory on every
Muslim to seek knowledge’ (Ibni-Majah). ‘The angels spread their wings for a student
(Bukhari).7 Because of the impact of Quranic and Prophetic teachings in the medieval
age, Muslims made enormous contributions to the advancement of science, technology
and various fields of the humanities, and for several centuries, their research led to the
creation of treasuries of knowledge.

1.2. Research and the Development of Knowledge in Islamic History

It is impossible in this section to cover all the research conducted by medieval Muslims,
as there are thousands of books containing their research, written in many different
languages. Rather than delve into detail, here our intention is only to present some
reflections on this issue. According to the Islamic faith, Prophet Adam (peace be upon
him) was the first inhabitant on this planet. After being expelled from Jannah, he started
cultivation for his livelihood. He used his full physical and mental energies to improve the
productivity of land. Based on his own research, he discovered that the best soil is blackish
in colour (i.e., rich with organic matters) with a capacity for absorbing water in a way that
it does not get marooned. When he needed pots for cooking and storing food, his wife,
Eve, adapted and modified stones for this purpose. This was, no doubt, a form of research.

In addition to spiritual teaching and training, Prophet Mohammed (), presented us with
a remarkable agricultural model. Madina, the first Islamic State, was mainly an agricultural
state. Due to Prophet Mohammed’s (), research as well as his administrative excellence,
agriculture developed so much in his ten year Madani rule that the Islamic State did not
have to import food grain. Instead, on some occasions the surplus grain was exported.
It is narrated by Hafiz Ibn Kathir in Kanz Al-a’maal that based on his observation and
vision, the Prophet () suggested various methods to promote overall production as well
as the productivity of land. For this purpose, he advised his companions to use manure
and bones in the land to make it rich in organic matters and phosphorus - the essential
nutrients for plants.8

It is noteworthy that the Prophetic research approach was quite flexible and
comprehensive. Throughout his life, he () preferred to discuss issues with his
companions and give due weight to their opinions. Imam Bukhari narrated that the
 3
Prophet () witnessed and approved the practice of increasing the yield of dates by
cross-pollination of date-palms.9 A similar analogy can also be seen in other fields of
life- human health, in particular. There are several books written on Prophetic medicine
which deal with a number of issues related to eating healthy foods, using honey and
herbal cures, and treating a number of diseases, such as, fever, wounds, plagues,
epilepsy, headaches and migraines, narcolepsy, tumours, anxiety and stress, burns, and
eye and heart diseases.10

The Prophetic approach to research continued beyond the time of the Prophet (). In
fact, medieval Muslims were so advanced in pharmacology that for eight centuries, they
not only maintained their supremacy in the medical world but also served as teachers
in European universities. They were the pioneers of artificial insemination of animals.
Research was also conducted in other branches of science. For instance, Muslims
held the distinction of producing sulphuric acid which is now widely used in all major
industries. They manufactured high quality paper which was used for printing works
by leading scholars, writers, and teachers. As in other disciplines, Muslims were the
accomplished masters in ship-building and navigation. In the early Islamic period, the
Muslim naval fleet had 1700 ships. This number increased and played an important role
in the expansion of global trade.

It is an undeniable fact that Muslims made numerous contributions to physical sciences.

By dint of their untiring study and research, they enriched the treasures of knowledge.
Abul Husain invented binoculars. Likewise, the leading Muslim scholar Ibnal Haytham
discovered many truths about the reflection and refraction of light. It is intriguing to
note that the same inventions were recorded in Italy three hundred years later. Muslims
developed many algebraic and trigonometric formulas. They determined the length of
the solar year. Credit is also attributed to the early Muslims for having measured the
equator and radius of the earth. They discovered one thousand years ago that the earth
revolves around the sun. There were centres of higher education and research in all the
major towns, which contributed to scientific and social progress.11

1.3. The State of Research in the Contemporary Ummah12

Cordoba, the capital of Muslim Spain in 756, was known to be the largest and the
most cultured city in Europe. Accomplishments were made over a period of 200 years.
According to Time magazine (Hugh Porter: 24 December 2001),13 ‘in the ninth century,
the library at the monastery of St Gall in Switzerland, which holds only a few hundred
volumes, was said to be the largest in Christian Europe. At the same time, that of Cordoba
contained over 400,000 volumes.’ Similar views were also expressed by Philip Hitti (1968),
an eminent British historian.14 His book entitled History of the Arabs highlights the fact
 4
that Muslims left a deep imprint on learning in medieval Europe which led to a glorious
era of knowledge and civilisation.

The above is the ‘past’, however, and differs greatly from the ‘present’. The present state of
the Muslim World can best be described in the words of AbūSulaymān (1994, 1). ‘Internally
weak, relatively backward, frustrated, conflict-ridden, suffering from internal tensions,
and often controlled and abused by foreign powers. The Muslim World is in a state of
crisis. … In Muslim countries, it is customary to blame external powers and imperialism
for the weakness of the Ummah. Although this may seem to be true, it cannot explain the
internal cause of the ills. These ills put in motion a process of decay that dissipated the
internal powers of the Muslim World. The resultant weakness brought external powers
into the picture, complicating the difficulties.’15

Today, there are 57 Muslim countries which are members of the Organisation of the
Islamic Cooperation (OIC).16 The state of under-development of these countries can best
be judged by the statistics presented by the United Nations. Every year, United Nations
Human Development Programme (UNDP) publishes a global ‘human development report’17
in which it measures the situation of ‘human development’ of all the countries of the
world. Since 1990, when the first human development report was published by the UNDP,
human development has been measured in terms of the ‘human development index’
(HDI). ‘The HDI is a composite of three ingredients: longevity, knowledge and standard
of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth. Knowledge is measured by a
combination of adult literacy (two-third weight) and mean years of schooling (one-third
weight). Standard of living is measured by purchasing power, based on real GDP per capita
adjusted for the local cost of living (purchasing power parity, or PPP).’18 With respect to
the quantitative value of HDI, the report (UNDP, 1994) ranks all countries of the world
and categorises them into: i) high human development countries, ii) medium human
development countries, and, iii) low human development countries.

The contemporary Muslim World faces a number of challenges. According to the Human
Development Report 2007-2008, as many as 40 Muslim countries have a lower value of
HDI than other countries. On the other hand, out of the top-25 HDI countries, none were
Muslim. Even tiny, oil rich Brunei Darussalam, which was the top-HDI Muslim country,
was placed at the 30th position in world ranking though it cannot be considered a true
example of the Muslim World. In the list of 57 high HDI countries, there were only nine
countries from the Muslim World. This was in contrast to the group of low HDI countries,
where half were Muslims. Even within the category of medium HDI countries, several
Muslim countries fall in its lower range.19 This situation reflects that a decade ago Muslim
countries were far behind Non-Muslim countries. Unfortunately, Human Development
Report 2016 reflects that with the passage of time, the situation of Muslim countries has
 5
further deteriorated and the present day Muslim World is facing far more challenges than
a decade ago.20

1.4. Conducting Islamic Research

In order to efficiently conduct Islamic research, it is essential to have sound and thorough
understanding of the Islamic faith, Muslim civilisation and contemporary global affairs.
The researcher, likewise, should have sufficient information and an organized approach
to carry out the research. For instance, if the research is related to the Islamic faith, the
researcher should have enough knowledge of the Quran and Hadith21 -two basic sources of
knowledge in this religion. Additionally, at minimum, a basic understanding of the Arabic
language is also required, as both the Quran and all original books of Hadith are written in
this language. There are those who may argue that in the presence of a large number of
authentic translations of these sources, there may be no need for the attainment of basic
skills in the Arabic language. This argument is baseless and reflects the researcher’s lack
of understanding of issues related to Islam.

To understand the bases of research in Islam, we need to know what Islam means. The
Arabic world ‘Islam’ simply means ‘submission’ and is derived from a word Silm, meaning
‘peace.’ According to Muslim beliefs, ‘Islam is a complete way of life. There is no aspect
of life, such as religion, economy, politics, education, health etc., for which it does not
provide guidance. In the Islamic system, education, research and development are
purposeful activities aiming at: i) socio-economic development with a fair distribution of
benefits, ii) a fair distribution that should bring positive change in society, in order that,
iii) this process of development should be supportive to the spiritual development and
satisfaction of humankind.

As mentioned above, in the Islamic system, the Quran is a primary source of knowledge for
Muslims, and one of the basic and most important characteristics regarding the economic
system is that all means and resources through which human beings earn their livelihood
are divinely created (Quran, 2:117, 7:54, 71:16, 23:18). Thus, it is the obligation of human
beings that they should also explore the ways and means to ensure the security and
development of these resources so that their benefits may be extended to the present as
well as the coming generations. In the Islamic philosophy, the fulfilment of this obligation
is essential for the sustainability of human security. In 1994, UNDP presented the concept
of ‘human security’. It says: ‘For too long, the concept of security has been shaped by the
potential for conflict between states. For too long, security has been equated with the
threats to a country’s borders. For too long, nations have sought arms to protect their
security. For most people today, a feeling of insecurity arises more from worries about
daily life than from the dread of a cataclysmic world event. Job security, income security,
 6
health security, environmental security, security from crime – these are the emerging
concerns of human security all over the world.’22

1.5. Research Ethics in Islam

According to ESRC: ‘Research ethics’ refers to the moral principles guiding research, from
its inception through to completion and publication of results and beyond.’23 Similarly,
Research Ethics Canada says that: ‘[It] is the study of appropriate ethical standards for
research involving humans and the establishment of appropriate governance mechanism
of such research.’24 This source further argues that there are three main objectives of
research ethics, i.e.: i) to protect research participants, ii) to serve the relevant individuals
and society, and, iii) to ensure ethical soundness and confidentiality.25 According to Family
Health International, there are three fundamental principles of human research ethics
which are considered the foundation of all relevant rules and regulations governing research
practices. ‘These principles are respect for: i) persons [involved], ii) beneficence, and, iii)
justice. These principles are considered universal, transcending, geographic, cultural,
economic, legal and political boundaries.’26 University of Sussex asserts that the main
objectives of the establishment of research ethics are: ‘i) safeguarding the interests and
rights of those involved or affected by the research; ii) ensuring legislative requirements on
human rights and data protection have been met; iii) establishing informed consent even
where this is difficult; iv) developing the highest possible standards of research practices
in research design, data collection, storage, analysis, interpretation and reporting; v)
considering the consequences of the work or its misuse for those involved in the study
and other interested parties; and, vi) ensuring appropriate external professional ethical
committee’s approval is granted where relevant.’27

Throughout history, there has been more of a need to apply ethics to medical research
than in the social sciences or other branches of knowledge because medicine deals directly
with human life. Al-Ghazal quotes a Hadith in which Prophet Mohammed () said that:
‘A person who practices the art of healing when he is not acquainted with medicine, will
be responsible for his actions.’28 Al-Ghazal maintains that one of the earliest and most
voluminous books written on medical ethics was entitled Ethics of a Physician (Arabic:
Adab Al-Tabib). The book, which contained 20 chapters, was produced during the 10th
century by Ishaq ibn Ali Ruhawi, a famous Muslim physician. It covered a wide range of
topics, including the faith and morals of a physician, interaction between physician and
patient, dignity and honesty in the medical profession, treatment and precautions, and
examination of physicians for accreditation.29 In another article, Al-Ghazal discusses Al-
Tabari, who was also a famous Muslim physician from the 10th century (d: 970). Similar to
Ruhawi, Al-Tabari also described the medical ethics in his book, entitled The Paradise of
Wisdom (Arabic: Fardous Al-Hikma). Islamic research ethics are firmly grounded in Quran
and Hadith which focus on highlighting Islamic morality.30
 7
In Islam, Muslims are bound to total submission to Allah. This submission ensures success
in this world and the Hereafter. Allah is the ultimate owner of everything, and His creatures
should follow the rules established by Him (Quran: 1:1; 20:6). There are three fundamental
principles of this religion: Tawhid, Khalafah and Akhirah. Tawhid is the central concept of
Islam which means the ‘Oneness of Allah’. According to the Quran (6:165; 7:180; 17:70)
the human being is a unique creation of Allah in that he has been appointed as trustee
or vicegerent on earth. In the Arabic language, this role (or succession) is referred to as
Khilafah and the vicegerent is Khalifah. The primary duty of the Khalifah is to oversee the
affairs of the Ummah. Another important belief in Islam is known as the Akhirah, i.e., the
Day of Judgement’, the day in which we will all be held accountable for all of our sins. The
Khalifah must realize that he will be accountable to Allah for all his sins, whether they be
personal, social or economic.31 Islam has mandated codes of conduct that pertain to all
aspects of life; this includes the medical profession and the social sciences.

1.6. Research Strategy and Exploration of Relevant Sources

There are many types of research, depending on the topic under investigation. For
example, research can be theological, quantitative, or a mixture of both. Research can
also be inter-disciplinary in nature, meaning the research methodology and analysis of
data would be different than that of a purely theological or quantitative research. The
procedure for carrying out research may vary. For example, research conducted on the
‘Economic Functions of the Islamic State’ would be considered interdisciplinary research.

Islamic economics is not an isolated entity; rather it is linked with several other disciplines,
e.g., Islamic theology, Zakat,32 Islamic history, land and business ownership system,
modern economic, fiscal and monitory policies, legal issues and state administrative
system, etc. Therefore, the researcher must have good knowledge in these areas before
starting research on this topic. A research project involving Islamic economics would be
interdisciplinary in nature. Not only would Quran and Hadith be used to undertake the
research but it would also entail looking at a number of current issues.

This type of research raises several questions. For instance, what are the teachings of
the Quran about the Islamic financial and administrative system? How and in what way,
are these teachings supported by the Sunnah?33 Why is interest34 strictly prohibited in
Islam? What alternatives does Islam present? How is it possible to establish a modern-
day economy without interest? How would you establish a viable and efficient taxation
system in a modern Islamic state? Why does Islam suggest a caliphate rather than a
purely secular democratised institution? Who would be qualified to take a leadership
role in an Islamic state? What are the obligations and boundaries of such leadership?
What is the status of private and public enterprises in such a country? What are the
limits of ownership in this country? What would be the foundation of a legal system
 8
in this Islamic state? And, why can we not see an example of a pure Islamic financial
system in any Muslim country today?

These are just a few of the important questions a perspective researcher would face
when undertaking such a research project. By emphasising these issues, our objective
is to highlight the fact that while developing a framework for such research, additional
knowledge and expertise is required. Similarly, access of relevant sources of information
is also equally important. As the Quran is in classical Arabic language, a researcher who
is unfamiliar with this language, would depend upon its translations. Throughout history,
scholars have translated this divine book into all major languages of the world. However,
as every language has its roots embedded in its respective culture, the same is also true
of the Arabic language. Therefore, it can be argued that any translation cannot claim to be
perfect. Every translator translates books in accordance with his/her own linguistic skills
and vision. Therefore, some translations of the same book may be incompatible to each
other. This complicates the situation.

Similarly challenging is the Ahadith. The Quran was compiled in written form in early
Islamic history, but the Ahadith was compiled much later. These Ahadith were memorised
by a large number of companions of the Prophet () and later, through a chain of
narrators, reached the scholars who transcribed them. Depending on the quality of the
source, some Ahadith are considered more valid than others. If one narrator is considered
weak, which can be due to his poor memory or weak personality, then that Hadith would
also be considered weak.

Acquiring sources for Islamic research is not a simple and straightforward process as it
may be in other research areas. One may argue, however, that conducting research of
other religions or cultures can be just as complex. This may or may not be true. It may be
true in the sense that every faith or ethno-cultural based research has its own uniqueness
and thus expertise is required prior to conducting such research. On the other hand, it
may not be as complex because Islam is an all-inclusive faith, covering every aspect of
life, unlike other religions of the world. Islam requires its followers to enter in this system
completely. The Quran says: ‘O you, who believe, enter into Islam completely and whole-
heartedly’ (2:208). It also calls for submission that is spontaneous, and this submission
should be done without any hesitation and resistance against the will of Allah (Quran
4:65). There is nothing ‘secular’ in Islam as every activity of its followers, be it a personal
or social, falls within the spectrum of their faith. For this reason, conducting research of
Islam demands a careful and in-depth understanding of this faith.

International Open University (IOU) is a young institution and is established to provide in-
depth Islamic knowledge to its students. It is the brainchild of Dr Bilal Philips, who wanted
 9
to offer intensive online courses to students all around the world. Over the years, the
IOU has concluded and signed several memorandums of understanding with international
universities and higher education institutions. It has demonstrated its continuous
commitment to spreading knowledge by providing absolutely tuition free certificate and
diploma level courses as well as accredited BA and MA degrees in various fields of study.
One of the main focuses of the IOU is to promote a research culture so that its graduates
could produce high quality research documents to benefit communities across the world.
It has established a large database of reference materials, and the present book is also a
step in this direction.
 10
Notes:

1
Sally French, Frances Reynolds and John Swain (2001), Practical Research: A Guide for Therapists, Oxford: Butterworth
Heinemann, pp. 3-4.

2
David E. McNabb (2004), Research Methods for Political Science: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods, New Delhi:
Prentice Hall of India, p. 3.

3
Economic and Social Research Council (n.d.) Research Ethics Framework, Swindon: Economic and Social Research
Council, p. 7.

4
Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary (1988), ‘Research,’ London: Collins, p. 1231.

5
Q.A. Ahmad, ‘Quranic Insight: Research - In the Pursuit of Knowledge (March 7, 2014),’ Islamic Research, Basis, Goals,
Methodology, <http://www.ifew.com/ insight/ 14038rch/ 14038frm.htm>.

6
See: Muhammad Ahsan (2002), Muslim Heritage and the 21st Century, London: Ta-Ha Publishers, p. 2-4.

7
Ibid.

8
Muhamamd Ahsan and Fatima Munir (2000), Muslim Agriculture in Medieval Age. Rawalpindi: Foundation for Research
on International Environment National Development and Security, pp. 40-41.

9
Muhamamd Ahsan and Fatima Munir, op. cit.

10
Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1997), The Prophetic Medicine, Karachi: Darul-Ishaat,. Also see: Badr Azimabadi, Prophetic
Way of Treatment, New Delhi: Adam Publishers, 1999. Jalal ud Din As-suyuti (1994), The Medicine of the Prophet,
London: Ta-Ha Publishers.

11
Muhammad Ahsan, Muslim Heritage in the 21st Century, op. cit.

The Ummah means global Muslim community. However, for the purpose of simplicity, here the terms Ummah and the
12

Muslim world are used interchangeably.

13
Hugh Porter (December 24, 2001), ‘A History of Islam in Europe,’ Time.

14
Philip K. Hitti (1968), History of the Arabs from the Earliest Times to the Present, London: Macmillan.

AbdulHamid A. AbuSulayman (1994), Towards an Islamic Theory of International Relations - New Directions for
15

Methodology and Though, Herndon: The International Institute of Islamic Thought, p. 1.

16
OIC member countries are: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin, Brunei-Darussalam,
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania,
Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia,
Sudan, Suriname, Syria, Tajikistan, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan and
Yemen.

17
The first Human Development Report 1990 of the UNDP was the brainchild of the late Mahbub ul Haq. The report
argued that: ‘Human development is a process of enlarging people’s choices. The most critical of these wide-ranging
choices are to live a long and healthy life, to be educated and to have access to resources needed for a decent standard
of living. Additional choices include political freedom, guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect’. See: UNDP
(1990), Human Development Report 1990, New York: Oxford University Press.
 11
18
UNDP (1994), Human Development Report 1994, New York: Oxford University Press, p. 91.

19
UNDP (2007), Human Development Report 2007/2008, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 229-232.

20
UNDP (2016), Human Development Report 2016, New York: United Nations Development Programme.

21
In Islamic terminology, Hadith means the sayings of Prophet Mohammed (). In the same context, the action of
Prophet is called Sunnah.

22
UNDP, Human Development Report 1994, op. cit.

23
Economic and Social Research Council (n.d.) Research Ethics Framework, Swindon: Economic and Social Research
Council, p.7.

24
Research Ethics Canada (January 7, 2009), ResearchRthics.ca. <http.www. researchethics.ca>.

25
Ibid.

26
Family Health International (January 27, 2009), Research Ethics Training Manual – Principles of Research Ethics.
<http://www.fhi.org/ training/en/Retc/ s1pg3. htm>.

27
University of Sussex (January 27, 2009). Research Ethics Guidelines, <http:// www. sussex.ac.uk/hums/1-7-5.html>.

28
Sharif Kaf Al-Ghazal (2004), ‘Medical Ethics in Islamic History at Glance,’ Journal of the International Society for the
History of Islamic Medicine, Vol-3, pp. 12-23.

29
Ibid.

30
Majid Fakhry (1994), Ethical Theories in Islam, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1-8.

31
Fazlun Khalid Islam (1998), ‘Ecology and the World Order.’ In H. A. Haleem (ed.) Islam and the Environment, London:
Ta-Ha Publishers, pp. 16-32.

32
One of the five pillars of Islam in which every Muslim is bound to give 2.5 percent of his/her annual savings in charity.

33
Ahadith is the plural of Hadith (saying of Prophet Mohammed ) while Sunan is the plural of Sunnah (i.e., the action
of Prophet).

34
In Islamic terminology, ‘interest’ is called Riba.
 12

2. Basics of Research

2.1. What is Academic Research?

Academic research is a careful and systematic investigation undertaken to discover or
establish facts as well as relationships between various factors. Academic research is
usually based on two main components, i.e., theory and experimentation. Theoretical
explanations are very important, as they establish a cause and effect relationship between
variables aiming at explaining and predicting a specific phenomenon. There are several
types of research, e.g.:

Qualitative Research: is mainly subjective in nature and focuses on exploring social

aspects of human life. It provides insights into a problem and is used to gain an
understanding of underlying reasons, motivations, and opinions.

Quantitative Research: also referred to as empirical research, is mainly objective

research and focuses on evaluating phenomenon to provide measured results. It
entails using measurable data to uncover patterns in research and to formulate facts.

Predictive Research: forecasts the likelihood of a particular issue with respect to place
and time. This type of research usually commences with predicting what will happen,
given baseline information.

Applied Research: focuses on applying research to solve a particular problem. This

would include using knowledge, theories, and methods derived from the research.

Exploratory Research: deals with specific issues with the aim of looking for hypothesis,
ideas or trends, instead of testing them.

o It mainly focuses on issues of which little is known.

o It attempts to clarify the nature of the problem and encourages further research
in that area.

What does Academic Writing Style entail?

o Precise, clear and objective language

 13
o Punctuation and grammar must be correct
o Soft and formal style (not the style used in newspapers, novels, magazines, or
everyday conversation, etc.)
o Logical text and statement(s) based on reasoning

2.2. Thesis: What is Required?

Definition: A thesis is an academic text that presents a new point of view or a new vision
of an old problem. A student that is doing research must think of:
Originality and creativity
How should it be written?

o Look at previous theses

o Determine style and strategy

o Follow institutional guidelines

 Your target audience: examiners, future thesis students, researchers on your topic of
expertise

 Arguments, analysis & outcome must be consistent, compatible and interwoven.

 Your Introduction and Objectives: What are you going to do and why?

 Your Materials and Methods: How will you do it?

 Your Observations and Results: What did you find?

 Your Discussion: What do your results mean to you and why?

 Your Conclusion: What is the new knowledge added by your work and what are its
benefits?

 Time management: How will you manage your time?

2.3. Choosing and Phrasing your Research Topic

How to select a topic?

o Read different sources to acquire an understanding the central ideas of your area
of research
 14
o Write down the ins and outs of your ideas

o You should make sure that you choose a topic that you are comfortable with.

o Think about what you have done so far.

o How do you feel about what you have read?

o Is your understanding thorough or superficial?

o Do you agree or disagree with other authors, and why?

o What questions still need to be answered?

When selecting your topic, ask yourself:

o Management: How will you manage your time when engaging in this research?

o Keenness: Can you speak about it with enthusiasm and insight?

o Earlier work: What research has been done in this or other similar areas?

o Originality: What new thing(s) will you add to the already existing body of
knowledge?

 When narrowing down your topic, ask yourself:

o What does the outside world know or what would they like to know about this
subject?

o What elements are most important and most relevant to your topic?

o Am I capable of undertaking this research project? Will I be able to complete this

project within the specified time frame?

When phrasing your topic…

o Remember to use appropriate wording for your intended audience

o Be specific

o Giving analytical reflections

o Narrow it down

Identify the popular topics in your subject area:

o Gather as much information as you can

o Read critically and purposefully

 15
o Analyse processes and problems to justify your case

o Relate relevant theory to specific examples

o Make a creative (original) contribution to the subject

o Structure the material logically, express it clearly and present it in the

required format

2.4. Preparation for the Research Proposal

There are many issues related to the preparation for the research proposal. An
adequate understanding of such issues will help to prepare a good quality research
proposal for a thesis.

Topic question

A topic question asks an important and relevant question about your topic that you
answer in your text.
Why is a topic question important?
o A topic question leads directly to your thesis statement.
What is a ‘good’ topic question?
o A good topic question asks important and relevant questions.
o A good topic question is an open-ended question that allows for more than one
possible answers.
o A good topic question can be answered in the time and space available.
How do you identify a good topic question?
o Do some brain-storming and write down as many questions as possible.
o Ask ‘big picture questions’ about your topic: Who? What? When? Where? Why?
How? How much?
o At this point, you need only to identify possible topic questions; you do not need
to answer them.
 Evaluate your topic question using the following questions as a guideline:
o Is your topic question too narrow in scope? [If it is too narrow or you cannot find
information about that topic, then you need to broaden your question].
 16
o Is your topic question too broad in scope? [Then you need to narrow down its
circle].
o Do you have the resources necessary to answer your topic question? [Resources
might include access to bibliographical sources, linguistic abilities if you need to
work on foreign language literature or methodological and statistical competence
if your question is experimental].

Thesis statement

 A thesis statement details the logical steps needed to answer to your topic question.

 The thesis statement presents your judgment or opinion about an issue.

 A good thesis statement is short and simple - no more than one paragraph long.

 A good thesis statement is limited to one main idea about your topic.

What is evidence?

 Evidence consists of facts, other authors’ theories, illustrations, and/or clarifying

examples that support your thesis statement.

 Each item of evidence must lend support to your thesis statement.

 It also must be related in some way to your topic question.

How do you organise evidence?

 Evidence should be organised into paragraphs.

 A paragraph should contain one important idea that supports your argument.

 That idea in turn, is supported by specific facts.

Remember:

o The topic sentence is a general statement, or argument that you intend to prove
in the body of the paragraph.

o Your evidence is contained in the body of the paragraph and it must support both
your topic sentence and your overall argument.

o When organising your evidence within the paragraph, start with the most general
statement and conclude with the most specific facts.
 17
What is reasoning?

Reasoning is the way in which we try to organise various facts, opinions, and experiences
that we deal with every day.

Key points in writing a research proposal

 Plan carefully.

 Be courageous and put your ideas on paper.

 Use bullet points or draw a mind map of the content.

 Be confident and highlight the background and importance of your research topic
(that is your Introduction).

 The proposal must be original and reflect your thinking.

 It must clearly highlight what do you want to achieve and why it is important for you.

 It must clearly mention what has already been done in that area.

 It must reflect innovativeness and technical soundness.

 It must clearly state the problem, objectives, research questions and/or hypotheses,
conceptual base of the research and the methodology to be used for the research
project.

 Select strong references (that is your Review of Literature).

 The proposal must reflect the importance of the expected outcome of the respective
project.

 It must describe how your findings will contribute to the existing body of knowledge
(that is your Conclusion and Recommendations).

 Common reasons of rejection of research proposals:

o Vague and unclear aims and objectives.

o Overall plan is ambiguous or too ambitious.

o Mismatch between the approach being adopted and the issues to be addressed.

o The research topic is of insufficient importance.

o The researcher seems to have insufficient background knowledge.

 18

2.5. Academic Writing: Main Issues and Challenges

 Language:

o Be straightforward.

o Be impersonal (i.e., do not use ‘I’ and ‘we’, unless you are discussing the results
of your own specific work, e.g.: ‘we observed a correlation between ... and ...’).

o Be cautious (i.e., the statement should be clearly provable from the evidence you
brought, and not an absolute judgement lacking proof)

o Don’t start sentences with linking words, e.g., such, but, and, or, yet ...

 Provide definitions:

o Include explanations of technical or unusual terms, unless you expect your reader
/ examiner to know them.

o This can be done in footnotes / endnotes, or in a dedicated appendix.

 Be concise and to the point:

o For example: Use ‘now’ or ‘currently’ instead of phrases like ‘at the time of writing’
or ‘at this point in time’.

o Don’t make generalisations, e.g., ‘Everyone says that there are more accidents in fog’.

 Pay attention to the structure of the thesis, paragraph style (use block or indent style,
but not the mixture of both).

 Figures and words:

o Do not use digits for nine or less than nine – write in words.

o Use digits when the figure is 10 or more than 10.

2.6. The Art of Critical Writing

Critical reading is the basis for critical writing; therefore, you need to focus on the following:

What is the main theme (or argument) in the material?

What main points are used to justify or support this theme?

 19
What explanation or evidence is used to support the main points?

Does the evidence seem well researched and accurate?

Which aspects of the topic have been mainly focused or omitted?

How do the contents relate to your topic?

On the basis of the above, try to focus on:

o Introducing the point that you want to make.

o Making the point with supporting evidence.

o Reflecting critically on the point.

o Justifying why the reader should be convinced of what you have written.

o Telling the reader about the new contribution you have added in the existing body
of knowledge.

2.7. Critical Reading and Development of Thesis

An important and simple prescription for making progress in your thesis:

 Critical reading leads to the preparation of the contents of your thesis (i.e., chapters,
headings, sub-headings, points and sub-points, etc.).

 Thus, think critically and make the contents of your thesis.

 For each chapter, create a separate text file in your computer.

 Whatever you read, continue to put that material into relevant headings / sub-
headings.

 You can alter the contents as you progress in your reading.

 When you have enough material / references, start writing the parts of your thesis
that you are most comfortable with.

 It is not always necessary to start from the Introduction – most researchers start
writing the Review of Literature or Methodology.

 Go with what interests you. Start your writing there and then keep building up.

 Move about in your writing by completing various sections as you think of them.
 20
 Spread out the sections that you have written.

 Organise them in the best order. Then see what is missing.

2.8. Elements of Writing Strategy

How to plan your writing strategy:

 The Introduction:

o The purpose of the introduction is to attract your readers’ interest and to lead
them to the issue that you are going to discuss and analyse in your thesis.

o A good introduction shows your readers that you will not bore them.

o An introduction should not leave out any major theory, idea or influence that you
are going to develop in your thesis.

 The Thesis Paragraph:

o The thesis paragraph is not easy to write because it requires fitting a considerable
amount of information into a relatively small space.

o Although there is no shortcut to writing a good thesis, the following points can
make the writing process a little easier.

- The thesis paragraph should include an introduction, a thesis statement, and

a brief description of the points that will be discussed.

- A detailed thesis paragraph may also include a discussion of the importance

of your topic.

- Introductory paragraphs may also contain information on the background of

the topic.

- Likewise, introductory paragraphs may also contain a response to any

anticipated oppositions to your thesis.

 The Discussion:

o The purpose of the discussion (i.e., the body of your thesis or research paper) is
to prove to your examiners or evaluators / readers that your judgement is correct.

o Here you present a series of points (or paragraphs / chapters) that support your
thesis statement.
 21
 Conclusion:

o The purpose of the conclusion is to summarise the main points made in the
discussion and to assert that these points prove your thesis statement.

o The conclusion should not give your examiners a sense of total completion; rather
it should provide avenues for further research in that area.

2.9. How to Improve Your Writing Style

To improve your writing, you need to keep in mind the following points.

 Paragraph Structure: A paragraph is a short argument that supports one main idea
about your topic.
 There are four types of sentences that make up a paragraph:
o The topic sentence is a general statement, or argument, that you intend to prove
in the body of the paragraph.
- It states one main idea about your topic, the idea discussed in the body of the
paragraph.
- Every other sentence in the paragraph must be related and subordinate to
the topic / thesis sentence.
o A supporting sentence backs up the claim made in your topic sentence.
- The paragraph may contain as many supporting sentences as you wish.
o A limiting sentence reduces the scope of the topic sentence in some way.
- There should be only one limiting sentence per paragraph – not too many.
o A transitional sentence links paragraphs with a common idea.
- It is always the last sentence in a direct paragraph.
 There are three basic types of paragraphs:
o In a direct paragraph, the first sentence is a topic sentence.
- The topic sentence is then followed by either a supporting sentence or by a
limiting sentence.
o In a pivoting paragraph, the first sentence is a limiting sentence.
- The limiting sentence is often followed by a supporting sentence, a pivoting
 22
sentence, and, finally, the topic sentence.
- The pivoting sentence turns the paragraph in a new direction.
- Such sentences often include the following words: although, nevertheless,
however, etc.
o In a suspended paragraph, the topic sentence is placed at the end of the paragraph.
- Meanwhile, supporting and/or limiting sentences are used to build the topic
sentence.
- The thesis paragraphs and concluding paragraphs are mostly suspended
paragraphs.
 The order of ideas in a paragraph is important and there are several possible orders,
e.g.:
o General to specific order which involves using a generalisation followed by a
number of specific instances.
o Specific to general.
o Most to least important.
o Most to least assessable.
o Most to least familiar idea.
o Greatest to fewest number.
o Highest to lowest quality (or reliability).
o Largest to smallest size.
o Ordering by number without reference to chronology.
o Ordering by time (or chronology).
 Sentence Structure: A sentence is the expression of an idea about a subject and there
are at least three kinds of sentences.
o A simple sentence is a single independent statement of facts.
- It contains a subject along with a connecting verb.
- A simple sentence is easy to understand and easy to write.
- However, if you only use simple sentences in our writing, it will dramatically
reduce the quality of your work.
 23
o A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences of equal importance
joined by words like ‘and’ and ‘or’.

- When two sentences are joined, usually the first becomes stronger simply
because of its position.

o A complex sentence consists of two or more separate statements joined by words

like ‘but’ or ‘however’.

- It may also contain phrases, and those phrases usually start with words such
as: which, that, I, because, etc.

2.10. Developing Linkage in the Text 

 When adding an argument or emphasising a statement:

o and, also, as well as, moreover, further, furthermore, in addition, additionally,

next, secondly, thirdly, fourthly.

 When making comparisons, highlighting similarities or differences:

o similarly, likewise, in the same way, equally, although, however, yet, conversely,
on the contrary, otherwise, but, even so, despite, notwithstanding.

 When providing reasons and/or explaining results:

o for this reason, to this end, for this purpose, because, since, so that, as, so, as
a consequence, as a result, hence, therefore, thus, inevitably, for example, for
instance, by way of illustration, such as, this demonstrates.

 When drawing conclusions:

o as has been noted, finally, in brief, in short, to summarise, consequently, so,

therefore, in conclusion, accordingly, it reflects.

2.11. Commonly used Command Words

There are several command words used in academic writing. For instance:

 Account for: Explain, clarify, give reasons for ...

 Analyse: Examines critically and minutely, point by point

 24
 Argument: A concrete point / statement (proposition) based on evidence and
reasoning

 Assess: Determining the value of, or weighing up

 Compare: Looking for similarities and differences, which may lead to preference,
justification and/or conclusion

 Contrast: Highlighting the sharp difference(s)

 Compare and contrast: Finding some points of common ground between (A) and (B),
and also indicating where and how they differ

 Critical thinking: An important academic line of thought involving questioning and

analytical probing

 Criticise: Making a judgement based on evidence and / or reasoning

 Define: Stating the exact meaning of a word or phrase

 Describe: Giving a detailed account of respective issue

 Discuss: Giving two sides of the issue with possible implications

 Distinguish or differentiate: Looking for differences between two or more issues

 Empirical Data: Information based on experiment or trial

 Evaluate: Making an appraisal of the validity of the issue

 Examine the argument: Exploring various dimensions of the respective argument

 Explain: Providing details on the respective issue

 Exposition: Explanatory / descriptive writing

 Hierarchy of points: A logical grouping and ranking of points in the perspective of your
research strategy

 How far: To what extent

 Illustrate: Making clear with examples

 Justify: Providing a solid base for a specific outcome

 Outline: Presenting only the main points of a topic

 Plagiarism: Representing someone else’s thought or wording as your own

 25
 Primary research: Original research

 Proposition: The main idea or theory on which your argument(s) are based

 Secondary research: Researching on known information

 State: Presenting in a brief and clear way

 Summarise: Brief but comprehensive statement (see also ‘Outline’)

 Thesis essay: A research which is either based on an original proposition / theory or

on your own theory

 Thesis proposal: A proposal that explains your thesis

2.12. Abbreviations and Words in Foreign Languages

Similar to command words, there are several abbreviations and words from foreign
languages commonly used in academic writing. For instance:

 cf. (confer): Compare

 ch., chs., (or chap. / chaps.): Chapter(s)

 ed., eds.: Editor(s)

 edn.: Edition

 e.g. (exempli gratia): ‘for example’ [not to be confused with, i.e.,]

 et. al. (et alii): ‘and other’ [used for multiple authors]

 et. seq. (et sequens): ‘and the following’ [e.g., pp. 14-23, et seq.]

 ff. (folio/folium): same as et seq. [e.g., pp. 14-23, et seq.]

 Ibid. (ibidem): ‘in the same work’, cited above

 i.e. (id est): ‘that is / are’, ‘which is / are’

 loc. cit. (loco citato): ‘in the same place’ [as the previous passage]

 n., nn.: note(s) [e.g., as in ‘p.4, n.2’]

 n.d.: No date
 26
 op. cit. (opere citato): ‘in the work recently cited’ [mostly used in footnotes / endnotes
to avoid re-writing]

 p., pp.: page, pages

 passim [Italic font]: ‘throughout the work’ [not on one page only]

 prima-facie [Italic font]: Apparently; first impression; it appears

 q.v. (quo vide): ‘which see’ [mostly used for cross-referencing]

 sic [Italic font]: Indicates that the previous incorrect word quoted in this sentence, is
from the original source

 supra [Italic font]: Used within the foot / endnote to refer to previous foot/endnote
[e.g., supra: 33]

 trans. or tr.: Translator

 vis-à-vis: In comparison with; in relation to; with reference to

 vol., vols.: volume(s)

 Note: Always use {,} before and after these abbreviations / words.

2.13. Use of Correct Tenses: No Grammatical Mistakes

TENSES Simple Progressive Perfect Perfect Progressive
(continuous) (Perfect Continuous)

is, am, are; shall/will be; has/have been;

Present 1st form 1st form+ing 1st form+ing 1st form+ing

was, were; had; had been;

Past 2 form
nd
1st form+ing 3rd form 1st form+ing

shall, will; shall/will be; shall/will have; shall/will have been;

Future 1st form 1st form+ing 3rd form 1st form+ing
 27
2.14. Numbering of Headings and Sub-headings
 Kinds of Numberings:
o Arabic Numerals [1, 2, 3 or 4 decimal system]
o Roman Numerals [i., ii., iii., iv, ...; or, I., II., III., IV., ...]
o Alphabetical Numerals [a., b., c., ...; or, A., B., C., D., ...]
o Multiple Numerals [1.4.2., a), b), c) ..., i., ii., iii., ...]
 The best option in a thesis is to use multiple numerals
 An Example (Chapter One)
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the Issue
1.2. ‘ Education for All’: A Reality or Slogan?
1.3. What this Study is About?
1.4. Sources of Information
1.4.1. Primary Sources
1.4.2. Secondary Sources...
a) Books
b) Newspapers
i) National
ii) International
1.5. Limitations
1.6. Originality and Significance of the Study

2.15. Structural Consistency and Continuity

Try to maintain structural consistency through signposting
e.g., Chapter Three
3. Political Economy and Social Sector Development
In your first paragraph, describe:
 28
à Main issues discussed in this chapter
à Their links with previous chapter(s)
à Their links with the following chapter(s)
3.1. Socio-Economic Development in Pakistan
3.2. Social Sector Development
3.2.1. Social Action Programme - I
3.2.2. Social Action Programme - II
3.3.3.1. ... ... ...
3.3.3.2. ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
3.7. Concluding Comments
At the end of the chapter, add concluding comments (and / or a diagram if possible),
covering all the main ingredients of the chapter, their links with previous chapter(s)
and their links with following chapter(s).
 29

3. Constructing the Conceptual Base of a Thesis

3.1. What is a Theory?

We all perform Salah. The logic behind Salah is a theory, and your physical performance
of Salah is its empirical dimension. Therefore, in this context, a theory can be defined as:
▪ The analysis of a set of facts in relation to one another.
▪ A credible and logically acceptable principle offered to explain phenomena.
▪ An abstract thought.
Why do we need a theory? A researcher needs a set of assumptions as a starting point for
guidance regarding what he/she does, what needs to be tested by experiment or to serve
as a check on observations and insights.

 Types of theories:

o Problem Solving Theories: These theories see the world ‘as it is’ and advocate
thinking through problems and offering practical advice to policy makers.

o Critical Theories: These theories consist of a critique of society and culture and
advocate positive change.

 Benefits of theories:

o Theories help us to think critically, logically and coherently by sorting various

phenomena into manageable categories so that the appropriate analysis can
be done and, where possible, significant connections and patterns of behaviour
identified.

o It is not possible to avoid theories because the interpretation of ‘reality’ is always

linked with theoretical assumptions of one kind or another.

o The events and issues which comprise any academic discipline can be interpreted
and understood only by reference to a conceptual framework.

o Theories of respective disciplines provide us with a choice of a variety of relevant

frameworks.
 30
o Theories help us make testable predictions that can be proven or disproven
through experimentation.

Note: Please see Appendix – A which presents further details on various theories.

3.2. Theory and Practice

 Theories are embedded in our daily lives.

 Theory and practice are closely related.

 Theories explain the laws of disciplines and patterns of behaviour.

 Theories attempt to explain and predict behaviour.

 Theories are empirical models useful to test hypotheses.

 There are theories about how the world ought to be organised.

 Theories analyse the ways in which various conceptions of global ethics are constructed
(re-constructed) and defended.

 There are theories which reflect the process of theorising itself; they analyse
epistemological claims about how human beings know the world.

 Theories and critique

o The critical analysis of a theory draws upon various strands of socio-political and
philosophical thoughts related to different dimensions of that theory.

o The critical review of a theory entails conducting a careful examination of the

purposes and functions served by that particular theory.

o The purpose of critical analysis of a theory (or theories) is to improve our

understanding about that theory (or theories).

o Critical theory is an examination of society and culture by applying knowledge

from the humanities and the social sciences.

o Contemporary theoretical debates focus on:

- What can be said to exist in that discipline {that is an ontological (theory of

existence) question}.

- How we can understand the world and what is the status of the knowledge
and claims we make about the world {that is an epistemological (nature of
 31
knowledge) question}.
- What methods we should adopt in our study (which is a methodological
question).
 Meta-theory

o Meta-theory deals with the exploration, description, and analysis of a theory

o All theoretical positions make assumptions about:

- Ontology (theory of being).

- Epistemology (theory of knowledge).

- Methodology (theory of methods).

3.3. How to Use a Theory or Theories in a Thesis

Incorporating a theory or a set of theories in a thesis is a challenge for many research
students. We will try to simplify this procedure by using the following example.

Suppose you had an appointment with your professor to seek his advice regarding
concerns you have about your coursework. Your professor then gives you ten different
ways to deal with your concerns. You may consider his suggestions as specific tools or
‘specific theories’ that will assist you with your issues. Now, you may come across four
different types of situations in dealing with your problems.

o Situation One: You may face a problem and think that acting upon advice number
seven is the only solution. This is like application of a single theory in your research.

o Situation Two: Your problem is a bit complicated and no single advice helps
to address the concerns. Rather, you need to act upon two or more than two
suggestions simultaneously. This is similar to the application of multiple theories
in your research.

o Situation Three: The problem may be even more complicated and none of these
suggestions completely solves the problem; rather, one or more pieces of advice
are only partially relevant to the issue. Therefore, in this type of situation, the
best thing to do is to take the relevant part of that advice. Now, along with these
pieces of advice as well as the nature of your problem, you need to fill in the gaps
by yourself. Develop your own guidelines and merge it with the existing relevant
parts of the advice. This is a mixture of theories you will be using in your work.

o Situation Four: There is a probability that none of your professor’s advice is

 32
relevant to your problem. In this case, you have to develop your own solution;
you will need to decide what methodology you will use to address your concerns.
However, by doing so, you must also provide the justification for why you are not
using theory A, B, C, or D.

3.4. Application of Theories in Research

Theories specify relations between various dimensions or characteristics of individuals,
groups, situations, or events, and explain how the parts of a phenomenon are related to
one another. The question of how to use theories in academic research is an important
issue and there are few crucial points in this regard.

 Formulate your key research questions as well as sub-questions (within those bigger
questions), focusing on what are you ultimately trying to achieve.

 Try to provide responses or explanations for your bigger research questions as well as
sub-questions.

 Ask your colleagues to ‘critique’ and point out any assumptions in your response and
think of your need to research any of these assumptions before you proceed with
addressing your research question.

 Think of relevant books or journal articles which could support and help you to
develop your argument.

 Are there any theorists who will refute your arguments? If so, who? Why? How?
When?

 Devise a hypothesis, which is an educated guess - it predicts the relationship between

two or more variables.

o Think of your theory and ask yourself:

- Is the theory logical and coherent?

- Is it in alignment with the available data?

- Does it provide testable claims?

- Have theory-based predictions been tested and supported?

- Has it survived numerous attempts by researchers to identify problems with

it or to falsify it?

- Does it work better than rival theories?

 33
o There is a two-way relationship between theory and research.

- Social theory informs our understanding of issues, which, in turn, assists us in

making research decisions and making sense of the world.

- The experience of doing research and its findings also influences our
theorising.

3.5. Application of Theory / Theories in a Thesis: An Example

In the following pages, we will present three examples of how to use theories in academic
research. Due to limited space, these examples are not discussed in full details.

 Topic: Human Development in Pakistan: Basic Education and International Cooperation

 Abstract:

This study maintains that education is the core component of the overall process
of human development. It is concerned with the analysis of human development
in Pakistan with particular reference to basic education as well as international aid.
The study draws on unpublished records and personal interviews to build an original
approach to tackling the problem of basic education. The theoretical framework
guiding the study and supporting analysis is based mainly on UNDP’s concept of
human development that argues that the provision of personal income is not the
sole goal of a person’s life in society and, therefore, per capita income alone is not
enough to measure human progress. The study argues that international aid can only
play a positive role in educational development if the donors and the recipients make
serious and sustained efforts in this regard. Unfortunately, this does not happen in
Pakistan, particularly due to the inefficiency of the national administrative system,
mismanagement of human and financial capital, high human deprivation, human
insecurity as well as the inconsistency and conditionalities imposed by the donors.
The research shows that this country lags behind in social sector development.
The outcome of this research reflects that human development is an extremely
complex process where various factors are closely interconnected with each other.
In this context, the process of development of basic education cannot be sustained
by ignoring its related factors such as the national politico-economic situation,
educational policies, plans and programmes, and the situation of human security in
Pakistan. The same is also true of international aid. The study argues that a package
of reforms is required to improve the present underdeveloped basic education
sector and, therefore, in the contemporary circumstances, the country needs a long-
term comprehensive human development policy. Due to the prevailing insecurity,
international efforts are also required to promote peace and stability in the region
 34
since this is the prerequisite for the success of any human or basic educational
development activity.

 Objectives

o To investigate the factors affecting human development in the country, exploring,

in particular, the reasons behind human under-development in Pakistan.

o To analyse educational development, with the main emphasis on educational

plans, policies and programmes, financial situation, quality of the national
statistics, role of religion, and major constraints faced by this sector.

o To evaluate the status of international aid in relation to debt burden and the
dependency on foreign economic assistance, major sources of international
aid, conditionalities linked to international aid, the outcome of the international
aid, and, the role of international cooperation in the development of the basic
education sector in the country.

o To suggest measures for improvement.

 Theoretical Foundation

o What is development?

- Concept of ‘human development’ and ‘human development index.’

- Human security, human deprivation, social development, policy, planning,

human and social capital, and governance.

- International development cooperation.

- Politico-religious concepts.

- Basic education and a conceptual structure for human development in Pakistan.

 Concept of Human Development: This research is based mainly on the UNDP’s concept
of human development.

o The concept has a wider spectrum and encircles nearly all main aspects of human
life.

o The World Bank was the first institution to use the term ‘human development.’
In its World Development Report 1980, the Bank says: ‘Human resources
development, here called human development to emphasise that it is an end
as well as a means of economic progress. Human development encompasses
education and training, better health and nutrition, and fertility reduction. … The
case of human development is not only, or even primarily, an economic one. Less
hunger, fewer child deaths and a better chance of primary education are almost
universally accepted as important ends in themselves.’
 35
o In 1990, this concept was refined and adopted by the UNDP. In its first issue
of Human Development Report 1990, UNDP argued: ‘Human development is a
process of enlarging people’s choices. The most critical of these wide-ranging
choices are to live a long and healthy life, to be educated and to have access
to resources needed for a decent standard of living. Additional choices include
political freedom, guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect.’

o While highlighting the link between economic growth and human development,
UNDP emphasised that ‘if the distribution of income is unequal and if social
expenditures are low (Pakistan and Nigeria) or distributed unevenly (Brazil),
human development may not improve much, despite rapid GNP growth.’

 A careful analysis of the World Bank’s and UNDP’s approaches reflects that:

o Both institutions emphasised the importance of human development, which is

the ultimate objective of the overall developmental process.

o However, the World Bank’s main emphasis is on the fulfilment of basic human
needs (which can be considered only a part of human development) while UNDP’s
emphasis is to tackle the problem directly.

o The World Bank also provides some specific guidelines for policy and programme
implementation, while UNDP keeps the options open (i.e., enlarging people’s
choices) on the avenue for longer life, education and income.

o Primarily, although the World Bank’s human development approach is based on

the basic need approach, it incorporates both approaches.

o Another difference between these two approaches can be seen by their proposed
strategies. As mentioned above, the WB’s approach to human development is
more specific, emphasising five points, i.e., income, health, nutrition, education
and fertility, while in case of the UNDP, the spectrum of human development is
much broader.

 It is noteworthy that since 1990, when the first human development report was
published by the UNDP, human development has been measured in terms of ‘human
development index’ (HDI).

o ‘The HDI is a composite of three ingredients: longevity, knowledge and standard of

living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy at birth. Knowledge is measured
by a combination of adult literacy (two-third weight) and mean years of schooling
(one-third weight). Standard of living is measured by purchasing power, based on
real GDP per capita adjusted for the local cost of living (purchasing power parity,
or PPP).’

o ‘The HDI measures only the average national achievement, not how well it is
 36
distributed in a country.’ It lacks the concept of social welfare and thus it presents
only a partial picture.

 There are at least six main components of the concept of human development, i.e.:

o Human security

o Human deprivation

o Social sector development

o Policy and planning

o Human and social capital

o Governance

 There are two other concepts, i.e.:

o International development cooperation.

o Politico-religious approach, which are also associated with the main concept of
human development.

 Although the above concepts can be considered as full-fledged concepts in the

context of the present study, they are interlinked with each other, and without their
incorporation, this research would have remained incomplete.

 When considering the conceptual relationship between various components of

human development and basic education, there are several other important issues.
For instance:

o Why Pakistan’s performance in the human development sector has been poor?

o Was it due to the poor political-economy, inadequate social sector development

and lack of commitment?

o Or, was it insufficient foreign aid and inadequate use of resources that kept the
majority of the country’s population illiterate?

o Were the national educational policies, plans and programmes ill-prepared and
ill-implemented?

o Were the corruption, bad governance, feudalism, high human deprivation and
religious extremism to be blamed for the under-development of basic education
in the country?

o Or, was it human insecurity caused by various internal and external factors which
led the country to the present state of affairs?
 37
 Keeping in view the objectives of this study as well as the above conceptual framework,
the following chapters of the thesis attempted to explore the answers of these and
various other questions.

o Chapter three discusses the situation of Pakistan’s political economy and

social sector development. This discussion is based on the concepts of social
development and structural adjustment.

o In chapter four, international aid and the role of various donors in the development
of basic education is analysed.

o Chapter five is about educational policies and planning, and this chapter is based
on the definitions of policy and planning.

o In chapter six, an attempt is made to analyse major problems in the development

of basic education, including human deprivation, corruption, feudalism and the
religious aspect of education.

o Chapter seven is based on the concept of human security and presents an analysis
of different dimensions of human security.

o The concluding chapter suggests that education, which is one of the most
important ingredients of human development, demands a multi-dimensional
strategy for its development.

3.6. Application of Theory / Theories in a Book: An Example

 Title: Globalisation or Recolonisation? The Muslim World in the 21st Century

 Main focus and chapters:

o Globalisation: Theory and Practice

o What is Globalisation?

o From Colonisation to Globalisation

o The Widening Gap between Rich and Poor

o The State of the Muslim World: Past, Present and Future

 Under-development of the Muslim World

o Another ‘World’: The Muslim World

 38
o How Big is the Muslim World?

o Human Deprivation

o Human Development

o Under-development in the Twenty-first Century

 The Infinite Debt Spiral

o Globalisation of Debt Traps and the Case of the Muslim World

o Debt Burden on the Muslim and the Non-Muslim Worlds

o Debt Burden: A Cross Country Comparison

o Debt Servicing

o International Aid

 The Trade Trap and the Moral Gap

o WTO: The Third Sister

o WTO: Another Challenge for the Developing World

o Who is Taking Advantage of Global Trade?

o Foreign Investment

o Is There a Way Out of This Vicious Circle?

o Islamic Economic Union

 Defence and Human Security

o How much is the World Spending on Defence?

o Uni-polar World

o An Overview of the Arab-Israeli Arms Situation

o Nuclear Issue and the Muslim World

o Human Security

 Western Fundamentalism and Global Politics

o Kashmir and East Timor: When Religion Makes the Difference

 39
o Palestinians: Refuge and Refusal from Water

o Somalia: Destruction of a State

o Sanctions on Iraq: Weapon of Mass Destruction

o Sudan: Another Victim of American Fundamentalism

 Another Cold War: Information Technology and Global Media

o Information Technology: Where does the Muslim World Stand?

o Propaganda and Publicity

o ‘Islamisation’ of International Aid?

o Redrafting the Global Map

o Ignoring the Real Problems and Exaggeration of Secondary Issues

o Islam or ‘Islamophobia’?

 The Twenty-first Century: Prospects for the Muslim World

o Globalisation or Recolonisation?

o The Islamic Approach to Globalisation

o An Agenda for the Twenty-first Century

o A Dream or a Reality?

 Theoretical Foundation: Using the Concept of ‘globalisation’

 Globalisation as a concept refers to:

o The integration and compression of the world

o Its intensification

 Globalisation and ‘international relations’

o The development of the sovereignty of a modern state depends upon the

relationship between the states.

o Globalisation is a process of historical change.

o In modern times, it is defined as the crystallisation of the entire world as a single

place, resulting in the emergence of a global-human condition.
 40
Globalisation / Integration

o Due to the integration of the world, people are now living in a global village.
o Now we are experiencing a situation where people and their cultures are exhibiting
increasingly hybrid characteristics.
o Though historically it is not a new phenomenon, today’s globalisation is different
because of the high rate of integration.
o The internet and media are new forms of connectivity and integration.
o Rapid changes occurred in the 20th and 21st centuries.
o All the above factors have widened the division between those who have and
those who don’t have.
Globalisation: Advantages and Disadvantages
o Dimensions of Globalisation ... East-West difference ...
o ‘Today’s world is divided not by ideology but by technology. … A small part of the
globe, accounting for some 15% of the earth’s population, provides nearly all of
the world’s technology innovations.
o A second part, involving perhaps half of the world’s population is able to adopt
these technologies in production and consumption. The remaining part, covering
around a third of the world’s population, is technologically disconnected, neither
innovating at home nor adopting foreign technologies. (Sachs: 2000).
Globalisation or Global Control?
o So is Sachs (2000) right or wrong?
o He is only partially right, because he has ignored the fact that:
- Technology itself is closely associated with global finance, trade, politics and
culture.
- Western industrial countries control technology, global politics, finance and
global strategic situations.
- They are the ‘draftsmen’ of global maps.
- They are makers and breakers of under-developed countries.
- They are the providers of all sorts of arms.
- They are mainly responsible for the problems in Middle East, South Asia and,
Africa (Chossudovskey: 1998; Armstrong: 2000).
 41
From Colonisation to Globalisation

o Modern European colonisation started in 15th century (still continued ...)

o This process led to the emergence of certain patterns and forces that have re-
moulded the entire world over the last few centuries.

o Underdeveloped countries, especially Muslim countries consist of the bulk of the

earth’s population, as well as the bulk of its miseries and deprivations.

The process of colonisation began immediately after the fall of Granada in Andalucía.

Fall of Granada (1492) - Christopher Columbus (1493)

{Marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile}

o Elimination of Muslim state in Andalucía

o Start of colonisation (Columbus and ...)

Europeans’ attempts to explore new sea routes to India, China and rest of the world.

Portugués explorar - Vasco de Gama (1498).

Dutch, English and French attempts to colonise India {their East India companies}.

Two main factors favoured European expeditions:

o Their governments’ supervision and financing.

o Technological (navigational) / shipbuilding development.

The global expansion of Western Europe between the 1760s and 1870s differed from
the expansion and the colonialism of previous centuries.

o Industrial Revolution (1760s).

o Continued spread of industrialisation in the empire-building countries.

o Shift in the strategy of trade across the colonial world.

Coloniser - {widening technological gap} - colonies

Impact of colonisation: Objectives of ‘Charter Act’ (1813: India) passed by the British
Parliament:

o To teach Christianity and Western culture to the Indians.

o Charles Grant proposed a strategy of ‘silent evolution’ that began by teaching

 42
English to the Indians, then changing their culture and finally their religion.

o In his view: ‘[this evolution] would have great and happy effects upon them
[Indians] and effects honourable and advantageous for us [British]’.

o Lord Macaulay’s ‘Minutes on Education’: ‘We must at present do our best to form
a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern -
a class of persons Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in
morals and in intellect.’

The main objectives of the colonisers were:

o To spread their own culture and

o To secure properly trained public servants who would work obediently for their
colonial master.

From Colonisation to Globalisation: LDCs and Muslim countries perspective:

o ColonisationdecolonisationRe-colonisation= Globalisation

o Former colonisers = Major global players

o Former colonies = under-developed countries in general and Muslim countries

in particular

Most of the current global problems are linked with the direct or indirect interests of
major global players.

A careful and in-depth consideration shows that, depending upon the context, there
are a variety of meanings for catchwords, e.g., terrorism and war on terror, WMD,
democracy, human rights, justice and environmental preservations, etc.

Certain events such as the Gulf War (including its ecological damage, mass-killings,
and ethnic cleansing), collapse of the BCCI, war in Bosnia, and the nuclear issue, all
take on different meanings when seen from this perspective.

Not to mention who was responsible for WW-I, WW-II and nuclear attacks on civilian
populations.

The gap between the have and have nots has been widening during the last two
centuries.

What are the major causes of under-development in the Muslim World?

o Widespread poverty and illiteracy.

o An increase of foreign debt.

 43
o Lack of competence in global trade and foreign investment.

o Regional conflicts and high defence expenditures.

o Internal weaknesses leading to external interference.

o Advanced technology and media are used as efficient tools to control the Muslim
World.

The contemporary process of globalisation is not purely a natural phenomenon;

rather, it is mainly a created entity driven by the major global players through their
agencies, such as the IMF, the World Bank, WTO and the global media, etc.

o The main objective of these organisations and their activities is to control the
entire world, particularly the Muslim World- economically, politically, culturally,
ideologically and militarily.

o Globalisation is not only a matter of interdependence, but also includes elements

of ‘dependence’ where one group of countries is totally reliant on another group.

o It divides countries into two groups, ‘developed’ and ‘developing’, or in other

words, the First World and the Third World.

o In the globalisation process, the position of ‘interdependence’ may be attributed

to the developed world, whereas for the developing world, ‘dependence’ is more
the norm.

o Dependency is a fact of life in the Muslim World, even more so than the ‘developing
Non-Muslim World’.

o However, this is not a simple and straightforward process, as it has an impact on

foreign trade, technology, international politics, media, culture and ideologies.

o New definition of globalisation = Recolonisation: In such a context we must begin

to search for a new definition of globalisation, i.e.:

The world-wide phenomenon, globalisation is a composition of a

series of processes of domination through global political economy,
including international finance and trade, informational technologies,
media, international defence and strategic issues. In other words, it is
a systematised process of making and breaking countries, imposing
new ideologies and programmes of one, or a group of countries, over
others. Within the developing countries, globalisation is the integration
of economies, which promotes economies of scale. In the context of
the ‘developing’ and ‘developed’ worlds, it promotes dependence of
the latter on the former. However, with regard to the Muslim World,
 44
it is characterised by ‘dependence’ as well as the imposition of alien
ideologies. In current global affairs, this whole concept of globalisation
has accelerated the process of dominance by the developed world.

 How is the present process of globalisation different from the process of colonisation?

o During colonisation, colonisers kept themselves in power mainly on the basis of

their military power.

o In the era of globalisation, the same colonisers are once again evident but this
time their hold on power is based mainly on their control of global finance, trade,
politics, media and advancements in science and technology.

o Therefore, despite the fact that the present process of globalisation looks like the
outgrowth of neo-colonialism; in reality it is mainly a process of recolonisation.

3.7. Application of Theory / Theories in a Research Paper: An Example

Please see Appendix - B (a complete research paper).
 45

4. Referencing and Citation

Referencing and citation is an area in research that many students have difficulty with. Though
software is available on the market (e.g., EndNote X7) as well as on the internet (e.g., BibMe), it
is still important that students have a good understanding of this aspect of research. Therefore, in
this chapter, we will cover the following issues:

 Punctuation and quotations.

 Systems of citation.

 A comparative overview.

 Which style should be used?

4.1. Reporting Verbs

During citation, choose suitable ‘reporting verbs’ as these can:
 Strengthen the arguments you are presenting.
 Help the reader to understand why the source is relevant.
 There are different types of reporting verbs, e.g.:
o Neutral Verbs:
- Mumtaz (2009) defines...
- Johnson (1983) states...
- Munir (2012) says...
- Iram (2002, p 8) describes...
o Verbs that draw attention to the author’s viewpoint:
- Jawad (1999) conceded...
- Mariam (1992) disputed...
- Yaqoob (2010) argues...
 46
o Verbs that give information about the author’s work:

- Ibrahim (2008) estimated...

- George (2010) investigated...

- Munir (2002) evaluated...

o Verbs that highlight the author’s viewpoint:

- Zulifqar (2003) predicted...

- Andrews (1988) recognised...

- Umbreen (2000) believes...

o Other useful reporting verbs:

- analyse/analysed

- compares/compared

- comments/commented

- concludes/concluded

- criticises/criticised

- demonstrates/demonstrated

- discusses/discussed

- illustrates/illustrated

- indicates/indicate

- notes/noted

- observes/observed

- points out/pointed out

- reports/reported

- shows/showed

- suggests/suggested
 47
- validates/validated

- verifies/verified

4.2. Punctuation Rules

 Apostrophe {...’}: For possessor/owner (e.g., Ali’s pen / students’ view). For contraction
(e.g., don’t; I’m; It’s; That’s; There’s)

 Square /big brackets [...]: For adding your own words within a quote

 Small brackets /parenthesis (...): Also called round brackets and are used to isolate
specific explanatory information within the sentence

 Capital letters {ABC etc.}: Start sentences; proper nouns, countries and river, etc.

 Colon {:}: Leads from one point to another; introduces lists; introduces long or short
quotes

 Comma {,}: Separates parts of a sentence; separates items in a list of three or more;
separates additional information within a sentence

 Dash {–}: Marks an addition / aside

 Ellipsis {...}: Marks words omitted from a quote

 Exclamation mark {!}: Shows shock; very rarely used in academic writing

 Full stop {.}: Marks the end of a sentence; marks an abbreviation (where the last letter
is ‘not’ the last one)

 Hyphen {-}: Separates / joins prefixes, words, nouns; (e.g., post-doctorate, show-off,
thirty-eight); joins a single letter to a word (e.g., e-mail)

 Italic {Italic}: Used for foreign words, titles of publication, journals, magazines and
newspapers, etc.

 Question mark {?}: Ends a sentence that ask a question

 Quotation marks {‘...’ or “...”}: Single quotation marks (direct quotation); double
quotation marks (quotation within a quotation) (or vice versa)

 Semicolon {;}: Separates two or more clauses of equal importance; separates listed
item (several words)
 48

4.3. Introducing Quotations

 Use the same words as in the original source: In the case of an error in the original
source, add [sic] in square brackets.

 Short quotations: Use single quotation marks ‘...’, e.g., Ibrahim (2001: 23) noted
that ‘the academic research environment in Muslim countries is considerably
underdeveloped.’

 Long quotations: Use indent and single line spacing, but not quotation marks.

 Quotation within a quotation: Use double commas within the single commas
quotation, e.g., ... ‘... “...” ...’.

 Diagrams, graphs or illustrations: Be sure to properly reference your sources

 Quote must make a significant point (and fit well) in the overall discussion.

 Unnecessary words in direct quote: Use … to omit these words.

 Adding words: You can add words in square brackets [...] to clarify your point.

 Quotation from a secondary source: The original author’s name, year and page
number should come first, e.g., Ali (1966, cited in Smith, 2009, p. 11) reported that
‘... ... ...’

4.4. Types of Citation

The format that IOU uses for the Master’s thesis citation is the APA. You should use this
format throughout your thesis: from proposal, to abstract, the thesis body as well as in
your research papers submitted within IOU.

 Chicago Citations (or Turabian): Social Sciences and Humanities

 MLA Citation (Modern Language Association): Humanities
 APA Citation (American Psychological Association): Social Sciences, Education and
Business Studies
 Harvard Citation: Social Sciences and Humanities
 AAA Citation: (American Anthropological Association): Anthropology and Ethnography
 CSE Citation (Council of Science Editors): Biological Sciences
 AMA Citation (American Medical Association): Medical Sciences
 49
 AIP Citation (American Institute of Physics): Physics & other Pure Sciences
 AMS Citation (American Mathematical Society): Mathematics & Computer
 ACS Citation (American Chemical Society): Chemistry
 ALWD Citation (Association of Legal Writing Directors): Legal
 MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association, UK): Humanities

4.5. Bibliographic Comparison: Journal Article

 Chicago:

Lipson, Charles. ‘Why are Some International Agreements Informal?’ International

Organization 45 (Autumn 1991): 495-538.

 APA:

Lipson, C. (1991). Why are some international agreements informal? International

Organization, 45, 495-538.

 ACS:

Lipson, C. Int. Org. 1991, 45, 495.

 50

4.6. Comparative Overview of Chicago, MLA and APA Citations

Item Chicago MLA APA

Footnotes Yes No No

Yes
First full footnote (Method: 1) No No

Method: 1: Short follow-up Yes

footnotes (in Method: 1 No No
Method: 2: Only short foot- as well as in Method
notes 2)

Brief note(s) within the text No Yes Yes

Year of publication within No No Yes

the text

Page number within the text No Yes No

Bibliography No in Method: 1 Yes Yes

Yes in Method: 2 (Work Cited)
 51
4.7. Comparative Overview of Citations

Chicago Citation MLA Citation APA Citation

Quoting a book written by one author

(1) No bibliography Within the text Within the text

(Method: 1)
 
 First full footnote
(Lipson, Reliable 22-23) (Lipson, 2003)
Charles Lipson, Reliable
Partners: How Democracies Or (Lipson, 22-23)  
Have Made a Separate Peace   Or
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2003), 22-23. Or (22-23)  
Short follow-up footnotes (2003)
Lipson, Reliable Partners, 22-
23.

Or

(2) With bibliography Work cited Full note in bibliography

(Method: 2) (Full note in

Short footnotes +
bibliography
Only short footnotes: ... +
 Bibliography: Lipson, Charles.
Reliable Partners: How
Democracies Have Made a
Separate Peace. Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press,
2003.
bibliography)
Lipson, C. (2003).
Lipson, Charles. Reliable Partners: How
Reliable Partners: How Democracies Have
Democracies Have Made a Separate Peace.
Made a Separate Peace. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
Princeton: Princeton UP, University Press.
2003.
 52

Chicago Citation MLA Citation APA Citation

Quoting a CHAPTER in an edited book

First full footnote (Method: Within the text Within the text
1)
 
Robert Keohane, ‘The
Demand for International (Keohane, 55-57) (Keohane, 1983)
Regimes,’ in International
   
Regimes, ed. Stephen
Krasner, 55-67 (Ithaca, NY: Or Or
Cornell University Press,
1983). (followed by...)    
 Short footnotes (55-57) (1983)
(Method: 1)

Robert Keohane, ‘The

Demand for International
Regimes,’ 55-67.

Or

Short footnotes + Full note in work cited Full note in bibliography

bibliography
(Method: 2)
Keohane, Robert. ‘The
Demand for International
Regimes.’ In International
Regimes, edited by Stephen
Krasner, 55-67. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press,
1983.
Keohane, Robert, ‘The
Demand for International
Regimes.’ In International
Regimes, ed. Stephen
Krasner. Ithaca: Cornell
UP, 1983, 55-67.
Keohane, R. (1983). The
Demand for International
Regimes. In S. Krasner
(Ed.) International regimes
(pp. 55-67). Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University Press.
 53

Chicago Citation MLA Citation APA Citation

Quoting a JOURNAL article with multiple authors

First full footnote Within the text Within the text

(Method: 1)

William G. Thomas and (Thomas and Ayers, (Thomas and Ayers,

Edward L. Ayers, ‘An Overview: 1299-307) 2003)
The Differences Slavery
Made - A Close Analysis of    
Two American Communities,’
American Historical Review Or Or
108 (December 2003): 1299-  
307.
(1299-307) (2003)
(followed by...)

Short footnote

Thomas and Ayers, ‘The

Difference Slavery Made,’
1299-307.

Or

Short footnotes + Full note in Work Cited Full note in

Bibliography
(Method: 2)
Thomas, William G. and
Edward L. Ayers. ‘An Overview:
The Differences Slavery
Made - A Close Analysis of
Two American Communities,’
American Historical Review
108 (December 2003): 1299-
307.
Bibliography
Thomas, William G.
and Edward L. Ayers, Thomas, W. G. and
‘An Overview: The Ayers, E.L. (2003).
Differences Slavery An Overview: The
Made - A Close Analysis Differences Slavery
of Two American Made - A Close Analysis
Communities.’ of Two American
American Historical Communities. American
Review 108 (December Historical Review, 108,
2003): 1299-307. 1299-1307.
 54

Chicago Citation MLA Citation APA Citation

Quoting an online journal article

Full first note Within the text Within the text

(Method: 1)

Christopher Smith, ‘Why (Smith, 2004) (Smith, 2004)

Doesn’t the Whole Word Love
Chamber Music?’ American  
Music 19:3 (Autumn 2001):
340-59. [http://links.jstor.org/ Or Or
sici?sici=0734-4302…]. Accessed  
March 15, 2004.
(Smith, ‘Chamber (2004)
(Followed by...) Music’)
 Short footnotes

Smith, ‘Chamber Music,’ 340-59.

Or

Short footnotes + Bibliography Full note in Work Full note in Bibliog-

Cited raphy
(Method: 2)
 
Smith, Christopher. ‘Why Doesn’t Smith, Christopher, Smith, C. (2004). Why
the Whole Word Love Chamber ‘Why Doesn’t the Doesn’t the Whole
Music?’ American Music 19:3 (A Whole Word Love Word Love Chamber
Autumn 2001): 340-59 [http://links. Chamber Music?’ Music? American Mu-
jstor.org/sici?sici=0734-4302…]. American Music sic, 19 (3), 340-359.
Accessed March 15, 2004. 19:3 (Autumn 2001): Retrieved March 15,
340-59. JSTOR 15 2004, from <http://
March 2004 <http:// links.jstor.org/sici?si-
links.jstor.org/sici?si- ci=0734-4302…>.
ci=0734-4302…>.
 55
4.8. Basic APA Guidelines
APA formatting aims at creating a clearly structured, apparently uniform, and easy to
follow thesis. The guidelines included in this section follow the 6th Edition of the APA
Publication Manual.

 Formatting: The text should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper

(8.5’’x11’’ or 21x29.7 cm) with 1’’ (2.54 cm) margins on all sides. You should use a
clear font that is highly readable. APA recommends using 12 pt. Times New Roman
font.

 Note: 1.5-line spacing is acceptable in IOU.

 Every page must include:

o Page header/running head, including the title of the paper in capital letters flush
left. This should not exceed 50 characters

o Page number: flush right

 Major Thesis Sections: Your thesis should include four major sections:

o Title page: It contains the title of your thesis, your name, and the institution you
are affiliated with. It is good practice to include the name of your supervisor as
well.

o Abstract: It begins on a new page and should include the page header (like all
the other pages on your manuscript). Center the word ‘Abstract’ on the first line,
and beginning with the next line, write a concise summary of the key points of
your research. Abstracts should be between 150 and 250 words and just include
the most important information about your thesis, namely your research topic,
research question, methods, results, conclusions and implications of your research
as well as future work related to your findings.

o Main Body: This section includes the bulk of your thesis and should include: the
Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion and Conclusion. Please
discuss the format you will use with your supervisor before beginning.

o References: All references should be listed in APA style. Refer to the comparative
overview to structure your reference list.

 Please note that the guidelines summarized above are just the bare essentials to get
you started writing your thesis. For further details, consult the official APA website:
http://www.apastyle.org/manual/index.aspx
 56

4.9. Citations and Important Tips in Academic Writing

 Always try to use reputed and established sources in your text.

 When citing reference(s), pay attention to idea(s), not to that author(s).

 Always try to make cross-comparisons between various sources.

 The use of reputed sources will improve the quality of your thesis and help in
convincing your audience.

 Correct grammatical and punctuation errors.

 Use the ‘third person’ instead of the ‘first person’.

 Remember the ‘Introduction’ and ‘Conclusion’ are the most difficult parts, so it’s
important to plan carefully.

 Use the writing style that your audience is familiar with.

 Never use strong and offensive words.

 Avoid passing personal judgement.

 Make sure your writing flows smoothly.

 Write your results - not only your figures, tables and statistics.

 Direct your reader towards destination (don’t disclose premature conclusion).

 Forward your draft to your colleagues and experts to get their feedback.

 Read your draft and/or manuscript several times before the final submission.

 Revise it very carefully before submitting it.

 Make sure your bibliography is free of errors.

 Be prepared to make amendments in the event the draft is returned to you.

4.10. Commonly used Terms in Research and Reference

 Anthology: Collections of published / unpublished articles

 Article: A short piece of research

 Blurb: Promotional text on a book jacket or cover

 Caption: A descriptive note on photograph / illustration / diagram

 57
 Clip / Cutting: A piece / cutting of a published work

 Critique: Critical examination / assessment of a work

 Crop: To cut off part(s) of an illustration

 DTP: Desktop publishing; software for designing text

 IRC: International Reply Coupon (sold at post offices would-wide)

 ISBN: International Standard Book Number

 Juvenile: Term commonly used for children’s books

 Manuscript: Final version of typewritten text

 Matter: A manuscript or other material to be printed

 Novel: A long fictional story (over 50,000 words)

 Novella: A short fictional story

 Pseudonym: A pen name

 Publisher’s reader: Person(s) employed by publishers to evaluate manuscripts and

suggest publishing potential

 Readership: Collective term applied to the people who read a particular publication

 Reprint rights: Rights to republish a book, either in its original form or a

different version

 Review copies: Free copies sent before publication to book reviewers and
others experts

 Topic / Thesis sentence: A prominent sentence that covers the theme of respective
paragraph (also called ‘shouting sentence’ in the case of non-academic writing)

 Unsolicited submission: Work sent to an editor or publisher without invitation. This

term is commonly used in the case of book reviews sent to academic journals without
their invitation.

4.11. Useful Sources for Research and Reference

Many books, magazines and other publications are available on various sites, e.g.:

 http://books.google.com/
 http://www.questia.com/Index.jsp
 58
 http://www.archive.org/details/library_of_congress

 http://www.archive.org/iathreads/post-view.php?id=283343

 http://educhoices.org/articles/Online_Libraries_25_Places_to_Read_Free_Books_Online.
html

 http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/search.html

 http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/books.htm

 http://2020ok.com/0.htm

 http://www.getfreeebooks.com/

4.12. Common Challenges Faced While Writing the Research Paper

 Uncertainty with how to do pre-writing

 Lack of confidence in data collection and analysis

 Not knowing how to do the citation properly

 Difficulty knowing how and where to start each chapter.

 Lack of skill with regard to citation and critical analysis.

 Lack of expertise in cross-referencing.

 Difficulty making the concluding chapter reflective of the thesis.

4.13. Common Weaknesses in the Thesis

 Lack of intellectual depth

 Lack of originality

 Lack of critical analysis

 Lack of adequate referencing and cross referencing

 Poor quality and / or bibliography too short

 Lack of interwoven arguments and supporting information

 Language is of poor quality

 59
 Why examiners ask for amendments in theses:

o The structure is not logical

o Lack of consistency and rationality
o Ideas are not well thought out
o General assumptions are made (with no justified ground)
o Unclear sentences and / or paragraphs
o Paragraphs are too long or too short
o Too many grammatical and spelling mistakes
o Ideas and / or sentences are taken from elsewhere
o Too many repetitions
o Some irrelevant information is included.
o Lack of critical analysis
o Qualitatively and / or quantitatively poor bibliography
o Concluding chapter is too weak and unreflective of the overall thesis.
 60

5. Publishing Your Work

5.1. Why Should You Publish Your Work?

If you have written a good thesis, you may want to publish it. Among the benefits of
publishing your work are:
 Academic recognition
 Self-satisfaction
 Advancement in your career
 The possibility of obtaining a scholarship for further research in that area
 The possibility of influencing a particular circle and bringing about a positive change

 Contribution to the existing body of knowledge

5.2. Potential Publishing Sources

 Research papers:

o Journal article
o Conference paper (proceedings)
o Working paper series

o A chapter in a book

 Entries in:

o An encyclopaedia
o A memorial volume

 Books:

o Single and multiple author books

o Edited books (collection of papers)

 61
o Text books

o Specialised books

o Specialised book series

o General books

o General book series

 Monographs

 Research reports

 Departmental reports

5.3. The Probability of Publishing Your Work

 Research Report

o Academic credibility: High

o Economic benefit: None

o Introduction to the academic world: Reasonable

o Q: Institutional interest in this topic? Yes

o Q: Availability of funding? Yes

o You need to make any necessary revisions of your thesis.

o Follow the prescribed publishing style of the respective institution.

 Book

o Academic credibility: High

o Economic benefit: Little

o Introduction to the academic world: Reasonable/high

o Q: Wider academic and public interest in this issue? Yes

o Explore the relevant publisher (national / international)

o Prepare proposal (highlight the wider market)

o Make any necessary revisions of your thesis.

 62
 Research paper: National and international journals

o Academic credibility: Very high

o Economic benefits: None

o Introduction in academic world: Very high

o Economic benefits: None

o Introduction to the academic world: Very high

 Newspaper and magazine articles

o Academic credibility: None

o Economic benefit: None

o General public interest / a current burning issue? Yes

o Identify your target group within the general public

o Identify specific / relevant newspaper(s) and/or magazine(s)

o Approaching the editor

o Abstract: highlight the issue, its importance and relevance to the magazine that
you are publishing in.

o How will the article benefit its readers?

 Self-publishing

o Academic credibility: Very low

o Economic benefits: Very low

o Introduction to the academic world: Very low

o Introduction to the general public: Very low

o Easy and quick to publish

o You need to know how to sell your book.

o The self-publishing process:

- Develop your idea and write your manuscript

- Prepare your business plan

 63
o Q: How would you manage this project, technically and financially? {e.g., hard
copies and / or soft copies?}

- Soft Copies: Websites publishing

- Your own site or others?
- Advantages and disadvantages
o Hard Copies
- Print copies (too expensive)
- Challenges in marketing

5.4. Publishing Your Thesis as a Research Report or a Book

 Possible options for a report:
o Ordinary research report
o Working paper series
o Monograph

Items Research Working Papers Monographs

Report

Size of Medium -> big Small Big

publication

Style of Flexible Fixed / structured Flexible

publication

Target audience Broad Very specific Very broad

Potential ▪▪ Academic ▪▪ Academic

publishing Diverse ▪▪ Research ▪▪ Research
institutions(s) ▪▪ National/Int’l. ▪▪ Book publishers
 64
 Publishing in a book:
o Identify your audience:

- Know the interests of your new audience.

- Review your thesis accordingly.

o New audience means new goals:

- You may need to rephrase your title.

- Try to make it more interesting for a larger audience.

o New Audience with a new story:

- Restructure your thesis and tell a compelling story.

- Reshuffle your review of literature, methodology and statistical interpretation.

- Make the story in a smooth narrative format.

- Trim the Fat: Get rid of some references, statistics, footnotes and appendixes.

o Quest for a suitable potential publisher:

- Look at the respective publisher’s thematic background and credibility.

- Prepare an impressive proposal and contents.

- In your proposal, highlight the broad market spectrum of your proposed book.

- When dealing with publisher(s), negotiate terms and conditions with full
confidence.

- If accepted – wait with patience (as it may take one to two years - or
even more).

5.5. Publishing in Newspapers and Magazines

 First of all, read respective newspaper(s) or magazine(s) prior to your write up.

 Explore the taste of your perspective audiences.

 Breakup your work into few or several logical pieces.

 Change your tables and diagrams into narrations.

 Avoid conceptual, methodological and philosophical aspects.

 65
 Avoid quotations and referencing.

 Remove or merge your foot / endnotes into the main text.

 Also, whether the newspaper / magazine is local, national or international, keep in

mind the following points in your write up.

o What is the link between your essay and respective newspaper / magazine?

o Why should the respective editor consider your essay for publication?

o Is the essay interesting and useful for a majority of readers?

o Does it analyse the issue in a clear and straightforward way?

o Does it also provide future ‘food for thought’?

 Moreover:

o The essay must not be offensive to any segment of public.

o It should promote healthy discussion in community circles.

o It should be optimistic rather than pessimistic.

5.6. How and Where to Publish your Research Paper

(Refereed International Academic Research Journals)

This is very challenging, so you need to work carefully and strategically. To find a journal to
publish your paper in, look at your reference list and think about who will read your work.
Further help can be sought from the following sources.

 Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ).

 Journal Citation Reports.
 Ulrich’s International Periodical Directory.
 Scopus Journal Analyzer.
 IngentaConnect.
 Also, visit the following sites:
o http://journalseek.net/index.htm
o http://www.academicjournals.org/journals.htm
o http://journals.cambridge.org/action/bySubjectArea
 66
o http://www.oxfordjournals.org/
o http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/sublist.asp
o http://www.uk.sagepub.com/journalsIndex.nav
o http://www.informaworld.com
o http://www.ingentaconnect.com
o http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/aboutus/journals.html
o http://www.onlineclasses.org/2009/11/22/100-essential-academic-engines-for-
students-educators/
 Fitting your contribution in their framework
o Read ‘Instructions for Contributor’.
o Read recently published papers (...request a sample copy).
 Strictly follow the specified style of the respective journal
o Overall size and number of words.
o Heading, sub-heading and paragraphing.
o Referencing / citation, footnotes / endnotes, bibliography.
o Instructions / procedure for electronic submission of paper.
o Make sure that:
- Your paper fulfils all the requirements of their prescribed style given in the
latest copy of the journal.
- You have followed required submission procedures (e.g., correct number of
copies, cover sheet, keywords, abstract, etc.)
- You have followed the correct electronic submission procedure, if required.

5.7. Structuring your Research Paper for an Academic Journal

 Abstract:
o Provides the background of the issue, purpose of research and key questions in
the area.
o A brief reflection on strategy adopted.
o Main finding(s) of the research.
 67
 Introduction:

o Core arguments.

o Key questions and relevant issues of the debate.

o Definitions of terms used in the main body.

 Main body:

o Constructing complex arguments.

o Debate on relevant complex theories.

o Evaluation of competing arguments.

o Pulling together all the relevant debates and issues raised in the ‘Introduction’.

 Conclusion:

o Synthesised summary of the key debate.

o Summary of the outcome of the debate and its future implications.

5.8. Common Issues in Preparation of Research Papers

 Many times students ask:

o What are the acceptance / rejection rates for the journals?

o How does its peer review system work?

o How long does it take to publish a research paper?

 We will address these issues, but be aware that:

o You may choose a journal, but it may not choose you.

o In case if you have no luck with the first journal - you should have some alternatives.

 Use of words and terminology:

o Remember the international dimensions of your readership.

o Do not use the terms which are not familiar in other cultures / countries.

 Use of numbers and words:

 68
o Numbers less than 10 should be written in words (except decimal units).

o Numbers greater than 10 should be written in numerals.

o Never start your sentence with numerals.

 Use of sentences:

o Try to use the active voice (e.g., ‘This research has demonstrated…’).

o Try to avoid the passive voice (e.g., ‘It has been demonstrated by this research…’).

 Ask yourself:

o Does my paper convey what I intend it to?

o Have I answered all the research questions?
o Have I made all of the points that are necessary to support my views?
o Is it easy to follow what I have written?
o Are my arguments well made?
o Do my examples and illustrations support my argument/viewpoint?
o Is there anything irrelevant in my writing?

o Do I repeat myself unnecessarily?

 During your revision, keep in mind questions such as: who, what, why, where, when,
and how.

 During your revision and improvement, also consider the following:

o Make sure you have thoroughly addressed the task.

o Stay on topic.

o Check your paper for clarity and coherence (avoid ambiguity).

o Present your ideas in a logical order.

o Use signposts to guide readers through your paper. Some examples of signposts
are ‘the preceding discussion raises some concerns’, ‘the purpose of this study is’,
‘in addition’, ‘for this reason’

o Adopt a style that is appropriate and that communicates well.

o Choose your words carefully. Avoid long-windedness, pomposity, gobbledegook

and clichés.
 69
o Check your punctuation, spelling and grammar.

o Seek the advice of others but be your own worst (and best) critic.

 Before writing, you should do the following:

o Write your objectives.

o Assess your readership.
o Decide what information you will need.
o Prepare your skeletal framework.

o Test and revise your skeletal framework.

5.9. Checklist for Research Paper

Before sending your paper to the journal, ask yourself the following questions:

 Title:
o Does my title summarise the main point of my paper?  

 Abstract:
o Is the significance of my study clear?

o Does my abstract have a clear statement of purpose?

o Is all the information in the abstract consistent with the information in the rest of
the paper?

o Have I stated my main outcome?

 Introduction:

o Have I reviewed the relevant literature in my introduction?

o Is the significance of my study clear?

o Have I stated the purpose of my paper at the end of my introduction?  

 Material and methods:

o Have I described all of my selection criteria?

o Have I described all the methods that I used?

 70
 Results:

o Have I stated the purpose of the study?

o Are the results logically organised?

o Have I presented my findings in one place only?

o Have I omitted any unnecessary interpretation of the data? 

 Discussion:

o Is the answer to the study question buried somewhere within the discussion?

o Have you explained the meaning and significance of your results rather than
merely repeating them?

 Conclusion:

o Is the conclusion reflective of my study?

o Remember the three main parts of conclusion are:

- Summary of the whole work

- Outcome of the research

- Recommendations

5.10. How does the Peer Review Work?

 Open Review:

o Identities of reviewers are known.

o Identity of the author(s) is known.

o Reviewers are acknowledged in the published paper.

o Number of reviewers = usually a panel of reviewers.

 [Single] Blind (Anonymous) Review:

o Identity of the author(s) is known.

o Identity of the reviewers is unknown.

o Number of reviewers = usually two (or more).

 71
 Double-blind Review:

o Identity of the reviewers is unknown.

o Identity of the author(s) is unknown.

o Number of reviewers = usually two (or more).

5.11. Outcome of the Feedback from Reviewers

 Reviewers’ reports sent to editorial committee.

 Editorial committee makes decision to accept or reject the paper.

o If accepted:

- As is (i.e. present format).

- After making minor revisions.

o If rejected:

- Either resubmission after major revisions.

- Rejected with no chance of reconsideration in the future.

 Journals do reject papers quite often because they:

o Are incompatible with the aims and objectives of the journal.

o Do not follow journal guidelines.

o Lack originality.

o Use outdated references.

o Are below the required standard of the journal.

 How should you handle revisions?

o Revise your paper as soon as possible.

o If you disagree with some of the suggested revisions:

- Write a detailed explanation; and also,

- Provide necessary supporting evidence; but ...

- Be prepared for rejections; and also,

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- Be prepared for submission elsewhere.

 Remember: Writing means rewriting.

5.12. Qualities of a Good Research Paper

 State the aims and objectives at the beginning.

 Central theme and main arguments should be made clear in the first part of the paper.

 Provides up-to-date analytical information.

 Analyses current key debates in the subject area.

 Provokes thought and encourages reader(s) to think further in the subject area.

 Enjoyable to read.

5.13. Impact Factor and h-index

 Impact Factor: Journals Impact Factor (JIF) is from Journal Citation Report (JCR); a
product of Thomson ISI (Institute for Scientific Information)

IF = JCR = Quantitative tools for evaluating journals.

A (i.e., number of times articles published in 2014)

IF =
B (i.e., number of articles cited in 2015 + 2016)

It can be found in Library’s e-journals page for JCR

 h-index:

o It is the productivity and impact of an article / author – most cited papers and
number of citations in other publications.

o h-Index can be found on ISI web of knowledge

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5.14. Useful Tips to Enhance Publishing Skills
 Keep a close look at the market and know your target audience.

 Make your submission is error free.

 International audience: Explain how things work in your country and culture.

 Know the aim(s) / theme(s) of your publisher / journal.

 Make the title ‘powerful’ and ‘attractive’.

 Make sure that no important and relevant key issue(s) is left untouched.

 Give the manuscript to a professional editor for further editing.

 Make the cover page of your publication eye catching.

 Keep in mind that the objective of your publication is not commercial; the objective
should be to provoke thoughts in the subject area.

 Keywords: Make your keywords strong and reflective of your work.

 Be prepared to deal with ‘conditional acceptance’ as well as ‘rejection’.

5.15. Understanding the Publishing Rights and Contracts

 Copyrights / Intellectual Property Rights (i.e., right to copy):

o Only you have this right up to 70 years after your demise.

o If you sell your right(s), you will have no right(s) after that.

 Contracts and rights in publishing:

o Author’s and publisher’s obligations.

o Royalty and other specific rights and provisions, etc.

 Rights in co-authorship.

 Electronic publishing (contract and rights).

 © Copyrights protected (in literary work).

 ® Registered trademark (in industrial products).

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 How much text you can copy as a quote:

o Laws are very strict these days - so check the policy of the respective journal or
publisher.

o Usually you can quote two to three lines without permission but you must give
proper reference.

o However, if you are quoting paragraphs as such - you need to get permission from
the original source (e.g., journal, publisher, or author).

 Copyrights: Some laws may vary nationally and internationally.

5.16. Research Misconduct

 Plagiarism: Using others’ work but claiming it as your own:

o Text: Reproducing it in the same or different format.

o Idea(s): Reproducing it as a summarised version.

 Research fraud:

o Falsifying and / or distorting the data.

o Presenting fake results.

 Physical and psychological harms or intimidating someone

 Ethical issues: It is unethical if:

o The research is carried out outside the prescribed boundaries of a respective

institution or university.

o The research violates the prescribed agreement.

o The research violates the rights of the public.

o The research does not abide by the laws of that country.

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6. Publishing Your Thesis as a Book

6.1. Conversion of Thesis into a Book

 Understanding the difference between a book and thesis.

 Removal of undigested material.

 Submission of manuscript.

 Issues and challenges.

 Geo-Anatomy of a Book

o A book is a textual creation giving a:

- Human experience.

- World view.

o A book contributes to:

- Sum of values, views and thoughts.

- Attitudes: (i) Nature of human existence in a specified area, and (ii) also at-
tempts to shapes its view of world.

o Life of a book mainly depends upon its quality and it can be:

- Few generations.

- Centuries.

- Millennia.

o A book is a product of your thoughts.

o Thesis is a natural end of your thought (unpublished) when approved by exam-

ination committee.

o The truth about publishing theses:

- Theses are rarely published as books.

 76
- However, many good books have had their origins in theses.

o Author’s main concerns:

- What is not published may be lost for ever.

- What is published should be widely read and cited.

o Publisher’s main concern: Financial and professional motive.

o Both are not always fully aware of required changes that need to be made in the
thesis before publishing it in the form of a book.

o Many times, both are not much concerned about the author’s intellectual devel-
opment.

6.2. Basic Differences between a Book and a Thesis

Thesis Book

Audience Examiners Academic community

Theme Specific General interest

Structure Rigid Broader and flexible

Tone Formal and purely academic Academic but with wider interest
(worth reading)

Communicative Not necessarily a direct Direct communication


nature communication between the between the reader and
author and reader. author.
Persuasion and engagement

of reader.
Thought provoking.

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6.3. Extent of Changes in Converting a Thesis into a Book
 There may be a great deal to do.

 Or possibly, there might be a little to be done – which in fact depends upon the topic
and the audience.

 What a publisher is looking for in your manuscript (3S)

o Seriousness of the issue

o Straightforwardness
o Skilful language
 Objectives and target group of a book and a thesis

Objectives Target Group

Thesis Book Thesis Book

Earn academic Communicating Examiners Respective academic

recognition thoughts circles
(in particular)

Impress Achieve academic Academics Public

examiners credibility (in general)

Explore and Engage reader - -

display knowledge

6.4. Challenges of Converting a Thesis into a Book

 Personal challenges in the conversion process

o Lack of self-confidence.
o Lack of self-competence.
 78
o Lack of time.
o Lack of peace of mind.
 Conversion as a new wholesale approach.
 Generally, reader is not interested in the author, but in the book.

Thesis (Examiner’s expectation) Book (Reader’s expectation)

More documentation for the examiner is Reader expects more elaboration from the
required. author.

Examiner evaluates the quality and quan- Reader assumes that the author’s sources
tity of sources. are reliable.

Examiner wants to see how well these For a reader, sources should sink beneath
sources are used. the surface.

The reader’s interest shifts from:

Examiner’s interest is in candidate’s  Research to interpretation.
research, which must be based on critical  Statement of others to author’s
analysis. own statement.

Examiner wants sign-posting at each Reader does not want sign-posting at any
stage. stage.

6.5. Types of Mistakes Made during Conversion

 Structural-functional:

o Review of literature which adds too little or nothing at all.

o Review of arguments though not needed.

o Excessive use of non-functional foot / endnotes.

 Informational:

o Too many tables and figures.

o Too many diagrams.

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o Lengthy explanations of diagrams and tables.

o Subsidiary issues explored in detail.

o Sign-posting, e.g.:

- ‘This chapter will deal with the ancient history of Africa. Medieval and mod-
ern history will be discussed in chapter two and three, respectively.’

- ‘In the next section of this chapter, further information will be presented on
this issue.’

- In fact, unlike the thesis, there is no need to remind your reader of what was
discussed in previous chapter(s), or what would be covered in proceeding
chapter(s).

6.6. Removal of Undigested Work

 What is undigested material?
o Too many tables and graphs.
o Over-abundance of foot / endnotes.
o Lengthy bibliography.
o Excessive headings and sub-headings.
o Excessive use of cross-references.
 A book should be more than just a public display of information.
 An author of a book must do the following:
o Chew the material well.
o Digest it.
o Turn it into his / her own product for sale.
o Put him / herself in reader’s skin and imagine.

Removal of undigested tables and graphs

 Tables and graphs are important, but they:

o Interrupt the flow; therefore,

o An excellent reason is required for their retention.

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 Necessary tables:

o Can be summarized up and embedded within the text.

o Lengthy tables can be placed in the appendix.

Reduction of excessive notes, lengthy bibliography, heading and sub-headings

 Types of notes that need to be reduced:

o Foot / end notes.

o Direct and indirect quotations in explanatory and / or foot / end notes.

o Explanatory comments.

o References and cross-references.

o Acknowledgements.

o Appendixes.

 Lengthy bibliography:

o A lengthy bibliography is not required for readers.

o The reader is not interested in a long list of sources.

o The reader is more interested in the subject.

 Examine heading and sub-headings:

o Which heading / sub-heading should stay?

o Which heading / sub-heading should go?

o Remove the numbering of heading /sub-heading.

Removing repetitions

 Negative impact of repetitions:

o It weakens your argument.

o Lowers the quality of the text.

o May make the point ambiguous.

 81
o Gives the impression that the manuscript was not edited properly.

o Creates an inadequate image about the author and publisher.

 How and why do repetitions occur?

o Repeating the same ideas in different words.

o Try to avoid using: ‘In other words’, to start a sentence.

o Most repetitions are unintentional and can easily be eliminated.

Removing excessive quotations

 Negative impact of excessive quotations:

o Looks like padding in the text.

o Gives the impression that the author is using quotations as crutches.

o The reader feels that the author is letting others do his / her work.

o Issues related to copyright and permissions (long quotations) and publishers’ re-
luctance to accept the manuscript.

o In the age of the Internet, lengthy quotations are undesirable, as the information
is just a mouse-click away.

 Before using a quotation, the author should ask him / herself:

o Why should I quote it here?

o To what extent it will strengthen my argument?

 Allowable changes in quotations:

o Initial letter can be changed to a capital or lower case.

o A final punctuation mark can be changed to make the quotation fit the text.

o It is noteworthy that:

- Using a quotation only for the sake of impression or wit is ill-advised.

- Instead of using a full quotation, sometimes you can achieve more by para-
phrasing or by quoting only a few striking words or phrases.
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Too many sources in a thesis and a book

 In a Thesis:

o A thesis is dependent on a large number of relevant sources.

o You agree or disagree with those sources.

o The work of others needs to be acknowledged.

 In a Book:

o Can be interruptive to the flow.

o Makes the book imbalanced.

o Gives the impression that it is others’ work, not the author’s.

o Gives the impression of a haunted house.

o The average reader has no appetite for too many sources.

o The average reader will lose concentration.

o However, a professional may have an interest.

6.7. Post-Removal Stage

 Getting copyright permission for using long quotations, images and graphs, etc.

 Think about how much background information the new readers will need.

 Give this information to your reader as and when required (i.e., right amount at the
right time).

 Before you pick up a pen, read introductions of several scholarly books.

 Start reshaping your manuscript.

 Clarity of communication:

o Author - Publisher (Editor) - Reader.

o Let the meaning choose the word, not vice versa.

o Thoughts lead to deeds and deeds lead to appropriate words = Integrity in the
manuscript.
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 Digestible abstraction, classification and clarification of thoughts rather than their
mere description.

 Rhythm and build-up (striking reader’s mind):

o First and last words of sentences.

o First and last sentences of paragraphs.

o First and last paragraphs of chapters.

o First and last chapters of your manuscript.

6.8. The Size of a Book Does Matter

 Fewer words are stronger.
 In a sentence - no unnecessary words.
 In a paragraph - no unnecessary sentences.
 In a chapter - no unnecessary paragraphs.
 In a book - no unnecessary chapters.
 Fewer words:
o Strengthen the communication.
o Vigorous writing is concise.
o A small voice speaks louder.
o A good thought needs no decoration.
o Pruning is a positive process.
 Ways of shortening a manuscript:
o Outer cuttings: Search for repetitions and unwanted quotations.
o Inner cuttings: Eliminating unwanted words and sentences.

6.9. The Opening of a Book

Apologising in the Opening of a Book

 In contrast to a thesis, never start a book with an apologetic opening, neither in the
‘Preface’ nor in the ‘Introduction’.
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Example: Instead of offering a long apology for choosing this topic, I should like at
the outset to delimit the subject of this book. ... I have also to ignore the important
questions, e.g., ...

 Do not give lengthy reasons and justifications for why you haven’t dealt with certain
issues.

 Don’t be apologetic about whether your book is:

o Merely a descriptive story.

o Or a scholarly piece of research.

 An apologetic opening will cause:

o Misunderstandings in the mind of your readers.

o Devaluing of your book.

o Readers will not be interested in reading it.

o And, remember that... ‘The first impression is the last impression.’

Example: Although, I do not feel that I have covered the full ground that should
have been covered, because of lack of resources, an attempt has been made to
analyse the important aspects of this issue.

 Better to look on the bright side, i.e.:

o Accomplishment of the job.

o Not what is leftover.

 If the document is:

o Good: No need for an apology

o Bad: An apology cannot make it better.

 A book stands on its own.

6.10. Creation of an Index

 Why do you need an index?

o Helps readers to choose what they would like to read (e.g., pointers / locators /
position indicators: page numbers).
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 What should be included in an index?

o Prominent words and phrases relevant to the subject.

o Names of people, places, concepts and events.

 Benefits of an index:

o Selective reading.

o Gives further reflections on issues discussed in the book.

 Limitations of an index:

o Selective reading.

o Additional costs.

 Formation of an index (by Indexing software):

o Select main issues / terms carefully.

o Understand your audience and their dimensions of interest.

o Consider the past, present and future of the main issues.

o Use headings and sub-headings.

 Indexing societies:

o American Society for Indexing.

o Indexing Society of Canada.

o Netherlands Indexers Network.

o Australian and New Zeeland Society of Indexers.

6.11. Writing Your Book Proposal and Having it

Evaluated by the Publisher
 Writing your proposal:

o Make sure your objectives and rationale are stated clearly.

o Use headings for each chapter and write an abstract for each chapter.

o Be aware of a time lag in the publishing process.

 86
o Identify your target market.

o Identify market competition to see how your book can compete with existing
books.

 Evaluation of proposal by your publisher:

o Evaluation by commissioning editor(s).

o Evaluation by independent referees.

o Peer reviews.

o Final decision by editorial board.

6.12. Submission of the Manuscript

 Submission is limited to one publisher - multiple submissions are not allowed.

 Submission procedures:

o Abstract with contents.

o Sample chapter(s).

o Full manuscript (never do that when submitting first time).

o Never submit a soft copy from the outset.

 If the publisher has a favourable query, respond to it professionally and confidently.

 When asked to make revisions:

o Make the required revisions - changes are usually requested.

o Or, if you don’t agree with them -withdraw your manuscript and try another pub-
lishing company.

6.13. When Manuscript is in the Hands of Editor/Publisher

 It is a prolonged relationship:

o Professional and intellectual.

o Considerable intimacy (personal and professional).

o Emotional.
 87
 What do editors / publishers do to your manuscript?

o Intensive reading.

o Evaluate and try to understand the author’s purpose.

o If approved - it will be forward it to reviewers.

o Reviewers will analyse it.

o Seeking the very best book in the market.

 If accepted, they will ask for final / amended version:

o Goes to designer.

o Now the book is neither purely the author’s nor the editor’s.

o It becomes its own; a free-standing entity.

 Cover page:

o Cover page attracts attention and is reflective of what is inside.

o Internal design and page layout.

6.14. When Your Book is Published

 Buy enough copies of your book after it is published.

 Complementary distribution:

o Your close circle and network.

o Academic journals and book reviewers.

 Help your publisher to promote your book (e.g., book reviews).

 Where and how to publish book reviews?

o Academic journals.

o Newspapers, magazines and Amazon (+radio/TV/book festivals).

 Publishing is a tough business with a very low turnout.

 Royalty is always peanuts (unless your book is like Harry Potter).

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 Editors, evaluators and members of editorial boards often work for nothing.

 Dedication, commitment and self-sacrifice are required by everyone.

 And, this is your academic world.

6.15. Useful Sources of Information for Authors

 Various guidebooks for authors.

 Online source:

o AuthorAid.

o Emerald Literati Network.

 Various associations:

o Authors Guild.

o Pakistan Writers Guild.

o Pakistan Medical Writers’ Association.

o International Science Writers Association.

o The National Association of Writers’ Group.

o National Association of Writers in Education.

o National Association of Science Writers.

o National Association of Independent Writers and Editors.

o Education Writers Association.

o National Writers Association.

o Professional Writers Association.

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Appendix -1

Theories of Learning

What is Learning?
 Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills gained through study, instruction
and/or experience.

o Knowledge helps in changing, shaping and controlling behaviour.

o ‘A persisting change in human performance or performance potential … [brought]

about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment’ (Driscoll, 1994).

o ‘The relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behaviour due to

experience’ (Mayer, 1982).

o ‘An enduring change in behaviour or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion,

which results from practice or other forms of experience’ (Shuell, 1986).

Learning Theory

 Learning theory is a package of various theories which includes classical, philosophical,

psychological and management theories, etc.

 Learning theory is a conceptual framework illustrating how a learner absorbs, analyses

and preserves new information and skills.

 Learning is a complex process in which several factors have an effect on comprehensive

understanding of a respective issue(s), e.g., environment, behaviour, emotions and
teaching methods, etc.

Classical Theorists
 Plato (428-347BC)

Plato’s Question: How does an individual learn something new when the topic is brand
 90
new to that person?

o Knowledge is present at birth.

o Humans are born possessing knowledge and the realization of that knowledge is
dependent upon our discovery of that knowledge.

o This is called ‘theory of recollection’ or Platonic Epistemology.

o Learning is a passive process in which information is ironed into the soul over a period
of time.

o There is considerable criticism of this theory; however, it helps us understand the

process of learning.

 John Locke (1632-1714)

o Locke also attempted to answer Plato’s question.

o Presented Blank Slate theory which means that human beings are born with no prior
knowledge.

o But there is ‘something’ present, which is ‘mental powers.’

o This mental power is a biological ability and comes at the time of birth.

o When a baby comes into this world, he/she experiences his/her surroundings.

o These experiences are internalized.

o Later on, all these experiences shape a person’s personality and nature.

Major Theories of Learning

 The term philosophy has been derived from two Greek words: Philos means love, and
Sophia means wisdom (love for knowledge / passion for learning).

 In a literary sense, education owes its origin to the two Latin words: Educare and Educere.
Educare means to nourish, bring up or to raise while Educere is to bring fourth, to draw
out, or to lead out.

 (Educational philosophy = Educational theory)

 Therefore, philosophy is:

o An investigation of causes and laws underlying reality.

o Inquiry into the nature of things based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods.
 91
o A system of values by which one lives.

 Educational philosophy:

o A philosophy about education requires systematic and critical thinking regarding

educational practice.

o Educational philosophy is one important aspect of teacher’s professional knowledge.

o Every teacher has a personal philosophy that shapes his/her way of teaching.

o A teacher’s educational philosophy helps him/her to interpret, find meaning, and

direct the daily work of the classroom.

 Philosophy justifies or explains the reason behind the action.

o Philosophical inquiry helps us understand choices people make.

o Choices are made in a logical, rational manner.

 Areas of philosophical inquiry:

o Metaphysics deals with questions about the nature of reality.

o Epistemology deals with the nature of knowledge.

o Axiology deals with the nature of values.

o Educational philosophy can trace its roots in various schools of thought, e.g., realism,
naturalism, idealism, progressivism, pragmatism, behaviourism, reconstructionism,
existentialism, perennialism and essentialism, etc.

Realism
 Core Feature: The features of the universe exist whether or not a human being is there to
perceive them.

 Realism is also sometimes called objectivism and is concerned with the existence of things.

 Realism is the theory that holds the existence of object is real.

o Aristotle was the leading proponent of realism – he was the first philosopher to
develop a systematic theory of logic.

o Generic Notions: Is it possible to clarify or develop ideas only through studying the
material world?

o Matter is real and is independent of ideas.

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o Aristotle’s systematic theory of logic:

- Begin with empirical research, speculate or use dialectic reasoning, and conclude
in a deductive reasoning / logic.

- A syllogism is a system of logic that consists of three parts:

(a) A major premise

(b) A minor premise

(c) A conclusion

- For a syllogism to work, all the parts must be correct.

 Philosophers’ concerns:

o What is the good life?

o What is the importance of reason?

o Moderation in all things - balance in leading one’s life: reason is the instrument that
helps individuals achieve balance and moderation.

 Neo-Thomism: Aquinas influenced pagan ideas and Christian beliefs - reason is the means
of ascertaining or understanding truth - God could be understood through reasoning
based on the material world - no conflict between science and religion.

 Modern Realists:

o Francis Bacon (1561-1626) developed the notion of induction - the scientific method
based on Aristotle – he developed a method starting with observations, culminating
in generalisation, followed by testing and verifying.

o John Locke (1632-1704) and tabula rasa: Things known from experience - ordered
sense data and then reflected on them.

Note: Tabula Rasa refers to epistemological idea that individuals are born
without built-in mental-content and thus all knowledge comes from
experience or perception.

 Realists’ goals for education:

o Notions of the good life, truth and beauty could be answered through the study of
ideas, using the dialectical method.

o For contemporary realists, the goal of education is to help individuals understand and
apply the principles of science to help solve the problems plaguing the modern world.
 93
o Teachers should be well trained in the basic academic disciplines.

 Main characteristics of Realism:

o Existence of an object is independent of knowledge.

o Qualities are inherent in known objects.

o Knowledge does not affect the object.

o Knowledge of objects is direct.

o Objects are common.

o Strong relation between object and thought.

 Principles of Realism:

o Worldly realities of everyday life are true.

o It does not believe in the existence of any absolute truth.

o It accepts only sensory experiences of the external world as real.

o It looks at the human being as a physical being controlled by rules and laws.

o Real knowledge is obtained by analysis and experiencing sensations.

o It advocates the methods and principles of physical science for acquisition of

knowledge.

 Main contributors to Realism:

o Aristotle (383-322BC)

o John Locke (1690-1781)

o JF Herbart (1776-1841)

o Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

Naturalism
 Naturalism is concerned with the ‘natural self’.

 James Ward (1843-1925): ‘Naturalism is a doctrine that separates nature from God,
subordinates spirit to matter and set up unchangeable laws as supreme.’
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 Naturalism is a distinct philosophy according to which reality and nature are identical and
alleges that beyond the nature there is no reality.

o According to naturalism, ‘material world is the real world.’

o It emphasises ‘matter’ and the ‘real world.’

o It does not believe in sentimentalism, spiritualism and supernaturalism.

o Naturalism believes that nature alone contains the final answer to all philosophical
problems.

 Principals of Naturalism:

o Child-centred education: Education is the natural development of child’s power and

capacities.

o Education should be based on a child’s psychology.

o The role of a teacher should be that of a guide.

 Main characteristics of Naturalism:

o Nature is the ultimate reality.

o No distinction between the mind and body.

o Scientific knowledge and inductive methods.

o Values are inherent in nature.

o A human being is an offspring of nature.

o Senses are the gateway to knowledge.

o Laws of nature are unchangeable and the whole universe is governed by them.

 Naturalism in education:

o Naturalism may be regarded as a revolt against the stereotyped system of education.

o It believes that education should be in strict conformity with the nature of the child.

o The core of naturalistic thought in education:

- Naturalism is against autocratic and intellectual pretension.

- It rejects all authority that interferes with the spontaneous development of

children.
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- Naturalism gives the central position to the child.

- Naturalism gives maximum freedom to the child.

 Main proponents of Naturalism:

o Democritus (460-360BC)

o Epicurus (341-270BC)

o Bacon (1562-1626)

o Comenius (1712-1788)

o Spencer (1820-1903)

Existentialism
 Core Feature: Humanity is not a part of an orderly universe; rather individuals create their
own realities.

 Existentialism is rooted in both idealism and realism, and surfaced in the 1930s as a
reaction to progressivism.

 The main proponents of progressivism were William Bagley (1874-1946), Arthur Bestor
(1879-1944) and Admiral Rickover (1900-1986).

 Existentialists celebrate human existence and are very subjective.

 Existentialists believe in the consciousness of the self.

 They are very concerned with whether students find school to be a satisfying experience.

 Existentialism emphasises meaning within each individual.

 Their main emphasis is on the present.

 Existentialism is an educational philosophy built on a viewpoint in which school curriculum

and instruction should encourage deep personal reflection on one’s identity, commitments,
and choices.

 It focuses on the existence of the individual and his/her responsibility.

 People are responsible for their choices.

 Education’s most important goal is to awaken human consciousness.

 Education should focus on both cognitive and affective dimensions.

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Essentialism
 Core Feature: Children should learn the traditional basic subjects, and these should be
learned thoroughly and rigorously.

 Education entails developing consciousness about the freedom to choose as well as

assuming responsibility for one’s choices.

 It is mainly a European philosophy and became popular after the WW-II.

 According to essentialist philosophy, people are thrust into a number of choice-making

situations.

o A person creates his/her own definition and in doing so makes his/her own essence.

o The essence we create is the product of our choices, which may vary from individual
to individual.

 Essentialism has a conservative view of school curriculums and holds schools responsible
only for instruction that is most needed.

o It emphasises traditional education methods.

o Development of the mind.

o Core curriculum.

o Reality is based in the physical world.

o Teacher-directed learning.

 It is an educational philosophy suggesting that a critical core of knowledge and skills exist
that all people should possess.

o Roots in Idealism and Realism.

o Back to basic movements.

o What is essential can change.

 Main proponents:

o Maxine Greene (1917-2014)

o George Keller (1928-2007)

o Van Cleve Morris (1921-2013)

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Perennialism
 Core Feature: One should teach things that one deems to be of everlasting importance to
people everywhere.

 An educational philosophy that suggests that nature, including human nature, is constant.

 Perennialism is the oldest and the most conservative educational philosophy with its roots
in both Idealism and Realism.

 Perennialism relies on:

o The past.

o Universal knowledge and cherished values of the society.

o An unchanging view of the nature of the universe, human nature, truth, knowledge,
virtue and beauty, etc.

 Educational method:

o Rigorous intellectual curriculum for all students, including classical works.

o Perennialists like to teach time-honoured curricula, including classics such as Plato

and Aristotle.

o They don’t like change.

o Perennialist evaluation methodology:

- Teacher-made tests.

- Standardised tests.

- Memory work (‘mind is a muscle’).

- Spelling bees.

Pragmatism
 Core Feature: It rejects the idea of absolute, unchanging truth, instead asserting that truth
is ‘what works.’

 The term derived from Greek word pragma means action.

 Pragmatism is midway between idealism and naturalism.

 It suggests an emphasis upon practicalities of life.

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 Main characteristics of Pragmatism:

o It is a revolt against traditionalism and absolutism.

o Rejects ultimate values.

- Pragmatism as instrumentalism.

- Pragmatism as experimentalism.

- Pragmatism as humanism.
- Philosophy as theory of education.

- A person creates his/her own values.

- Faith in democracy.

 Basic principles of Pragmatism:

o Truth is not absolute, but changes according to time, ideals and place.

o Work gives us satisfaction, and pleasure is practical and useful.

o Aims and beliefs of life are not certain because truth is changeable.

o Knowledge is the basis of human activity.

o Pragmatism in education:

- It gives a clear-cut concept of education based upon a close relationship between

theory and practice.

- Considers education a social necessity.

- Focuses on progressive education.

- Believes that education is a continuous process.

- The aim of education is to achieve more education.

- Continuous reconstruction of human experience.

- Personal and social adjustments.

 Main proponents:

o John Dewey (1859-1952)

o Williams James (1842-1910)
o William Kilpatrick (1871-1965)
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o Charles Pierce (1839-1914)

Behaviourism
 Behaviourism believes in a science of behaviour that would shape the world into a better
place to live.

 Behaviourism was dominant in the first half of the 20th century.

 Throughout the 1950s and 60s, behaviourism remained influential; since that time, new
theories have replaced the behaviourist theory.

o It argues that behaviour is objective and observable; whereas what goes on in one’s
mind can never really be known or measured (the mind is a ‘black box’).

o To some degree, behaviourists rightfully claim that behaviourism naturally occurs in

the world whether people acknowledge it or not.

o Behaviourism is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on

objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities.

o Behaviour theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new
behaviour.

 What behaviourists believe:

o Behaviourists believe in a science of behaviour.

o They rely heavily on scientific studies of behaviour and how behaviour is influenced
by it.

 What behaviourists would teach?

o Behaviourists are concerned with how people behave as a result of what they know.

o They tend not to be big innovators in curriculum.

o They will, however, give a fair trial to any new curricula that someone might suggest.

 Consequences of Behaviour:

o Positive Reinforcement: A person behaves in a certain way, and it results in a reward;

he/she is then more likely to repeat that behaviour.

o Negative Reinforcement: A person behaves in a certain way that results in the

removal of something unpleasant, and, as a result, he/she is more likely to repeat
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that behaviour.

o Note: In both cases, something happens where he/she sees as ‘good’ and as a result,
he/she exhibits the behaviour more.

Cognitivism
 This is a mid-20th century theory and it looks inside the learner’s head to see what mental
processes have been activated and changed during learning.

 It focuses on inner mental activities and abilities, thinking, memory, problem solving and
exploration.

 Knowledge is viewed as symbolic mental constructs; learning involves how those constructs
are committed to memory.

 Behaviour may change, but only as an indication of what is going on in the learner’s head.

 Cognitivism is based on the argument that the ‘black box’ of the mind should be opened,
and the learner is considered as an information processor.

 The arrival of this theory attempted to replace the theory of behaviourism in 1960s and
according to this theory:

o Learning is measured by what learners know - not necessarily what they do.

o The learner processes symbols and grasps the meaning of these symbols.

o There may or may not be an external behavioural change due to learning.

 Influential factors in learning:

o Active participation.
o Demonstrations.
o Illustrative examples.
o Corrective feedback.
o History, culture, thoughts, beliefs and values are also influential factors in the
learning process.
 Cognitivism is a combination of Gestaltist thinking and behaviourism (Gestaltist is a top-
down theory which means: Knowledge, experience emotions  reader’s intentions 
meanings).

o There is a great deal of ambiguity in the educational literature as to what constitutes

cognitivism, and how it differs from constructivism.
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 Main exponents:

o Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

- Swiss biologist and psychologist

- Renowned for an influential model of child development.

o Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

- Concepts are formed socially and then individually.

- Culture (family, social, environmental) is the prime determinant of an individual’s

development.

- Humans are the only species that creates culture, and every child develops
within that culture.

Social Constructivism
 Social Constructivism is based on the idea that by reflecting on our experiences - we
construct our own understanding of the world we live in.

 The teacher only acts as a facilitator who encourages students to explore within a given
framework.

 Each individual generates his/her own rules and mental models, which he/she uses to
make sense of his/her experiences.

 Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate
new experiences.

 Guiding principles of social constructivism:

o Learning is a search for meaning, thus it should start with the issues around which
students are actively trying to construct meaning.

o Meaning requires understanding ‘wholes’ as well as ‘parts’.

o Parts should be understood in the context of ‘wholes’.

o In order to have successful teaching, a teacher has to understand the mental models
that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support
those models.

o For every individual, the purpose of learning is to construct his/her own meaning, not
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to just memorise the answers.

 Impacts of social constructivism on the learning process:

o Curriculum: Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardised curriculum;

instead, it promotes using curricula customised to the students’ prior knowledge.

o Instruction: Educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new
understanding in students - instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student
responses and encourage students to analyse, interpret, and predict information.

o Assessment: Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardised

testing; instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students
play a larger role in judging their own development.

 Principles of Social Constructivism:

o Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and

interactions.

o Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in

meaningful realistic settings).

o It creates novel and situation-specific understandings by ‘assembling’ knowledge

from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand.

Idealism
 Core Feature: It argues that because the physical world is always changing, ideas are the
only reliable form of reality.

 Socrates and Plato: Idealism was the first systematic philosophy in Western thought -
Socratic method was based on dialogue.

 Philosophers often pose abstract questions that are not easily answered but are concerned
with the search for truth.

o World of matter is in a constant state of flux and senses are not to be trusted as they
continually deceive us.

o Truth is perfect and eternal, but not found in the world of matter - only through
the mind.

o The only constant for Plato was mathematics - unchangeable and eternal.

o Plato’s method of dialogue (i.e., dialectic approach) engaged in systematic and logical
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examination of all points of view - ultimately leading to an agreement and a synthesis
of ideas.

o Plato believed education helped in moving individuals collectively toward achieving

the ‘good.’

o The state should be involved in education, moving brighter students toward abstract
ideas and the less able toward collecting data.

o It should be a gender free tracking system.

o Those who are brighter should rule; others should assume roles to maintain the state.

o The philosopher-king would lead the state to the ‘ultimate good.’

o Evil comes through ignorance - education will lead to the elimination of evil.

 Goal of education:

o Constantly engaged in the search for truth through ideas.

o With truth comes responsibility to enlighten others.

o Education is a process of human transformation, and new ideas have potential to

change human lives.

 The role of a teacher is to analyse and discuss ideas with students so that students can
move to new levels of awareness and so that they can ultimately be transformed.

 The role of the teacher is to bring out what is already in a student’s mind.

 Main characteristics of idealism:

o The universe exists in spirit.

o Mechanical explanation of the universe is inadequate.

o Human being possesses a central position in creation.

o Emphasis on normative and social sciences.

o Emphasis on mental or spiritual aspect of universe.

 Idealism in education:

o An idealist concept of education is something which leads one to the highest moral
conduct and deepest spiritual insight.

o According to idealism, education is a spiritual necessity - not a natural necessity.

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o Education must convert original nature of a person into spiritual nature.

 According to idealism, a teacher should be a:

o Role model.

o Friend, philosopher and guide.

o Perfector of mind.

o Co-worker of God.

o Priest of spiritual heritage.

 Main proponents of idealism:

o Plato (427-347BC)

o St. Augustine (354-430)

o Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

o Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

o Georg Hagel (1770-1831)

o William Harris (1835-1909)

Progressivism
 The progressive education philosophy was established in America from the mid-1920s
through the mid-1950s.

 John Dewey (1859-1952) was the foremost proponent of this philosophy and he argued
that the schools should improve the way of life of citizens through experiencing freedom
and democracy in schools.

 This educational philosophy emphasised curricula that focus on real world problem
solving and individual development.

 It has roots in pragmatism and social constructivism.

 Progressivism is derived from pragmatic philosophy and as a protest against perennialist

thinking in education.

 Progressivism is considered a contemporary reform movement in educational, social and

political affairs.
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 Progressivism in education:

o According to the progressive thought, the skills and tools of learning include problem
solving methods and scientific inquiry.

o Progressivism places emphasis on how to think and not what to think.

o Progressive education focuses on the child as a learner and emphasises learning by

doing.

o It emphasises activities and experiences rather than verbal and literary skills.

o It encourages cooperative group learning activities rather than competitive

individualised lesson learning.

o Progressivism also cultivates cultural relativism that critically appraises and often
rejects traditional value commitments.

 Important points:

o Focuses to educate the ‘whole child’ including his/her physical and emotional
development.

o The student is an active participant in his/her learning.

o Learning by doing is the key approach.

o Promotes active engagement and thinking for themselves.

o However, this philosophy does not favour a routine as many teachers work with
students with disabilities.

o Also, it may not prepare children for state and district-level testing.

Reconstructionism
 Reconstructionist philosophy is based on early socialistic and utopian ideas of the 19th
century.
o It focuses on the idea of constant change and emphasises addressing social questions.
o It is a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
o It focuses on a curriculum that highlights social reform as an aim of education.
o Reconstructionism is a society-centred philosophy.
 The main proponent of this philosophy was Theodore Brameld (1904-87), who is also
considered the creator of this term in 1950.
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o In the 1930s, there were social issues - racial and class discrimination, poverty and
unemployment, which are similar to present day issues.

o Reconstructionism is a crises-oriented philosophy and is appropriate for a troubled

society.

 Reconstructionists seek a curriculum that emphasises cultural pluralism, equality and

futurism.

o It critically examines the cultural heritage of a society as well as an entire civilisation.

o It focuses on sorting out controversial issues.

o It attempts to bring about constructive social change.

o It enlists teachers and students in a definite programme to enhance cultural renewal

and inter-culturalism.

Humanism
 Humanism is a method of beliefs concerned with the needs of people and not with
religious ideas.

 It is a method of doing something or dealing with the problem.

 It is a method of doing something about people’s needs.

 The basic objectives of humanism are to encourage students:

o To be self-directed and independent.

o Take responsibility for their learning.
o Be creative and interested in the arts.

o Be curious about the world around them.

 Five main principles of humanism:

o Self-direction:

- Students can choose what they want to learn.

- The teachers should not interfere with the students’ decision.

- Let the students initiate the activity that they want and then ask teachers simply
to provide information and materials for them to use in their activity.

o Wanting and knowing how to learn:

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- Learning how to learn is more important than acquiring factual knowledge.

- The role of the teacher is to help the students learn.

- Places emphasis on the thinking process

o Self-evaluation:

- Humanistic educators believe that grading systems are irrelevant.

- Students will not achieve their personal satisfaction.

- According to Holt (1964): ‘Comparisons and grades are seen as humiliating the
child.’

o The importance of feelings:

- Humanistic educators believe that both feelings and knowledge are important
to the learning process.

- As teachers, we should be concerned about our students’ feelings.

o Freedom from threat:

- Learning can be easy and meaningful if it takes place in a non-threatening

situation.

- A non-threatening situation is when students feel unstressed and are able to

overcome their pressure.

 Application of Humanism in the class:

o Teacher as a facilitator: Teacher guides the activity which has been done by the
students.

o Enhance critical thinking:

- The whole class will take part in the activity.

- By engaging in critical thinking, students will learn how to express their views
and be able to think deep and beyond.

o Establish privacy files:

- Privacy files are for students to know their levels.

- Files can only be opened by the individual him/herself.

o Fair learning:
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- Teachers should apply a fair learning process in which every student is given a
chance to show their ability and has freedom to express their views.

- Everything being taught by us must be explained to all and not only to one
particular person.

o Provide an opportunity for group activity: Instead of giving the task individually, the
teacher can give it to the whole group but evaluate students individually.

Postmodernism
 Postmodernism has many interpretations - different disciplines have participated in the
postmodernist movement in varying ways.

o It developed during the upheavals of society in the 1960s and 1970s.

o The main goal of postmodernism is to understand power relationships within society.

o It believes that those in power use the institutions of government, culture and school
to maintain their positions within society.

o It contends that society has marginalised women, workers, and people of colour as
well as cultural minorities.

o The curriculum should include works of marginalised people in literature, history and
other subjects.

o Students will then appreciate the contributions of other members of our diverse
society.

o It supports a student-oriented approach of learning.

 Postmodernism is committed to modes of thinking and representation which emphasises

fragmentations, discontinuities and incommensurable aspects of a given object.

 Postmodernist analysis is often marked by forms of writing that are more literary, and
certainly more self-reflexive.

 A student should learn:

o What is his/her cultural background and how it affects his/her observations, thinking
and behaviour.

o How he/she constitutes his/her identities and cultures when communicating.

o The skills needed in constructing a third culture.

 Postmodernism is an educational philosophy contending that many of the institutions in

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our society, including schools, are used by those in power to marginalise those who lack
power.

o Postmodernism has its roots in existentialism.

o History has examined power issues and struggles of marginalised groups.

o Postmodernism criticised using of schools for political / power purposes.

Other Theories of Learning

 Learning theories permeate all dimensions of educational technology.

 Therefore, depending upon the learners’ level of development and needs, the educator
designs instructional events (environments, systems, software) which would affect student
learning.

 Empiricism: It means that all knowledge comes from experience - beginning with Aristotle,
empiricist philosophers have proposed theories to explain how experience gets translated
into knowledge.

 Sensory Stimulation Theory: It is based on the argument that effective learning occurs
when the senses are stimulated.

 Reinforcement Theory: It is also known as ‘holistic learning theory.’ It suggests that an

individual’s personality consists of many elements, particularly the intellect, emotions,
the desire and imagination that all require activation if learning is to be more effective.

 Facilitation Theory: Human beings have a natural eagerness to learn and this process
should be facilitated according to the learner’s needs.

 Experimental Learning: Learning is carried out through:

o Concrete experience.

o Observation and reflection.

o Abstract conceptualisation.

o Active experimentation.

 Action Learning: It links the process of learning with actions through a reflective process
within collaborative learning groups (i.e., action learning sets).

 Adult Learning: It is also called ‘Andragogy’ which believes that adults bring a wealth of
experience to the learning environment, and that it should be used as a resource.
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Comparative Overview of Theories

Theories are used in every academic discipline. It is noteworthy that different versions of the
same theory are used in different disciplines. In the following lines, a comparative overview
of four theories is presented as they are used in International Relations (IR) and Education.

Realism
 IR Focus:

o Human selfishness, unlimited desires and egoism.

o Anarchy in international affairs (because of non-existence of global government).
o State is the centre of power.
o Security consciousness.
Education Focus:
o Notions of the good life, truth, beauty could be answered through the study of ideas,
using the dialectical method.
o The goal of education is to help individuals understand and apply the principles of
science to help solve the problems plaguing the modern world.
o It does not believe in the existence of any absolute truth.
o Real knowledge is obtained by analysis and experiencing sensations.
Commonalities between both versions (IR and Education):
o Promotion of self-interest through actions.
o No absolute truth as the situation is always changing.
o Rely on knowledge and experiences.
Differences (IR and Education):
o In IR, the main focus is on the state, power and security.
o In education, the main focus is on ideas and dialogue.

Idealism
IR Focus:
o The State should make its own internal political philosophy.
o Promotion of national and international peace development.
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o Focuses on perfection but may ignore basic human characteristics and real life
realities.

o A futuristic approach.
o Focuses on higher ideals.
Educational Focus:
o As the physical world is always changing, ideas are the only reliable form of reality.
o Truth is perfect and eternal, but not found in the world of matter - only through the
mind.
o The State should be involved in education, moving brighter students toward abstract
ideas and the less able toward collecting data.
o Emphasis on mental or spiritual aspect of universe.
Commonalities (IR and Education):
o Focus on perfection.
o Role of state is important.
Differences (IR and Education):
o In IR, the main focus is on national and international affairs.
o In education, the main focus is on mental and spiritual aspects of life.

Social Constructivism
IR Focus:
o The most important aspect of IR is social, not materialism nor power.
o Mainly focuses on human awareness or consciousness and its place in world affairs.
o It tries to occupy the middle ground.
o Emphasises norms, values, rules and language, and how material and non-physical
factors join in the construction of different possibilities and outcomes.
o Considers dynamic relationship between ideas and material forces.
Education Focus:
o Through our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we
live in.
o Each individual generates his/her own rules and mental models, which he/she uses
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to make sense of his/her experiences.
o Learning is a search for meaning, thus it should start with the issues around which
students are actively trying to construct meaning.

o Meaning requires understanding ‘wholes’ as well as ‘parts’.

o Parts should be understood in the context of ‘wholes’.

o Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and

interactions.

Commonalities (IR and Education):

o To understand the world, there is emphasis on the social aspects rather than material.

o Emphasis on mental models, rules, values and norms.

Differences (IR and Education):

o In IR, the main focus is on human consciousness with regard to international affairs.

o In education, the main focus is the learning process of an individual by his/her own
mental approach.

Postmodernism
IR Focus:

o It attempts to explain reality based on concrete experiences.

o It denies the existence of any ultimate principle.
o It examines the ways in which power operates in the discourses and practices of
world politics.
o It unpacks the complex processes involved in the construction of political identities.
o It celebrates differences and diversity among people and cultures.
o It encourages an exploration of a variety of approaches to encounter ‘orthodox’ or
hegemonic forms of knowledge and power.
Education Focus:
o The main focus is to understand power relationships within the society.
o It believes that those in power use the institutions of government, culture and schools
to maintain their positions within the society.
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o It contends that society has marginalised women, workers, and people of colour as
well as cultural minorities.

o The curriculum should include works of marginalised people in literature, history and
other subjects.

o Students will then appreciate the contributions of other members of our diverse
society.

o It supports a student-oriented approach of learning.

Commonalities (IR and Education):

o Both versions of postmodernism attempt to explore the power relationships within

the society.

o Both versions do not believe in mainstream and traditional theories, but advocate
flexible and open ended approaches to deal with the prevailing issues.

o Both believe in cultural diversity.

Differences (IR and Education):

o In IR, the main focus is on human experiences and how power operates in world
politics.

o In education, the main focus is how power operates within the country’s educational
system, how it affects the underprivileged segments of the population and what are
the ways and means to come out of these crises.
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Appendix -2

The Islamic Quarterly, 50 (2), First Quarter 2006, pp. 97-151.

Barriers and Bridges between the Ummah and the West

Dr Muhammad Ahsan (FRSA)

Abstract: Throughout the history of civilisation, faith has been, and still is, a very
important as well as a sensitive issue in local, national and global affairs. In this
context, the prevailing global situation raises various questions, e.g., what are
the causes and consequences of the widening gulf between the Ummah and the
West? What is the way to initiate a process of mutual trust between these two main
global communities? What specific measures are required at the ‘Ummatic’ level
to bridge this gap? This paper attempts to explore possible answers to these and
similar questions. The researcher strongly believes that some approaches, e.g., use
of the media and encouraging dialogue between civilisations, would surely bring
about some positive results, but may not be able to serve as a comprehensive long-
lasting strategy to root-out the problem of mistrust, violence and global instability.
It can safely be said that the main cause of the present unfortunate global situation
is that the difference between the ‘developed’ and the ‘under-developed’ worlds,
and ‘the haves’ and ‘the have nots’ has increased enormously. By creating barriers
between the Ummah and the West, this is the root cause of a complex network
of contemporary problems. Thus, a comprehensive strategy would be required to
bridge the existing gap. As the title indicates, on the basis of the analysis of the
situation, the paper attempts to tackle various relevant issues and suggest possible
measures for improvement.

Keywords: Ummah, Muslim World, the West, barriers and bridges.

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In October 2005, in his address at the International Islamic University, Kuala Lumpur, Shaukat
Aziz, the Prime Minister of Pakistan said: ‘We must remove poverty and illiteracy because they
also breed extremism. … Muslims must also recognise that first and foremost, the remedy for our
malaise lies within. We need to be realistic and accept that there are faults within Muslim societies,
which generate extremism and militancy. These flow from our political, economic and social under-
development, from our divisions and differences within and amongst ourselves as well as from our
weaknesses and vulnerabilities.’ With regard to overcoming the problem, he further stated that:
‘[The developmental] approach has guided our proactive role within the Organisation of the Islamic
Cooperation [OIC]1 that needs restructuring to make positive contributions towards addressing the
challenges confronted by the Muslim Ummah. … Progress in that direction [i.e., re-organising of
OIC] would promote coexistence and harmony between the Muslim World and the West.’

It is noteworthy that the validity of this argument needs no explanation, and the present paper
is an attempt to analyse the situation. The analysis is based on secondary sources of information,
and the discussion is divided into three main parts. The first part concentrates on the analysis of
the main challenges faced by the Ummah. For instance, the situation of the under-development
of the Muslim World2 as an internal factor and hostile global propaganda, and the widespread
Islamophobia in the West as the external challenges. The second part deals with the element of
coexisting in Islamic history as well as highlights the need for change in current global and Ummatic
affairs. No doubt, bridging the gap between the Ummah and the West is a collective responsibility
of all Muslim and Western countries, and several studies need to be conducted for this purpose.
However, due to the limited spectrum of the present piece of research, it mainly focuses on the
Muslim World with regard to putting its own house in order. Therefore, by presenting a three-
phased comprehensive plan until 2050, the final part of the paper explores the ways and means to
strengthen and re-organise the activities of the OIC.

MAJOR BARRIERS BETWEEN THE UMMAH AND THE WEST

It can be argued that in the contemporary public and academic debate, relations between ‘Islam’
and the ‘West’ are considered a sensitive and complex issue. The complexity of the problems
faced by the Ummah can best be described in the words of AbuSulayman (1994, 1): ‘Internally
weak, relatively backward, frustrated, conflict-ridden, suffering from internal tensions, and often
controlled and abused by foreign powers, the Muslim World is in a state of crisis. … In Muslim
countries it is customary to blame external powers and imperialism for all manners of ills. Although
this habit may point up many of the grievances and obstacles Muslims face, it cannot explain the
internal cause of the ills. These ills put in motion a process of decay that dissipated the internal
powers of the Muslim World. The resultant weakness brought external powers into the picture,
complicating the difficulties.’ Another Muslim thinker, Khurshid Ahmad (1995, 5-6) stated that:
‘The Muslim World which has suffered at the hands of the West in the past and which remains
even today weak materially, economically, technologically and militarily, is now being projected as
a threat to the West. Their efforts to rediscover their identity and set their own house in order are
looked upon as a challenge to the West.’
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Internal Challenges: Human (Under-) Development in the Muslim World

In the July 15th 2002 edition of Newsweek, the Indian President, who is a nuclear scientist by
profession and an architect of his country’s nuclear programme as well as the father of its missile-
technology, was quoted as saying: ‘On our planet only weaponised states are friends, otherwise
the relationship immediately regresses into the oppressor and the oppressed. Strength respects
strength.’ The real strength of a nation comes with its development. Unfortunately, at present, the
gap between the developed and the developing world is a major barrier in promoting global peace
and prosperity as well as in establishing mutual trust and respect between nations. Needless to say,
the root cause of most of the problems faced by the Ummah is its state of under-development.3
Regrettably, this situation is not only eroding the stability and self-respect of the entire Muslim
world but is also a major challenge to promoting inter-faith harmony, tolerance and co-existence
at a global level.

Today, the Muslim World as a whole faces a number of challenges as evidenced by the serious
problems that beset Muslim countries. According to the Human Development Report 2005, as
many as 40 Muslim countries have a lower value of Human Development Index (HDI)4 than the
world average (UNDP: 2005, 219-222). Furthermore, out of the top-30 HDI countries, none are
Muslim. Even oil rich Brunei Darussalam, which was the top-HDI Muslim country, was placed at the
33rd position in world ranking. This was in contrast to the group of low-HDI countries, where nearly
half were Muslims. Even within the category of medium-HDI countries, several Muslim countries
fall in its lower range. This shows that with regard to the basic indicators, Muslim countries lag
far behind Non-Muslim countries. It is worth noting that during the period 2001-2005, out of 53
OIC member countries for which data were available, the HDI ranking of 47 countries (89%) had
dropped.5 For instance, Egypt, Lebanon, Malaysia and Nigeria were on 105th, 65th, 56th and 136th
position in 2001 but fell to 119th, 81st, 61st and 158th position in 2005, respectively. Although it can
be argued that some of the high-HDI Non-Muslim countries have also fallen in world ranking, they
still remain among the top of the list (UNDP: 2001, 141-144; and 2005, 219-222). This shows that
in the present globalised world, where in every sphere of life, competition between countries is
on the rise – it is a major challenge to the overall development of the Ummah. This fact is also
confirmed by Mahbub ul Haq. In 1999, he pointed out that: ‘The development ranks of Islamic
countries are generally lower than per capita ranks, showing that their income has not been fully
translated into the lives of their people. The overall HDI for 49 Islamic countries is only 0.393,
placing the Islamic World in the low human development category’ (Haq: 1999, 105). Since his
statement, unfortunately, human development of the Ummah has declined even further.

‘Human capital development which is the product of education and improvement in health and
nutrition, is both a part of and a means of achieving this goal. Human capital is critical in raising
the living standards of the poor’ (Government of Pakistan: 2001). Although the notion of human
capital is much broader in scope, due to limited space, only education, health and, research and
development will be discussed. When comparing, it is appropriate to look at human capital in
Muslim and Non-Muslim countries. The review of the UNDP’s report (2005) indicates that a
vast majority of Non-Muslim countries focus far more on education, health and research and
development than Muslim countries do. Therefore, public expenditure on education, health and,
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research and development are significantly higher in Non-Muslim countries compared to Muslim
countries. There are a far higher number of professionals to contribute to the development of
their nations. No doubt, educated and healthy people are an asset to their countries. Non-Muslim
countries have a clearer vision for the future and better strategies to achieve their objectives. On
the other hand, the mismanagement and inefficiency of resource utilisation in Muslim counties
are important causes for their under-development. In fact, the elements of mismanagement and
inefficient resource utilisation are closely related to the internal politico-economic instability, lack
of democratic norms as well as weak institutional setup in several Muslim countries. A simple
question arises that if the present trends continue, what will be the level of socio-economic
development in the Muslim world in the years to come? No doubt, the present alarming situation
of the Ummah demands urgent measures for improvement. Muslim countries seriously need to
reflect on this issue as well as on engage in discussions with the OIC about what steps they can
take to deal with these challenges.

External Challenges
It should be noted that the actions of an individual or a small group do not necessarily represent
the belief of a particular religion, nor is that religion responsible for such actions. Sadly, in the
Western world, Islam is judged by the conduct of a minority of its people. In his article entitled
‘Anyone for a Brain Wash?’, Kevin Doyle (22 May 2002) quotes the theory of the ‘propaganda
model’ presented by Herman and Chomsky. According to this concept, instead of producing the
required facts about the global situation, modern media shapes and reshapes news through a
systematised doctoring process in which some of the facts are under-reported or misreported
while others are totally ignored. This is a completely unjustified approach to the informal
education of the global masses. This promotes division within the ‘global village’, which enhances
global human insecurity and instability and can be observed more clearly after the events of 9/11.
Needless to say, that if some Arab Muslims are branded terrorists, it does not mean that over 1.5
billion Muslims of the world are also terrorists.6 Charley Reese (22 May 2002) supports this idea
and said: ‘I wish more Americans had an opportunity to get to know Muslims. Then they would
not be susceptible to the silly anti-Muslim propaganda. … Muslims are good folks.’ This view is also
shared by the ‘Stockholm International Forum on Combating Intolerance’ held in January 2001.
The Forum ‘condemned prejudice against Muslims and called on governments to combat it as
they have with fighting racism, anti-Semitism, and xenophobia’ (Paul Goble: 23 May 2002).7 In the
following sections, we will review widespread Islamophobia and the clash of civilisations.

Globalisation of Islamophobia
The Runnymede Trust (1997, 4) defines Islamophobia as the ‘unfounded hostility towards Islam. It
also refers to the practical consequences of such hostility in unfair discrimination against Muslim
individuals and communities, and to the exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political and social
affairs.’ William Dalrymple (29 September 2001) argues that ‘such prejudices against Muslims –
and the spread of idiotic stereotypes of Muslim behaviour and beliefs – and anti-Muslim racism
now seems in many ways to be replacing anti-Semitism as the principal Western expression of
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bigotry against the other.’ Misunderstandings concerning Islam and the Muslim World, as well
as the barrage of global propaganda, have created an environment of mutual distrust between
the Muslim world and the West. The media plays a leading role in presenting a negative image
of Islam. In 1992, a ‘London Times cartoon showed a Muslim wiping a blood-stained sword on a
union flag, with a murdered woman behind him’ (Robert Fisk: 03 November 1999). In its report
on Islamophobia, The Runnymede Trust’s (1997, 3) comments about this cartoon is as follows: ‘A
further stock image is the evil Muslim. He appears in cartoons not to raise a laugh but to send a
shiver down the spine. He is shown here shortly after committing an unusually brutal murder. The
accompanying article [Bernard Levin, The Times, 13 January 1992, © Peter Brookes] makes it clear
that he is wiping his crescent-shaped sword clean with a Union Jack because he is contemptuous
of British hospitality, yet also confident that liberal do-gooders and multiculturalists in Britain will
not pursue him with all the rigour of law, since he committed the murder for the believers; good
Muslim reasons.’

Another cartoon appeared in a September 2002 issue of the Economist (14 September 2002,
52) in which a skeleton-shaped person, fully covered with traditional Islamic dress was holding a
crescent like blade of a sword, tied with a rotten stick. The person is throwing darts at the American
map. A careful consideration of this cartoon implies that Islam is an outdated, horrible and violent
religion. It further indicates that Muslims are evil and the only enemy of America. Unfortunately,
even children’s entertainment does not escape from hostility against Islam. Siddiqi, (1997, 38), a
distinguished professor of journalism and public relations in the United States, argues: ‘Muslims
were shocked and surprised to note that in one of the most popular Disney movies for children,
The Lion King, when the evil-natured hyenas were shown, a crescent appears on the horizon. The
crescent has been used as an Islamic symbol in many Muslim arts and paintings. Equating darkness
and evil with Islam is yet another way to dehumanise Muslims and portray them as enemies.’

In his article published on 11 February 2002 in Newsweek, Kenneth Woodward tries to prove that
Islam is a religion of violence and that the Quran is full of confusion and repetition. He challenges
the Muslim belief of whether the Quran is really the word of God. In contrast, he praises Christianity
and Jesus Christ. He writes: ‘Muhammad was not only a prophet but also a military commander who
led Muslim armies into battle. Jesus, on the other hand, refused even to defend himself against the
Roman soldiers who arrested him in the Garden of Gethsemane after he was betrayed with a kiss
by Judas, one of his own disciples. The difference helps explain the contrasting attitudes towards
war and violence in the Quran and the New Testament.’ Is this the true picture of Islam, which the
media wants to project? Unfortunately, due to ignorance of history and Muslim civilisation, similar
views have also been expressed by other writers. Here, it is important to quote Nusrat Khawaja
(June 2001, 5):  

Why can a nun be covered from head to toe and be respected for devoting herself
to God but not a Muslim woman? She’s ‘oppressed’ when she does that. Why can a
Jew grow a beard and be described as practicing his faith but when a Muslim does so,
he’s an extremist? When a western woman stays at home to look after the house and
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children, she is sacrificing herself and doing good for the family, but when a Muslim
woman does so, she ‘needs to be liberated.’ Why is that when a child dedicates
himself to a subject, he has potential but when a child dedicates himself to Islam, he
is hopeless? When a killer happens to be Christian, religion is not mentioned – such
as the IRA and Serb nationalists but when a Muslim is charged with the crime, it’s
Islam that goes on trial. Why? But then again, why is it after all that Islam is still the
fastest growing religion in the World?

In a report entitled: Intolerance and Discrimination against Muslims in the EU: Developments
since September 11, published by the International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights in March
2005, a report was done about discrimination against Muslims. The report covered 11 EU member
states (i.e., Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Holland, Spain, Sweden
and Britain). It revealed the widespread negative attitudes towards Muslims as well as biased
media coverage portraying Muslims as ‘an enemy within’. Being an independent organisation, the
International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights also expressed its concerns with regard to the
developments which enhanced the vulnerability and marginalisation of Muslims and violation
of human rights against them. The report highlighted another important fact that in most of the
above countries, there were no organisations to systematically monitor discrimination against
European Muslims. Furthermore, anti-Islamic sentiments have increasingly become more publicly
pronounced following the events of 9/11; a negative picture of Muslims and Islam is being painted
all over the world.

Australian journalist, John Pilger (17th September 2004), stated: ‘The world is divided into two
camps: Islam and “us.” That is the same message conveyed by the western governments, press,
radio and television. For them, Islam means terrorism. This type of attitude deepens the division
between the Muslim and the western worlds and encourages a clash of civilisations. This is a
major obstacle in the promotion of interfaith understanding. Unfortunately, both the West and the
Ummah become losers, as the hostility and conflict between them are beneficial to none. Thus,
this path must be avoided, and adequate measures should be taken to overcome the problems
that will result.

Clash of Civilisations or Promotion of Global Instability?

The events of 9/11 have changed the course of history. This has had a big impact on the world
and on the Muslim World in particular. It raised various questions, e.g., what is the best way
to initiate a process of mutual trust and stability in order to overcome the current crises? How
can Muslim countries play an effective role in global peace and prosperity? Can the major global
players help the Muslim World in the promotion of peace and prosperity? According to Fred
Halliday (2002, 14), it is particularly true that ‘no subject in contemporary public discussion has
attracted more confused discussion than that of relations between ‘Islam’ and the ‘West’. Such
confusion promotes mistrust, which leads to instability in the world. The works of two famous
American intellectuals, Francis Fukuyama and Samuel Huntington, were given enormous coverage
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by the global media. In 1992, after the demise of the Soviet Union, Fukuyama (a farmer US State
Department official) presented the concept of the end of history. His book entitled End of History
and the Last Man (1993) is mainly a supremacist declaration of victory. Fukuyama’s argument is
that after the fall of communism, capitalist liberal societies are the end-product of the historical
process of humankind. In other words, it is now only Western socio-cultural and politico-economic
liberty that will prevail in the world. He also believes that the days of Islam are over. Fukuyama
failed to elaborate on which strategy should be adopted to attain and maintain a stable global
society through the political and economic liberty of the ‘last man’? And also, how this ‘last
man’ will enjoy the fruit of the newly discovered plant? This issue is ‘skilfully’ tackled by Samuel
Huntington. His book Clash of Civilisations and the Remaking of World Order (1997) warns that the
‘end of history’ is the beginning of the civilizational war. He predicts that future wars will not be
fought between nation states, but between civilisations. He has extensively written and lectured
to promote his ideas. His emphasis is: i) ‘civilizational consciousness is on the rise’, ii) ‘conflicts
between civilisations will replace ideological and state conflict’, iii) ‘conflicts between groups
from different civilisations will be more violent than those between groups within civilisations’,
iv) ‘political, economic and security relations will develop within civilisations rather than cross
civilisations’, and v) ‘the paramount axis of world politics will be the “West” and the “rest”.’

According to Huntington’s, besides the ‘West’, there are six or seven other civilisations in the world.
He warns, however, that in the future, only the Chinese and Islamic civilisations will be a challenge
to the West. Huntington totally ignores the facts that do not fit in his ‘clash of civilisations’ frame.
Specifically, with regard to Islamic civilisation, Huntington suggests that the under-developed,
over-stretched and unstable Muslim World stretching from Indonesia to Morocco fails to pose
a collective threat to the West. However, in his view, the real threat from the Muslim World is
its rising human capital, i.e., the growing number of young people in the Islamic civilisation. He
attempts to warn the West that the troubles in the former Yugoslavia, Palestine, Kashmir or in
various other regions are caused by the Islamic world. Interestingly, while Huntington warns of
the ‘rising’ human capital of Islamic civilisation, Fukuyama warns of the ‘declining’ human capital
of the West, or in other words, the proportionate increase of the aging population in Western
civilisation. Indirectly, both warn of the rising migration of Muslim youth to western countries
which is changing the demographic composition. This fact was also highlighted by BBC (23
December 2005) in a report that says: ‘Islam is considered Europe’s fastest growing religion, with
immigration and above average birth rates leading to a rapid increase in the Muslim population.’
Unfortunately, instead of exploring the nature and root causes of major global problems, and the
measures for improvement, both, Huntington and Fukuyama spend their energies on synthesising
a conceptual and ideological network to provide a base to promote misunderstandings and
troubles between faiths and ideologies, particularly with reference to the Muslim World (Faruqi:
October 2001, 6-12).8 It reflects that the promotion of the clash of a civilisation is an artificial
process not a natural phenomenon.

It is unfortunate that in this day and time, Muslims have been victimized by comedians, cartoonists
as well as the media, which is supported by various political circles. This environment is a serious
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threat to global peace and stability. Due to the limited scope of this paper, we will quote only one
example in the following lines. It is well known that Muslims have the utmost respect for Prophet
Mohammad () and the Quran, the Divine Book. On 30th September 2005, the Danish paper
Jyllands-Posten published cartoons about the Prophet (); this article was subsequently reprinted
in several other countries. On 31st January 2006, Jyllands-Posten apologised but maintained that
it was legal under state law to print such material and stated they were published as a part of an
‘ongoing debate on the freedom of expression that we cherish so highly.’ However, this view was
not shared by Peter Singer, a professor at Princeton University and son of Austrian Jews, whose
parents escaped the Holocaust but his grandparents did not. Singer (01 March 2006) writes in the
Jerusalem Post that: ‘We cannot consistently hold that cartoonists have a right to mock religious
figures but it should be a criminal offence to deny the Holocaust.’ Similarly, Nobel Peace Prize
winner and respected South African retired Anglican Archbishop, Desmond Tutu, said: ‘Imagine
if the subject had been the Holocaust and it had been treated in a way that the Jews deemed
offensive and the reaction of the Danish government and the international community had been
as it is now.’ He further pointed that: ‘Look at the Ku Klux Klan, who use a cross as their symbol
and propagate hatred against others and encourage lynching. And yet we never hear anyone say,
“There’s an example of how Christianity encourages violence”’ (Yahoo News: 28 February 2006).

A simple question emerges here: why did they feel a need to publish these images and to create
an environment of hostility? One possible answer to this question is provided by the Economist
(03 February 2006). The magazine reveals: ‘If the aim was to provoke a reasoned debate about
self-censorship, religious intolerance and the freedom of speech, the editor of Jylland-Posten
failed miserably. Last September, Denmark’s biggest-selling daily broadsheet noted that a local
author could not find artists to illustrate his book about Mohammad (). So the paper published
a series of cartons depicting the prophet () in various guises, along with an article arguing that
self-censorship … rules large parts of the western world.’ There is consensus within the Muslim
masses that all religions of the world should be protected from ridicule and vilification, and that
the right of freedom of expression should be used with a sense of social responsibility. This view
is also supported by Kofi Annan, the Secretary General of the United Nations. He said: ‘I share the
distress of Muslim friends who feel that the cartoons offend their religion. I also respect the right
of freedom of speech. But of course, freedom of speech is never absolute. It entails responsibility
and judgment’ (UN News Service: 03 February 2006). This discussion shows that the publishing of
such images or similar acts can be considered as a deliberate attempt to promote a clash between
civilisations, and such a misunderstanding or conflict causes a setback to bridging the gap between
the West and the Ummah.

BRIDIGING THE GAB BETWEEN THE TWO WORLDS

Alberto Vázquez (2003), Secretary General of UNCTEC9 argues that: ‘Islam is probably the least
understood and most misinterpreted religion of the world. The generalized Western idea only
describes the fundamentalist fraction, but not the religion itself. The myth of the supposed fanatic
intolerance of Islam has become one of the standard ideas of the West regarding this religion.’
In Karen Armstrong’s (2001b) view: ‘[Prophet] Mohammed () said he had come to bring an
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“intermediate path” of religious life that avoided extremes. Actual extremism of some groups in
the Islamic world is different from the Muslim spirit. Islam is a religion of peace. People around
the world have to learn to accept the right of Muslim people to live their religion and, if they
decide to, incorporate the Islamic ideal to their political regime. They have to learn that there is
no such thing as a unique way of life. Diversity is good for the entire world. Human beings have
the right and possibility to choose. Some may decide to adopt a religious way of life, such as Islam,
while others may not.’ Judith Latham (18 June 2002) was quoted as saying that: ‘Many people
believe that Jews and Muslims have been enemies throughout history. But some Muslim, Jewish
and Christian scholars are looking to the past to show that this has not always been so. These
scholars point to Muslim Spain in the Middle Ages where, they say, members of all three faiths got
along.’ Latham also quotes Abdul-Aziz Sachedina (a Professor of Islamic Studies at the University
of Virginia), who argued that: ‘They [Spanish Muslims] created a civilisation that was very close
to what we would call a “pluralistic” civilisation in which people of different faiths lived together. I
think Muslim Spain reflects a lot of what we would now call almost idealistic in Islamic history, and
this needs to be emulated even today. What we lack today is recognition of mutual respect and
the common ground that we share in the ethical teachings of the Quran and of the Torah.’

According to Ibrahim Kalin (n.d.) a member of the College of the Holy Cross, ‘Islam’s relations with
the Christian world began with its first appearance on the historical scene in the seventh century
Arabian Peninsula. Islam’s theological relationship with Judaism and Christianity was closely linked
with its claim to be the last revelation in the tradition of Abrahamic monotheism. … It [Islam]
accepted their followers [Jews and Christians] as the People of the Book (ahl al-kitab), thus defining
them as legitimate and distinct communities to be protected, rather than eliminated, under Islamic
law. … I have argued that American Muslims can turn their minority status into bridge builders
between Islamic and Western societies.’ In fact, throughout Islamic history, Muslims cohabited
with the followers of other faiths and granted them their due rights and respect. This provided
enormous opportunities to Non-Muslims to be prosperous and lead a dignified life. The University
of South Florida also recognises this fact (Florida Centre of Instructional technology: 2005). On its
website, it states: ‘Beginning in the mid-eighth century, along the southern and western rim of the
Mediterranean Sea and east beyond the Caspian Sea, Jews were widely tolerated and accepted
under Islamic rule. Muslims granted Jews and Christians exemption from military service, the right
to their own courts of law, and a guarantee of the safety of their property. Islamic territory included
present day Iran, Iraq, Turkey, western Russia, the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, and, in Europe,
Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia. Jews experienced a Golden Age. Jewish poets, scholars, scientists,
statesmen, philosophers flourished within and were an integral part of the Arab civilisation. For
hundreds of years, Jews and Arabs lived together in peace and with mutual respect.’ Similarly,
Carrie Supple (1993, 12), a famous Jewish author writes: ‘Judaism was seen as an official religion
[in the medieval Muslim empire] and Jews were often protected. Indeed, many of them prospered
economically and in the atmosphere of learning in the Muslim World, Rabbis and scholars studied
and taught the Torah, attracting students from all over the Diaspora.’

One may argue that, that was the past. But what about the contemporary state of minorities in
Muslim countries? The best possible answer of this question can be provided in the words of
Michael Theodoulou (03 February 1998), who wrote an article in the Christian Science Monitor. In
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his article he quotes two members from the Iranian Jewish community who say that: ‘It comes as
a surprise to many visitors to discover that Iran, a country so hostile to Israel and with a reputation
for intolerance, is home to a small but vibrant Jewish community that is an officially recognised
religious minority under Iran’s 1979 Islamic Constitution. “[Ayatollah] Khomeini didn’t mix up our
community with Israel and Zionism - he saw us as Iranians,” says Haroun Yashyaei, a film producer
and chairman of the Central Jewish Community in Iran. Like Iran’s Armenian Christians, Jews are
tolerated as “people of the book” and allowed to practice their religion freely. … “Take it from me;
the Jewish community here faces no difficulties. If some people left after the revolution, maybe
it’s because they were scared,” says Farangis Hassidim, a forceful but good-humoured woman
who is in-charge of the Jewish hospital in Iran.’ A similar situation can also been found in Turkey
where Fiachra Gibbons (17 November 2003) writes in the UK’s daily Guardian that: ‘The 17,000
or so remaining Jews of Istanbul are living proof that Jews and Muslims can coexist in harmony. It
is a bond that has endured for more than 1,300 years of trials and tribulations and held fast every
time. Theirs is one of the great anomalies of Jewish history - a happy story.’

GLOBAL VISION FOR THE UMMAH

We can see from this discussion that the under-developed state of the Muslim Ummah is one
that needs reflection and a plan for change. The best approach to bridging the gap between
the Ummah and the West should be one that focuses on its socio-economic development. The
best way to achieve this objective is by promoting cooperation among the Muslim countries.
The ultimate aim of such cooperation should be politico-economic integration of the Ummah.
This process is extremely important, as the status of the Muslim World is rapidly declining
day by day. If the present trend of decline continues at this rate, the Muslim World will face
an extremely critical period the next few decades. What this in fact amounts to is a question
of survival, and Muslim countries must realise that they have to take measures to protect
themselves if they are not to become totally excluded from global affairs. This struggle for
existence has to be conducted in several areas, including the development and strengthening
of the Islamic financial system, the promotion of mutual trade, cooperation in the fields of
science and technology, media and information as well as the creation of a system of common
security. The key to the success of this whole programme lies within economics. It is therefore
necessary that these countries seek to encourage the promotion of mutual trade10 through
institutions such as the OIC and the Islamic Development Bank. This increase in cooperation
will lead to a further promotion of mutual confidence within the entire Muslim World. The step
by step nature of this development programme will enable them to resolve their problems
without external interference. Indeed, a true measure of the success of these proposals would
be the ability of the Muslim World to intervene in an effective and meaningful way in solving
various crises in other parts of the world. Such a development would be particularly beneficial
in maintaining the balance of power in global affairs.

However, in order to achieve such a position, within the framework of the OIC, the Muslim
World needs to strengthen various institutions, such as the Islamic Development Bank (IDB),
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Islamic Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Commodity Exchange (ICCI&CE), Islamic Centre for
the Development of Trade (ICDT), Islamic Foundation for Science, Technology and Development
(IFSTAD) and in particular, the Islamic media and news agencies, that already exist. In addition,
within the same network, they also need to establish new institutions for the protection of their own
interests such as the Muslim Monitory Fund (MMF), Human Development Fund (HDF),11 Muslim
Security Council (MSC), Muslim Defence Force (MDF)12 and Muslim News Agency (MNA).13 To take
these steps, a strong political will, along with concrete measures, are required to reorganise the
OIC. Not only is the strengthening of earlier institutions extremely important, the establishment
of these new institutions is also vital for the security and development of the Ummah. It may be
mentioned that with regard to countering contemporary problems and the future vision of the
Ummah, the Secretary General of the OIC said: ‘Most of the global challenges demonstrate the
fact that the world is passing through rapid and sweeping changes. … [Thus, what] we need is a
vision that would respond to these challenges and enable us to shape a brighter future for Muslims
across the world. [To address the modern challenges] the reforming of the OIC necessitates a
redefinition of its mandate, status, structure and functions in line with the common principles and
aspirations of Muslim states and societies’ (OIC: 7-8 December 2005a). In this context, the OIC
presented a programme for the coming ten years (entitled: Ten-Year Programme of Action – To
Meet the Challenges Facing the Muslim Ummah in the 21st Century). The programme discusses a
large number of issues (e.g., promotion of intra-Ummatic unity and political will, solidarity and
joint Islamic actions, inter-faith dialogue, combating Islamophobia, promotion of intra-Ummatic
economic cooperation and reform of the OIC, etc.). But unfortunately, it does not present a strategy
to address the current issues. It is beyond the reach of this paper to present a comprehensive plan
for re-organising the OIC, thus the following discussion is limited to main points only. In analysing
the OIC, one can see that there is no need to reshuffle its organisational structure; rather, focus on
the following important issues:14

• Reforming the Charter and renaming the OIC to the Muslim Union (MU).

• Several member countries do not pay a financial contribution to the OIC but have high
expectations from it. This attitude must change as in such an environment, the OIC cannot
work efficiently.

• Advancement in the fields of science and technology.

• Establishment of a sound central financial system for the Muslim World, for which it
requires the establishment of:

- A Muslim Monitory Fund (MMF)15

- A Human Development Fund (HDF),16 and,

- A new currency with the name of the ‘Dinar’.

• Establishment of an Islamic Common Market (ICM) for the promotion of mutual trade.
 125
• Establishment of a strong Muslim News Agency (MNA)17 at par with CNN and the BBC.

• Establishment of two new security institutions:

- Muslim Security Council (MSC),18 and,

- Muslim Defence Force (MDF).

One of the key issues determining the success of this strategy lies in the performance of the OIC.
There exists no other organisation in the world where such a large number of countries have
joined together solely on the basis of religion. Despite the weaknesses of this organisation, it
still provides the best possible basis for all future development activities in the Muslim World.
Therefore, these steps should be pursued through the OIC (or the proposed MU) as the Muslim
World has no other suitable alternative. Any future cooperation among Muslim countries needs
to be predicated on economic factors; otherwise it is doomed to fail. Various short, medium and
long-term strategies need to be adopted for this purpose. These strategies should then be placed
within a specified operational timeframe, i.e., phase one; 2011-2020, phase two; 2021-2040, and
phase three; 2041-2050. The period from now until 2010 should be utilised for mutual consultation
in order to secure political commitment. Within the framework of the MU, the process could be
conducted in the following way.

Phase One: 2011-2020 – Short-term Strategy:

Promotion of Intra-Ummatic Cooperation:
• Establishment of a sound central financial system for the Muslim World.
• Creation of a Common Islamic Market for the promotion of mutual trade.19
• Focus on advancement in the field of science and technology.
• Strengthening the Muslim media and establishment of the MNA.

• Establishment of the MSC and the MDF.

Phase Two: 2021-2030 – Medium-term Strategy:

Merging Economies and the Establishment of a Joint Foreign Policy:

• Steps to adopt a joint foreign policy.

• Creation of a single currency (Dinar) for the MU member countries.

• Coordinating and strengthening the activities of the Islamic industrial, commercial, savings
and agricultural development banks.
 126
• On the lines of NATO, the MDF should be able to take a lead role in dealing with issues of
intra-Ummatic security.

• The main focus should be to reduce poverty and debt burden.20

• By strengthening the MU, the status, role and authority of the head of this institution
should become more than a formal Secretary General.

• By establishing a foundation for the overall industrialisation and integration of Muslim

economies, the conclusion of Phase Two should lead to the formation of a confederation
of all member countries.

Phase Three: 2031-2050 – Long-term Strategy:

Establishment of a Loose Confederation of Muslim Countries:

• A loose confederation of member states controlling four main sectors, i.e., unified currency
(Dinar), Ummatic defence, foreign affairs and communication.

• By the end of this stage (i.e., 2050), the MU should be converted into a ‘apex governing
body’ of the Muslim World.

• The designation of the present Secretary General should be changed to a formal Ameer or
Caliph which will give further confidence to the MU. A person recruited for this position
should be an established administrator as well as an eminent scholar.

It is important that with regard to this proposed programme, the above mentioned activities
are completed within the time-frame set-out in the three phases. By the year 2050, the
strategy of unification should be adopted in such a way that at the apex level, there should
be a loose confederation of member states. By maintaining sufficient internal autonomy, all
Muslim countries would remain independent in their internal affairs. This confederation should
be based on democratic principles. However, much exercise and research is needed to make
this framework compatible with the requirements and challenges of the modern age without
becoming a religiously hardliner central governing body. This setup would provide enormous
politico-economic benefits to those living in the Muslim World. With regard to the need and
importance of this framework, it may be added that it is high time for the Muslim world to realise
the intensity and complexity of global problems, particularly in the context of their own faith
which says that God will not change the condition of a nation, unless it changes itself (Quran:
13-11, 8-53). Doing nothing is not an option here; full energies are required to strengthen the
OIC/MU as this is the only institution which can provide a concrete base for future development
and security. The weakness of this institution means that all hopes are dashed.

An obvious question that emerges here is who will finance this huge package for the creation of
new institutions and for strengthening the existing ones. The Muslim leadership and masses need
 127
to realise that the major global players are not going to provide them with aid to carry-out these
reforms. Whatever method they use, Muslim countries have to create the resources from within.
One possible way is that, as a first step, all Muslim countries should start contributing 0.01 percent
of their GDP to a common pool administered by the Islamic Development Bank. If started in the
year 2011 on a yearly basis, and if that contribution is regularly raised to the level of one percent
by the end of 2020, it is estimated that over US$ 100 billion can be accumulated in the common
pool (World Bank: 2005a; CIA: 2005). Thus, on an average basis, the amount of ten billion dollars
per year would be sufficient to initiate a new chapter in the life of the Ummah. The advantages
of this process would be multifarious and not solely limited to the Ummatic socio-economic
development and security. It will give Muslim countries the confidence and the means with which
to solve their own problems rather than constantly depend upon the West. This will also help in
maintaining a balance of power in global affairs. It can be hoped that with the initiation of this
process, problems such as the destruction of Somalia, the Iran-Iraq war, the Gulf war, the present
situation in Iraq and Afghanistan, the vulnerability of the Palestinians, the Kashmir dispute and the
violence in Sudan would be much less likely to happen in the future.

Review and Reflections

In the preceding sections, we reviewed the situation of the Muslim World and its related issues.
The analysis reflects the state of under-development within the Ummah and its vulnerability with
regard to widespread propaganda in the global media. A proposal has also been presented for
re-organising the OIC. The paper argues that for Muslim countries, development is the main way
to bridge the gap between the Ummah and the West and the process of Ummatic development
should be carried out on the platform of the OIC. One may argue that, under the contemporary
global environment, when the overall situation of several Muslim countries is volatile and the
gulf between the Ummah and the West is widening, the ambitious proposal does not seem
much more than a dream. However, if it is a dream, it is the dream of the masses of the Muslim
World from East Asia to West Africa, and history suggests that dreams have the potential to
become a reality. Two centuries ago, who would have thought that fifty North American states
would be united into one single country eventually creating a uni-polar world after the demise
of the Soviet Union? A century ago, did anyone imagine that the European states, which have
completely separate cultures, languages, state systems, and a long history of conflict and war,
would succeed in establishing a progressive union? More recently, who would have thought that
the Soviet Union, a huge nuclear super-power would be defeated by an extremely poor country
like Afghanistan and later, disintegrate into several parts? When considering the process of the
formation of a ‘union’, Muslim countries have an added advantage over their North American and
European counterparts in that they share a common culture, a common history, a common faith
and above all a widespread desire for this integration at grassroots level. Deriving strength from
its rich tradition and past, this proposed union has the potential to set an example for the rest
of the world. Therefore, appropriate strategies need to be developed in order for this dream to
materialise.

Furthermore, the contemporary global situation demands a rational interpretation of Islam

 128
in tandem with the mobilisation of political power in the Muslim World. This fact needs to be
highlighted so that Islam does not prohibit Muslims from working with the Western world on
matters of common interest. Thus, efforts should be made to promote mutual trust between the
Muslim and the Non-Muslim Worlds. This is a very challenging task but they must accomplish it, as
it is essential to their future survival. These activities will not only serve the interests of the Muslim
World but will also prove beneficial to the promotion of global stability, peace and prosperity
(Sarwar: 1997). In order to accomplish these undertakings, two simultaneous approaches, i.e.,
in the internal and external sectors need to be adopted. The most important step with regard to
the internal sector is the need for collaboration between the general public, moderate Muslim
intellectuals and politicians, with a view to establishing pressure groups and gaining public
support within the respective countries, in order to eliminate social evils. At an ummatic level,
such national movements should work together in close coordination so as to have maximum
influence on the governments of Muslim countries. They need to put moral and political pressure
on their own governments to promote coordination among the Muslim countries. The objective of
this approach ought not to be to bring about a revolution within the Muslim World, which may be
disastrous, rather it should start as a peaceful and social evolutionary process initiating from the
grassroots level up. Such efforts in various Muslim countries would be helpful in creating internal
solidarity and stability, as well as external coordination and harmony at the Ummatic level.

Finally, it is also important to note that in the contemporary environment of the ‘global village’,
living and working together is not always easy. Religion harnesses deep emotions which can
sometimes take destructive forms. Multiplicity brings with it differences, which one cannot simply
eliminate. Yet, the deep commonalities in the values of various faiths are to be constantly probed
and appropriated for the development of deeper spirituality, human solidarity and fellowship,
transcending cultural and other barriers. At the same time, the distinctive theological and core-
symbol elements and rites central to all faiths need to be respected in dialogue and mutual
relations. There is a need for an accurate understanding and mutual empathy of all religions.
Being citizens of the ‘global village’, we all need to work together to eliminate the horrors that
have been committed in the name of God and religion. The fundamental basis of all major faiths is
to promote equality and respect for others. This translates into good community and international
relations, and integrity in public life. Such values can be a real resource in practical implementation
of inter-faith harmony and international relations strategies. The development of effective local,
national and global interfaith structures can help to bring framework both for promoting mutual
understanding and cooperation, and as a mechanism for consultation. Here, the concerned
agencies can play an important role by providing valuable support and encouragement for the
launch of such initiatives (Ahsan and Najmudin: 15 June 2004).
 129

Notes

1
In August 1969, the arson damage to the Al-Aqsa mosque in Jerusalem outraged Muslims all over the world.
Two months after this incident, a conference attended by 24 of the 55 Muslim countries, was held in Rabat
(Morocco). Shortly afterwards, in March 1970, a meeting of the foreign ministers of all Muslim countries was
held in Jeddah, resulting in the creation of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). In principle, the OIC’s
charter is based upon the concept of Ummah (see note: 2), while in reality it operates under the idea of national
sovereignty borrowed from Western secular thought (Abdullah Al-Ahsan, 1988:18). OIC member countries
are: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Benin, Brunei-Darussalam, Burkina Faso,
Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana,
Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Libya, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali,
Mauritania, Morocco, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Senegal,
Sierra Leone, Somalia, Sudan, Suriname, Syria, Tajikistan, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, United
Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan and Yemen.
2
Abdullah Al-Ahsan (1992, 3) says: ‘The Islamic concept of Ummah originated under the Prophet Mohammad
() in the seventh century of the Common Era. Those who believed in the Prophet’s message and migrated
from Makkah to Madinah with him, formed a closely-knit group. This group later came to be known as
Ummatul Muslimin or the Ummah. In time, membership of the Ummah replaced tribal loyalty and in so doing
the supreme identity if an individual in society. This change was of major significance, for in pre-Islamic Arabia,
tribal identity had always enjoyed the supreme loyalty of the individual.’ Therefore, it can be argued that
in Islamic philosophy; ‘Ummah’ is a community of faith and is composed of all the followers of the Prophet
Mohammad (). In this paper the terms ‘Ummah’ and the ‘Muslim World’ are interchangeably used.

3
It needs to be mentioned here that in the Islamic system, development is a purposeful activity, aimed at: i)
economic development with its fair distribution of benefits, ii) fair distribution should bring positive change
in society, and, iii) both these activities should enhance spiritual satisfaction for human beings. In Islamic
philosophy, the human being is a creature made by Allah with its two main components, body and soul.
Therefore, in this context, to achieve the ultimate objective of human dignity, development is required in both
these aspects (Ahsan: 2002).

4
The first Human Development Report 1990 of the United Nations Development Programme was the brainchild
of the late Mahbub ul Haq (UNDP: 1990; Haq: 1997). Today, this conceptual framework has gained a special
place at the global level, exerting enormous influence on decision-makers, researchers, academics and ordinary
citizens. Amartya Sen (Nobel Laureate in Economics in 1998) also contributed to the development of this
framework. He underlined the fact that achieving a better life has more to do with nurturing and expanding
human potentialities and capabilities than constantly promoting consumption of more goods and services
 130
(Sen: 1992, 1999a, 1999b). The first Human Development Report 1990 argued that: ‘Human development is
a process of enlarging people’s choices. The most critical of these wide-ranging choices are to live a long and
healthy life, to be educated and to have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living. Additional
choices include political freedom, guaranteed human rights and personal self-respect’ (UNDP: 1990, 1). It is
noteworthy that since 1990, when the first human development report was published by the UNDP, human
development has been measured in terms of ‘human development index’ (HDI). ‘The HDI is a composite
of three ingredients: longevity, knowledge and standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy
at birth. Knowledge is measured by a combination of adult literacy (two-third weight) and mean years of
schooling (one-third weight). Standard of living is measured by purchasing power, based on real GDP per capita
adjusted for the local cost of living (purchasing power parity, or PPP)’ (UNDP: 1994, 91).

5
Data was not available for Afghanistan, Iraq, Palestine and Somalia. While Oman and Tunisia retained their
respective positions, Albania, Libya, Qatar and UAE slightly improved their HDI ranking.

6
Noam Chomsky is a famous American scholar. ‘No one disputes that Chomsky revolutionised the study of
languages more than 40 years ago. The rich and powerful have no quarrel with his work as the world’s most
significant linguist. But as a political analyst, he is pretty much persona non grata at big US networks and
influential dailies.’ (Arab Media Watch: 28 May 2002).

7
From this situation, it is not difficult to judge how the media distorts and keeps the global masses ignorant
of ground realities. Similar views are also presented by the former president of CBS News, former president of
NBC and former chief of staff of the New York Times. In their own words (quoted in ‘What Really Happened’:
5 May 2002): ‘Our job is to give people not what they want, but what we decide they ought to have (Richard
Salent, Former President CBS News).’ Similarly: ‘News is what someone wants to suppress. Everything else is
advertising (Rubin Frank, Former President NBC).’ And also: ‘There is no such thing, at this date of the world’s
history, as an independent press. You know it and I know it. There is not one of you who dare to write your
honest opinions. ... We are the tools and vassals of the rich men behind the scenes. We are jumping jacks, they
pull the strings and we dance. Our talents, our possibilities and our lives are all the property of other men. We
are intellectual prostitutes (John Swinton, Former Chief of Staff, New York Times).’

8
With regard to ‘war for civilisation’ and ‘war on terror’, see: Rahul Mahajan (2002).

9
UNCTEC is the composition of various committees and institutions which is organised by students of
Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Cuernavaca. Here, they participate as representatives of different countries
of the world. This is a type of forum which provides them with an opportunity to learn about various regions
of the world.

10
In spite of the fact that international trade is an area where it is not always easy to translate good intentions
into action, there is still a growing realisation within the Muslim World for the need to promote and strengthen
commercial and economic ties. The statements of various Muslim heads of state reflect the need to establish
an Islamic common market. The BBC (03 October 2005) quotes an outcome of a World Islamic Economic
Forum conducted with the support of the OIC. It reveals that: ‘Trading between OIC countries is worth about
 131
$800bn (£456) – no more than 7% of global trade as a whole.’ According to another source the total volume
of trade within Muslim countries is only 12 percent of the total trade of these countries with the rest of the
world (The Muslim News: 25 June 2005). In spite of its slow growth, it is to some extent encouraging that intra-
Ummatic trade is on the rise as the same figure in 1998 was 10 percent (Choudhury, 1998:196). The statistics
compiled by the Islamic Development Bank show that the proportionate of intra-Ummatic export was 12.2
percent while the same figure for import was 14.4.

11
Ironically, several Muslim countries are facing a serious problem of balance of payments and are forced to
beg money from the IMF. However, the IMF not only gives loans with tough conditionalities; its approval is also
required to obtain development loans from the World Bank and other bilateral lenders which give money on
their own terms. Further to say that wide-spread human poverty is a common condition in most of Muslim
countries. Similar to the IMF, the World Bank also exploits this situation and dictates its own policies to its
borrowers. Therefore, under the prevailing circumstances, the need for the establishment of the MMF and the
HDF is obvious.

12
The UN is the most important and the strongest institution. Unfortunately, this institution is totally
monopolised by its five permanent members, particularly the United States, and Muslim countries have no
voice at all. The present situation in Iraq, Afghanistan and other parts of the Muslim World need no elaboration.
Thus, the creation of the MSC similar to the UN Security Council and the MDF on the pattern of NATO would
help greatly to promote stability and strengthen security within the Muslim World.

13
In fact, the news media is a crucial issue in Muslim countries, as instead of sharing news and information
amongst themselves, they buy news from major news cartels such as Reuter, Agence France-Presse and
Associated Press. In Muslim countries, there is a lack of mutual cooperation in the sharing, distribution and
diffusion of news, a problem that does not exist in Western-based new agencies. Here, close cooperation
between the Muslim media and the Western based news agencies is required. Unfortunately, this cooperation
does not exist and instead of promoting mutual contacts between the media and news agencies of the Muslim
and the Non-Muslim worlds, the Muslim media is always blamed as biased and unreliable by the Western
news agencies. This situation promotes distrust between the Muslim World and the West. Regrettably, this
situation exists because of the absence of a strong Muslim new agency and media network.

14
These points are based on various discussions of this researcher with several intellectuals and concerned
officials on different occasions.

15
The Muslim World is under huge financial strain from the crippling burden of foreign debts, particularly
those of the IMF and the World Bank (UNDP: 2005, 219-222, 274-277; World Bank: 2005a, 292-293; 2005b,
258-260). At present the situation is that both these global financial institutions are receiving a huge amount
of interest on the loans which they have advanced to many countries. The governments of the Muslim
countries need to develop a strong strategy in order to redress this alarming situation. Therefore, a Muslim
Monetary Fund (MMF) should be established with its primary objective being to help Muslim countries out
of the vicious circle of foreign debt. This action would drastically reduce the financial burden on the annual
budgets of these countries, thus enabling more resources to be diverted to tackling issues such as human
 132
poverty. It would also enable them to initiate various industrial projects, which would generate income and
employment opportunities.

16
In addition to the MMF, the Muslim World also needs to establish a Human Development Fund (HDF). At the
initial stage, this money should be utilised to establish a basic infrastructural network and to start various human
development projects in deprived communities throughout the Muslim World. In this instance, the Islamic
Development Bank would not only be a key institution in improving the financial condition of Muslim countries,
but also a means of enhancing intra-Islamic trade, as well as helping in the research and development of science,
technology, the Muslim media and other projects, with a view to eliminating mass poverty.

17
It does not need to be emphasised further that the Muslim World is lagging behind the rest of the world in
the field of science and technology. The same is also true of the media. In both these fields, the Muslim World is
totally dependent upon the West. This is one of the main reasons why the Muslim countries have no voice and
weightage in global affairs. There are various institutions already working in this area under the auspices of the
OIC. These include, the International Islamic News Agency, the Islamic States Broadcasting Organisation, and
the Islamic Foundation for Science, Technology and Development. The problem is that the limited spectrum
of the activities of these institutions has made them completely ineffective. Muslim countries must begin to
establish a strong Muslim News Agency not less than the level of the BBC, Voice of America or CNN.

18
With regard to the provision of joint security, Mohammad Selim (1997, 28-63) rightly pointed out that: ‘Analysts
of international organisations agree that the ability of an organisation to deliver security to its member states
is one of its essential functions. The failure of an organisation to establish a series of collective arrangements to
deter external aggression inevitably weakens the connection of loyalty between the organisation and member
states as they will look elsewhere for security.’ This is true in the sense that while the Allied forces are active
in Afghanistan and Iraq, the OIC has absolutely no role there. The post-9/11 era highlights the need to adopt
a collective security approach for the Muslim World. The prevailing global instability as well as the situation of
the Muslim World highlights an obvious and urgent need for their collective security for which they need to
create two new institutions, i.e., the Muslim Security Council (MSC) and the Muslim Defence Force (MDF). The
MSC should have two objectives. Firstly, on the political front, it should be the supreme authority for dealing
with various conflicts in the Muslim World. Secondly, it should be the governing authority of the MDF to
respond to any aggression towards a member state. Composed of the militaries of various Muslim countries,
the MDF should be organised on the lines of NATO. It should be an active and rapid action force to deals with
any security threat.

19
There is enormous potential for international trade between Muslim countries and significant research
has already been conducted in various aspects of this field (e.g., Metwally: 13-15 May 2002 and Ilkin: July
2005, 35-76). Muslim countries have to realise that they must develop their own markets and for that
they should focus on regional and sub-regional economic unions such as the Arab Common Market, the
Arab Maghreb Union, the Gulf Cooperation Council and the Economic Cooperation Organisation. When this
cooperation is sufficiently strengthened, the next step should be inter-cooperation between the regional
economic groups leading to the development of a fully-fledged ‘Islamic common market’. This task is not
hard to achieve as the compact geographical position of the Muslim countries gives them a comparative
advantage over trade with other industrial countries.
 133
20
In June 2004, USAID published a report entitled: Economic Growth in the Muslim World – How can US
Aid Help? The study was conducted by Peter Timer and Donald McClelland. It concluded that the ‘Muslim
countries tended to be poorer than Non-Muslim countries.’ It further revealed that: i) on an average basis, in
selected sample regions, Non-Muslim countries enjoyed double per capita income as compared to Muslim
countries, and, ii) ‘their long-term economic problems point to deep-seated failures to establish the core
elements that support modern economic growth.’ USAID is right in its argument as the review of various Human
Development Reports (UNDP), World Development Reports (World Bank) and World Development Indicators
(World Bank) not only reflects the same situation but also highlight that the debt burden on Muslim countries
is comparatively higher and continuously on the rise. This view is also endorsed by the Islamic Development
Bank in its Annual Report: 2004-2005 (April 2005, 46). This is the reason that a chunk of the budgets of several
Muslim countries are allocated for the payment of interest on previous loans.
 134

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Ibid. (1997), Human Development Report 1997, op. cit.

Ibid. (1998), Human Development Report 1998, op. cit.

Ibid. (1999), Human Development Report 1999, op. cit.

Ibid. (2000), Human Development Report 2000, op. cit.

Ibid. (2005), Human Development Report 2005, op. cit.

 139
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Ibid. (2000), World Development Report 2000/2001, op. cit.

Ibid. (2001), World Development Report 2002, op. cit.

Ibid. (2002), World Development Report 2003, op. cit.

Ibid. (2003), World Development Report 2004, op. cit.

Ibid. (2004), World Development Report 2005, op. cit.

Ibid. (2005a), World Development Report 2006, op. cit.

Ibid. (2005b), World Development Indicators 2005, New York: The World Bank.

Ibid. (21 January 2006), ‘Globalisation,’ <http:// youthink.worldbank.org/ issues/ globalization/...>.

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We pray to Allah SWT for the
success of all students and
the development of Ummah