A Project Report on

MEASUREMENT OF STRESSES
AND STRAINS USING STRAIN
GAUGE USING IoT PLATFORM
By
Khan Gulam Mushahid A. Jadhav Prathamesh P.
Khelukar Nikhil S. Khan Muzammil A.

Guide
V. J. Dhore

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
GURU GOBIND SINGH COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & RESEARCH CENTER,
NASHIK
[2021-22]
 GURU GOBIND SINGH COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & RESEARCH CENTER,
NASHIK

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Khan Gulam Mushahid A, Mr. Jadhav Prathamesh P,
Mr. Khelukar Nikhil S, and Mr. Khan Muzammil A. have successfully completed the
project stage II entitled “Measurement of Stresses and Strains Using Strain Gauge
Using IoT Platform” under my supervision, in the partial fulfillment of Bachelor of
Engineering –Mechanical Engineering of Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune.
Date: Place: Nashik

V. J. Dhore
Guide Internal Examiner

Dr. C. D. Mohod Dr. N. G. Nikam

HOD Principal

External Examiner Seal

 Acknowledgment
We would like to express our sincere gratitude and warm appreciation to our project guide
V.J. Dhore for his valuable guidance, profound advice, persistent encouragement, and help
during the completion of this work. His time-to-time helpful suggestions boosted us to
complete this task successfully. He has helped us in all possible ways right from gathering
the materials to report preparation. We would like to express our deepest appreciation
toward Dr. C. D. Mohod (H.O.D., mechanical engineering department) and Dr. N. G.
Nikam (principal, GCOERC) whose invaluable guidance supported us in completing this
work. At last, we must express our sincere heartfelt gratitude to all the staff members of the
mechanical engineering department who helped us directly or indirectly during this course
of work. With a deep sense of gratitude, we are also thankful to Guru Gobind Singh
Foundation, Nashik for providing all necessary facilities, constant encouragement &
support.

Khan Gulam Mushahid Raza Mohammad Akram

Jadhav Prathamesh Pandharinath

Khelukar Nikhil Shantaram

Khan Muzammil Arif

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 Content

Ch. Name Of Chapter Page

No No.
Acknowledgment iii
Abstract x
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction of the Project Work 1
1.2 Problem Statement 2
1.3 Objectives 2
1.4 Working Principle 2
1.5 Scope of the Project Work 4
2. LITERATURE 5
3. SELECTION OF COMPONENTS 10
3.1 Selection of Material 10
3.1.1 Experimental Setup Specification 10
3.1.2 Component’s Description 11
3.1.2a Strain Gauge 11
3.1.2b Strain Gauge Elements 13

3.1.2c Wheatstone’s Bridge 13

3.1.2d Arduino Board (Controller) 14
3.1.2e Bluetooth Module 15
3.2 Development of Application And Coding 15
3.2.1 MIT App Inventor 16
3.2.2 Stress-Strain Measurement Developed App 17
3.2.3 Arduino Software (IDE) 18
3.3 Coding 19

iv
 4 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND STRAINS 23

4.1 Theoretical Stress Calculation 23

4.2 Theoretical Strain Calculation 26
5. SIMULATION-BASED STRESS AND STRAIN 30
CALCULATION
5.1 Introduction to Simulation (Fusion 360) 30

5.2 Simulated Models for Stress and Strain for Different 30

Load Conditions
5.2.1 Stress And Strain Analysis for Weight=9.81N 31

5.2.2 Stress And Strain Analysis for Weight=19.62N 32

5.2.3 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight= 39.24N 33

5.2.4 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight= 78.48N 34

5.2.5 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight =98.1N 35

6 EXPERIMENTAL STRESS AND STRAIN 36

CALCULATION
6.1 Experimental Stress Calculation 36

6.2 Experimental Stress and Strain Determination 36

Examples
7 OBSERVATIONS 40

7.1 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Simulation Stress and 40

Strain
7.2 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress 41
and Strain
7.3 Simulation Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress 42
and Strain
7.4 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Simulation Stress and 43
Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain
8 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 45

v
 8.1 Stress Representation 45

8.1.1 Graphical Representation of Experimental Stress and 45

Simulated Stress
8.1.2 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress and 46
Simulated Stress
8.1.3 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress and 47
Experimental Stress
8.1.4 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress, 48
Experimental Stress, and Simulated Stress
8.2 Strain Representation 49

8.2.1 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and 49

Simulated Strain
8.2.2 Graphical Representation of Simulated Strain and 50
Theoretical Strain
8.2.3 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and 51
Theoretical Strain
8.2.4 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and 52
Theoretical Strain
9 CONCLUSION 53

10 FUTURE SCOPE 54

11 REFERENCES 55

PUBLICATION

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 List of Tables

Table Title Page No.

No.
4.1 Theoretical Stress and Theoretical Strain 29
7.1 Theoretical Stress and Strain V/S Simulation Stress 40
and Strain.
7.2 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Experimental 41
Stress and Strain
7.3 Simulation Stress and Strain Vs Experimental 42
Stress and Strain
7.4 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Simulation Stress 43
and Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain

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 List of Figures

Fig. Title Page

No. No.
1.1 Experimental Setup 3
3.1 Schematic Diagram 10
3.2 Strain Gauge Construction 11
3.3 Strain Gauge Elements 13
3.4 Wheatstone Bridge Construction 14
3.5 Arduino Board (Controller) 14
3.6 Bluetooth Module 15
3.7 Development Of App Using MIT App Inventor 16
3.8 Editing of the App 17
3.9 Stress-Strain Measurement Android Application 18
3.10 Code Writing Using Arduino IDE 19
4.1 Schematic Diagram of A Cantilever Beam 23
5.1 Stress Developed 31
5.2 Strain Developed 31
5.3 Stress Developed 32
5.4 Strain Developed 32
5.5 Stress Developed 33
5.6 Strain Developed 33
5.7 Stress Developed 34
5.8 Strain Developed 34
5.9 Stress Developed 35
5.10 Strain Developed 35
6.1 Visual Of Experimental Stress and Strain For 37
1.250 Kg
6.2 Visual Of Experimental Stress and Strain For 2.00 38
Kg
6.3 Visual Of Experimental Stress and Strain For 39
3.00 Kg

8.1 Variation Of Experimental Stress and Simulated 45

Stress
8.2 Variation Of Theoretical Stress and Simulated 46
Stress

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8.3 Variation Of Theoretical Stress and Experimental 47
Stress
8.4 Variation Of Theoretical Stress, Experimental 48
Stress, and Simulated Stress
8.5 Variation Of Experimental Strain and Simulated 49
Strain
8.6 Variation Of Simulated Strain and Theoretical 50
Strain
8.7 Variation Of Experimental Strain and Theoretical 51
Strain
8.8 Variation Of Experimental Strain, Theoretical 52
Strain and Simulation Strain

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 Abstract
Mechanical elements are subjected to various stresses due to different loading conditions
hence it is necessary to calculate the values to avoid failure of the structure. A component
fails because of axial, bending, and torsional stress. The work is on the design, construction,
and testing of a full-bridge strain gauge-based stress and strain measuring instrument. This
is achieved by dividing the whole measurement system into the power section which
consists of voltage regulators and operational amplifier, arithmetic, logic section consists
of the microcontrollers that arithmetically compute the strain, Bluetooth module, IC
Arduino board, and finally input and output section for user dialog using IoT platform. The
governing equation for the design revolves around Hooke’s law and ohm’s law. In the
design, we considered the instrumentation of the measuring strain gauge system which
includes the Wheatstone bridge setup, microcontroller, and IC programming followed by
simulation using C++ programming on Arduino.
Many technological processes introduced tensile stresses and strain in mechanical
components. These stresses can have negative effects on the performance of structures and
certain applications by influencing fatigue life and fatigue crack propagation significantly.
Different stresses and strain at different + procedures are also described and applied to
different loading conditions. The work presented here aims at developing a test rig to
measure bending stress and strain developed in a cantilever beam. The test rig uses a strain
gauge in Wheatstone full-bridge configuration to sense the deformation.

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 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

1. INTRODUCTION

In the moment’s world due to the increase in complexity of designs, there has been an
increase in the need for dimension and analysis of stresses and strain developed in the
factors, which also needs to cover from a remote position. In numerous artificial sectors
for similar measures, strain needles have an important consideration. Systems with correct
measures can define the strain position generating on colourful construction similar as from
civil to biomechanics engineering. Specific construction’s lifetime and trouble can be
measured grounded on strain dimension. Strain is nothing but the distortion caused due to
stress. The most standard and dependable system to measure strain is using bonded
electrical strain hand. Upon distortion. The conductive grid changes the electrical
resistance of the strained hand, and the strained hand gives readings in terms of resistance,
so the Wheatstone bridge is used to convert the change of resistance into electrical signals
i.e., in terms of electrical voltage. But this difference voltage is veritably small so it needs
to amplify to a certain position so as to understand by the regulator. The strain hand is
mounted as one of the four legs of the Wheatstone ground circuit designing a full ground
circuit that amplifies the microstrain values from each strain hand and gives the
perceptivity about two times & four times more advanced than half ground and quarter
ground configuration independently. The attendant affair value is the difference voltage
between two affair terminals. In this composition, stress dimension and analysis has been
done on a simply supported ray, a setup was designed and fabricated for the trial and
readings were taken, the attained experimental results were validated with theoretical
results.

1.1 Introduction of the Project Work

In our project we are using a strain gauge as a cantilever beam in order to calculate stress
and strain induced in cantilever beam when it is applied to different loading conditions. It
is an IoT based project in which we are using C ++ programming in Arduino circuit to
show output on mobile application using Bluetooth module connected to strain gauge
setup. The output value which is calculated by adding different loads is then rechecked by
simulation software (Fusion 360).

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 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

1.2 Problem Statement

To measure tensile stress and strain induced in a cantilever beam when applied to different
loading conditions.

1.3 Objectives

I. To study about stress and strain induced in cantilever beam.

II. To study components such as strain gauge, Arduino circuit, HX7 Bluetooth module,
microcontroller.
III. To design load cell (strain gauge) as a cantilever beam in software for the purpose of
simulation.
IV. To gain the practical knowledge of this model.

1.4 Working Principle

The setup is developed to measure the bending stress in the cantilever beam for different
loading conditions. Fig. 1.1 represents the schematic diagram of a cantilever beam. In the
theoretical method point load is applied at a distance of 𝑙2 by calculating the reaction forces
moment around the strain gauge is calculated. Bending stress is calculated using the flexural
formula. The beam is fixed at one end by using a nut-bolt on a frame as shown in fig. 1.1
the strain gauges are mounted on the beam at a distance of 65mm from the fixed support.
Strain gauges are mounted in accordance with Wheatstone bridge by using full-bridge
circuit. The strain gauges mounted on the upper part give us tensile stress and the strain
gauges on the lower part weights. The deflection of the strain gauges is acquired and
displayed on the monitor/application. There is slight variation in the simulated and
experimental stress and strain values, this is due to the hollow section present in the actual
beam. Theoretical values and simulation have negligible change in values. From the
experimental strain values experimental stress and strain is calculated. The experimental
and theoretical stress values were validated using fusion 360 simulation software.

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Fig. 1.1 Experimental Setup

The instruments used to carry out the experiment are, the main module, power adaptor, steel
beam, dead weights, and frame structure.

The assumptions made are as follows:

1. Beam is assumed to be isotropic and homogenous.

2. Residual stress are neglected in theoretical calculations and limited by calibration in

experimentation.

3. Young’s modulus 𝐸 = 210𝐺𝑃𝑎.

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1.5 Scope of the Project Work

Strain gauges are extensively used in the field of geotechnical monitoring to keep a
constant check on structures, dams, tunnels, and buildings so that mishaps can be avoided
well on time. The applications of strain gauges include aerospace: strain gauges are fixed
to the structural load-bearing components to measure stresses along load paths for wing
deflection or deformation in an airplane. The strain gauges are wired into the Wheatstone
bridge circuits and, its application areas include onboard signal conditioning units,
excitation power supplies, and the telemetry necessary to read in site measurements.

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2. LITERATURE

Jingshi Shen [1], the space station has a long working cycle and needs to be filled with gas
for daily life and scientific experiments. The FBG sensor was selected for the first time in
the Chinese space station to monitor the strain of the cabin. The resistance strain gauge is
used as the strain measurement standard. The results show that the strain measurement of
the FBG sensor and the resistance strain gauge are very close in the circumferential
direction. However, the absolute error is quite large in the axial direction. These results are
of great help to the test of force and the accurate assessment of the state in the cabin.
A.C. Mitra [2], the work presented in this paper aims at developing a test rig to measure
bending stress developed in cantilever beam Mechanical elements are subjected to various
stresses due to different loading conditions hence it is necessary to calculate the values in
order to avoid failure of the structure. A component fails because of axial stress, bending
stress and torsional stress. The work presented here aims at developing a test rig to measure
bending stress developed in cantilever beam. The test rig uses strain gauge in Wheatstone
full bridge configuration to sense the deformation.
Litvan David [3], In this paper testing of foundation slab exposed to vertical load is
described. During the testing the foundation deformations, stress in the subsoil and tension
in the cross-section were measured. Tension in the cross-section is measured using strain
gauges. In the paper there are measured values of tension in the bottom part foundation slab
compared with values calculated using simplified model of subsoil and using FEM analysis.
The measured and calculated values respond in a few cases, in many another responds only
roughly. For more accurate analysis it would be more favourable to use smaller load step
in order to monitor the tension in the strain gauges in more steps.
P. Tekriwal [4], A three-dimensional transient thermomechanical analysis has been
performed for the Gas Metal Arc Welding process using the finite element method. The
second part then uses results of the first part and performs a three-dimensional transient
thermo-elastoplastic analysis to compute transient and residual distortions, strains and
stresses in the weld. The thermomechanical model incorporates all the thermophysical and
mechanical properties of the material as functions of temperature. Boundary conditions
used in the numerical simulation are quite general and are matched with the experiment
carried out to measure transient strains in the mild steel (0.22 percent carbon steel) weld.

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Good qualitative agreement was achieved between calculated and measured transient
strains.
R. G. Craig [5], Strains in fixed bridges cemented to models were measured with strain
gauges. The position and the magnitude of the static load was varied, and strains were
measured on the metal surface and on the porcelain facings. Larger surface strains were
observed when the load was applied directly on the pontic bearing the strain gauge. The
strain decreased, depending on the distance from the load and the amount of support given
by the abutment. Under similar conditions, maxillary anterior bridges had more surface
strain than mandibular anterior bridges, and the posterior bridge had low surface strains.
These observations are explained on the basis of the length of span, balk of the restoration,
and the presence of cantilever action.
A. Ajovalasit [6], gives an overview on the application of strain gauge techniques to the
analysis of the strains in composite materials. The orthotropic behaviour of the composite
influences the performance of strain gauges that are calibrated for use on isotropic materials.
it considers therefore the typical topics of the strain gauge technology applied to composites
with particular reference to the compensation of thermal output, the measurement of the
coefficients of thermal expansion, the determination of the strain and stress state, the
influence of the misalignment error, the reinforcement effect, the determination of the stress
intensification factor, the analysis of residual stresses by the hole drilling method and the
effect of transverse sensitivity on the measurement of strains along the fibres.
Muhammet Emre Turan [7], The knowledge of residual stress types and distributions gives
prediction the mechanical properties of materials for manufacturer. his study aims to make
comparison between destructive and non-destructive residual stress measurement
techniques and to investigate the influence of rail head geometry on residual stress by the
use of two different quality rails. One of the rails is R260 grade and the other one is R260
grooved rail. In addition to residual stress measurement with strain gauge (cutting) and X-
ray diffraction method, microstructures of the specimens were examined. Results show that
grooved rail has higher residual stress and different types of stress were observed for
samples which are supported by X-ray and strain gauge method.
Hamid Eisazadeh [8], investigating transient strains using experimental methods such as
strain gauges gives an additional view on how RS is reduced. the transient strain and stress

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 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

on the surface of dissimilar plate during gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding process have been
studied using non-destructive strain gauge method. It is demonstrated that strain gauge
measurements during dissimilar welding processes can be used to indicate residual elastic
strain and stress. The strain gauge (SG) measurement method shows good agreement with
FE model and neutron diffraction measurements. The assumptions and limitations
associated with strain measurement and determination of the stress state are explored.
Lastly, curvature due to dissimilar weld and its effects on strain measurement, which is in
contrast with similar weld, was measured and discussed.
Federico Giubilato [9], His method described the location, combination and calibration of
strain channels applied to the rails and the shell of a modern saddle in order to collect field
data during representative road and mountain bike sessions. Results revealed the strong
influence of rider posture rather than rider mass on stress states and on the fatigue damage
ratio between mountain bike and road stress spectra.
Piotr Tutak [10], He presents an application of strain gauges in measurements of strain
which occurs in charge air cooler during the thermal cycle test. The work shows the main
idea of measuring system based on strain gauges and important aspects that should be
considered when performing measurement. In this article there has been also presented
construction and principal operation of a strain gauge measurement system.
Brent Maundy [11], presents several amplifier circuits for use with strain gauges. The
circuits are inherently linear, produce four times the output of the standard Wheatstone
bridge, and can easily be extended to accommodate multiple strain gauges. The
implementation platform is the low-cost operational amplifier instead of the more expensive
instrumentation amplifier, and circuit functionality has been verified using PSPICE
simulations, and laboratory tests.
Jelena Manojlović [12], this work aims to gain practical experience with resistance strain
measurements techniques and to learn about the Wheatstone bridge, as well as how it is
used in strain measurements. The idea behind this is to help students understand strain and
stress better. For this purpose, a very simple model able to measure electrical parameters in
the electric circuit with the acceptable accuracy is made in order to calculate the non-
electrical quantities such as force. The presented model is a learning tool, applied in the
laboratory for measurements.

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 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

Eva Labašová [13], focuses on determining the material properties (Young modulus and
shear modulus) of the testing samples. The theoretical basis for determining material
properties are the knowledge of linear elasticity and strength. The starting points are
dependencies among the modulus of elasticity, shear modulus, normal stress and relative
strain. The relative strains of the testing samples were obtained by measuring predefined
load conditions using a strain-gauge bridge and the universal measurement system Quantum
X MX 840. The integration of these tasks into the teaching process enhances practical and
intellectual skills of students at secondary level technical universities.
Ahmed Ibrahim [14], discusses the stresses developed in a thin-walled pressure vessel.
Pressure vessels (Cylindrical or spherical) are designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure
substantially higher than the ambient pressure. A case study of internal pressure developed
in a soda can was determined by measuring the elastic strains of the surface of the soda can
through strain gages attached to the can and connected to Strain indicator Vishay model
3800.
Thomas C. Moore [15], it gives brief information about the installation of strain gauge on
different surface. The character of the testing at LaRC is such that the types of strain gage
installations, the materials they are applied to, and the test environments encountered,
require many varied approaches for installing strain gages. This technical memorandum is
offered as an assisting guide in helping the strain gage user to determine the appropriate
approach for a given strain gage application requirement. Specifically, this document offers
detailed recommendations for strain gaging the following: LaRC-designed balances, LaRC
custom transducers, certain composite materials and alloys, high-temperature test articles,
and selected non-typical or unique materials or test conditions.
Lanka Ramesh [16], this paper gives a viable relationship between the modal natural
frequencies for the different crack depth for that vibration analysis is carried out on a
cantilever beam with two open transverse cracks on universal vibration apparatus.
Modelling and simulation are established using commercially available finite element
analysis software package ANSYS. The results obtained from simulation are validated with
the result obtained from the experiment.
Diana Šimić [17], the analysis of stress and strain in the reinforced concrete structure of a
sports hall grandstand was conducted theoretically, by means of the finite element method,

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 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

and experimentally, by structural model testing in laboratory. Structural model for

laboratory testing was prepared on the scale 1:10 using a medium density fibreboard plate
38 mm in thickness. After analysis of the reinforced concrete grandstand structure, and
following comparison of results obtained by model testing in laboratory with results
obtained by analysis via finite element method, it can be concluded that there is a good
correspondence of research results for stress and deflection of the reinforced concrete
grandstand structure.
Ahmet Erklig [18], aims to determining the strain gauge location points in the problems of
stress concentration, and it includes both experimental and numerical results. Strain gauges
were proposed to be positioned to corresponding locations on beam and blocks to related
node of elements of finite element models. Linear and nonlinear cases were studied.
Cantilever beam problem was selected as the linear case to approve the approach and
conforming contact problem was selected as the nonlinear case. The finite element analysis
was carried out with ANSYS. It was shown that the results of the experimental and the
numerical studies were in good agreement.

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3. SELECTION OF COMPONENT

3.1 Selection of Material

Fig. 3.1 Schematic Diagram

Here we have considered the cantilever beam of aluminium having total length of 130 mm
and rectangular in cross section with breadth ‘b’ of 30 mm and height ‘h’ of 22 mm. In our
setup we used full bridge strain gauge. The strain gauges are placed at the middle of the
beam. The load is applied at the free end of the beam. The distance between the strain
gauges and point of load applied is 54 mm.
Here we have developed an android app to display the induced stress and strain in the
cantilever beam. As there is no load applied the value of mass, stress and strain are displayed
to be zero. After we apply the load the weight applied, induced stress and strain are
displayed. Now you can compare the experimental values with theoretical values and
analytical values obtained by simulator fusion 360.
3.1.1 Experimental Setup Specification

Beam type: Cantilever Beam

Beam material: Aluminium

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Young’s modulus (e):70GPa

Total length: 130mm

Strain gauge to applied load distance (l1):65mm

Gauge factor: 2

Breadth (b):26mm

Height (h):22mm

3.1.2 Component’s Description

3.1.2a Strain Gauge

Fig. 3.2 Strain Gauge Construction

A strain gauge Fig. 3.2 is a transducer used to measure strain. When it is deformed, electrical
resistance of a conductive grid changes. Grid deformation causes due to forces generating
from object that is loaded to which strain gauge is mounted by bonding. Strain gauge gives
output as resistance change depending on a physical change of the test object. When the
strain gauge is subjected to tensile or compressive forces, its length changes and hence
cross-section which affects in resistance change.

The ratio of change in length to the original length is called strain. A resistance strain gauge
is a transducer that exhibits electrical resistance changes when it is stretched or strained.

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When the strain gauge is subject to strain, the resistance “R” changes and the change in
resistance ∆R/R is proportional to the strain Ɛ. They may be of the bonded or unbonded
type, consisting of a length of resistance wire formed into a zig-zag pattern mounted onto a
flexible backing sheet. If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance
changes on account of the fact the resistance of the wire per unit length is inversely
proportional to the cross-sectional area. The resistance of the metal sample is given by:

Where ρ, l0, and A0 are density, length, and cross-sectional area. When the sample is stressed
by the application of a force F, the material elongates by some amount ∆l, and the change
in resistance is given by

The above relation between strain and resistance change is only approximately true. A strain
gauge specification always indicates the correct relation through gauge factor (GF):

For metal, the value of GF is always 2. The change in resistance of the strain gauge is
usually converted into a voltage signal by the use of the Wheatstone bridge.

If the bridge circuit shown in fig. 3.4 is used for the measurement of uniaxial strain, using
a single active gauge of resistance (Rg), the unloaded output voltage becomes.

(4×𝑉𝑜)
strain, 𝜀 = (𝑉𝑖×𝐺𝐹×𝑁)

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Here Strain is denoted by ε, For full-bridge N=4 for half-bridge N=2, for quarter bridge
N=1. Vi is the input voltage, and Vo is the output voltage. The output voltage is proportional
to mechanical strain for small changes in gauge resistance. Here GF is the gauge factor.

3.1.2b Strain Gauge Elements

Strain gauges are used in two forms, wire, and foil. The basic characteristics of each type
are the same in terms of resistance change for a given strain. The length of the strain gauge
is very long to give enough nominal resistance. Normally, strain gauges are bonded or
cemented directly onto the surface of the body or the structure that is being examined. In
metal wire strain gauges, a wire is stretched between two points in an insulating medium
such as air. The wires may be made of copper-nickel, chrome-nickel, or nickel-iron alloys.

They are about 0.003 mm in diameter and have a gauge factor of 2. The length of the wire
is 25 mm or less. In a bonded foil strain gauge, the foil is usually made up of constantan,
and it is etched in a grid pattern onto a thin plastic backing material, usually polyamide.
The foil is terminated at both ends with large metallic pads. The size of the entire gauge is
very small and has a length of 5 – 15 mm.

Fig. 3.3 Strain Gauge Elements

Bonded foil and metal wire strain gauges are rigidly attached to the strained members. The
above figure illustrates the cases where the strain gauge is attached to flexible elements in
the form of cantilevers, rings, and U shapes. When the flexible element is bent due to force
applied by a contact point, the electrical resistance will change.

3.1.2c Wheatstone Bridge

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Fig. 3.4 Wheatstone Bridge Construction

The Wheatstone network with full bridge configuration has four legs consist of strain
gauges. Full bridge configuration amplifies the output & gives sensitivity about four times
than quarter bridge configuration. Two strain gauges are mounted on the top and two are
mounted on the lower surface of the beam. This configuration is highly sensitive to bending
strain only. Strain gauges R1 and R3 measures compressive strain and strain gauges R2 and
R4 measures the tensile strain.

3.1.2d Arduino Board (Controller)

Fig. 3.5 Arduino Board (Controller)

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Arduino hardware and software is an open-source that helps to use single-board

microcontrollers and microcontroller kits for designing digital devices and interactive
objects that can senses and controls both manually and electronically or digitally. It operates
with clock speed of 16 MHz’s the boards are containing number of digital and analogue
input/output (I/o) pins that are used to interface the various external circuitry and devices,
sensors, switches, displays etc. The board also supports serial communications interfaces,
including universal serial bus (USB), which are also used for loading programs from
computers.

3.1.2e Bluetooth Module

Fig. 3.6 Bluetooth Module

Hc-07 rs232 wireless serial Bluetooth rf transceiver module for Arduino. Hc-07 Bluetooth
module is an easy-to-use Bluetooth spp (serial port protocol) module, designed for
transparent wireless serial connection setup. Its communication is via serial communication
which makes an easy way to interface with controller or pc or mobile application.

3.2 Development of Application and Coding

The android wireless Bluetooth connectivity-based application was made on the MIT app
inventor software. This application is connected with Bluetooth HC07 which transfer the

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data from the Arduino UNO to the android app and the readings of the stress and strain
along with the applied weight is shown on the software.

3.2.1 MIT App Inventor

MIT App Inventor is an intuitive, visual programming environment that allows everyone –
even children – to build fully functional apps for Android phones, iPhones, and
Android/iOS tablets. Those new to MIT App Inventor can have a simple first app up and
running in less than 30 minutes. And what's more, their blocks-based tool facilitates the
creation of complex, high-impact apps in significantly less time than traditional
programming environments. The MIT App Inventor project seeks to democratize software
development by empowering all people, especially young people, to move from technology
consumption to technology creation.

A small team of MIT CSAIL staff and students, led by Professor Hal Abelson, forms the
nucleus of an international movement of inventors. In addition to leading educational
outreach around MIT App Inventor and conducting research on its impacts, this core team
maintains the free online app development environment that serves more than 6 million
registered users.

The Designer lets you create the app’s interface:

Fig. 3.7 Development of App Using MIT App Inventor

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The Blocks Editor lets you program the apps by putting blocks together.

Fig. 3.8 Editing of the App

MIT App Inventor is a web application integrated development environment originally

provided by Google, and now maintained by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT). App Inventor lets you develop applications for Android phones using a web browser
and either the connected phone or emulator. The App Inventor servers store your work and
help you keep track of your projects. You build apps by working with: The App Inventor
Designer, where you select the components for your app. MIT App Inventor for Android is
great for beginners. They provide comprehensive step-by-step tutorials. The layout is visual
and relies on drag and drop which helps users understand the components needed for an
app. Blocks-based coding programs inspire intellectual and creative empowerment. MIT
App Inventor goes beyond this to provide real empowerment for students to make a
difference – a way to achieve social impact of immeasurable value to their communities.

3.2.2 Stress-Strain Measurement Developed Application

The application was made on MIT app inventor by adding the logo and name of institute
and the varying block module of stress and strain along with weight.

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Fig. 3.9 Stress-Strain Measurement Android Application

The Bluetooth connectivity is always shown by green indication. The diagram and name of
students simply added by the software block interface of typing and editing. The app can
be downloaded by the link generated for this app by the software of MIT.

3.2.3 Arduino Software (IDE)

What is Arduino IDE used for?

The Arduino Integrated Development Environment - or Arduino Software (IDE) - contains

a text editor for writing code, a message area, a text console, a toolbar with buttons for
common functions and a series of menus. It connects to the Arduino hardware to upload

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programs and communicate with them. The Arduino language is C++, but it is very different
from most C++ varieties. The Arduino language has a lot of abstraction built in, especially
in the hardware interfaces, which makes it very simple to use. These IDEs improve
productivity by lessening setup time, boosting the speed of development tasks, keeping
developers up to date with the latest best practices and threats, and standardizing the
development process so that everyone can get on board.

Fig. 3.10 Code Writing using Arduino IDE

3.3 Coding

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

LiquidCrystal lcd(5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10);

#include <HX711_ADC.h>

HX711_ADC LoadCell(A4, A5);//HX711 constructor (dout pin, sck pin)

long t;

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const int btn = 2;

float value=0;

float rev=0;

unsigned int rpm;

int oldtime=0;

int time;

int mode = 0;

int mode1 = 0;

float i2 = 0;

float i = 0;

float j = 0;

float k = 0;

void setup() {

lcd.begin(20, 4);

Serial.begin(9600);

pinMode(btn,INPUT_PULLUP);

LoadCell.begin();

long stabilisingtime = 2000; // tare preciscion can be improved by adding a few seconds
of stabilising time

LoadCell.start(stabilisingtime);

LoadCell.setCalFactor(107.0); // user set calibration factor (float) 213 Smal 1KG Motha
40Kg 107

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void loop() {

LoadCell.update();

if(time<(millis()/1000))

lcd.clear();

lcd.print("Weight : ");

lcd.print(i);

j = i*0.3;

k = i*4.37;

lcd.print("Kg");

lcd.setCursor(0,1);

lcd.print("Stress :");

lcd.print(j);

lcd.setCursor(0,2);

lcd.print("Strain :");

lcd.print(k);

Serial.print(i);

Serial.print("|");

Serial.print(j);

Serial.print("|");

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Serial.print(k);

time = millis()/1000;

time = time + 1;

if (millis() > t + 250) {

i = LoadCell.getData();

i = i/1000;

float v = LoadCell.getCalFactor();

//Serial.print(i);

t = millis();

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4. ANALYSIS OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

4.1 Theoretical Stress Calculation
The arrangement was created to quantify the bending stress and strain in the cantilever beam
for various loading conditions. Fig. represents the schematic diagram of the cantilever
beam. In the theoretical method point load is applied at a distance of L by calculating the
reaction forces moment around the strain gauge is calculated. Bending stress is
calculated using the flexural formula.

Fig. 4.1 Schematic Diagram of a Cantilever Beam.

Here we are generating a formula for calculating the generalized theoretical formula for
calculating the stress values in the beam which will be induced when we will apply external
loading condition. This loading condition will be of point load at the free end of the beam,
and the other end will be fixed rigidly. Following is the equation-based of theoretical stress
calculation.

𝑚×𝑦
𝜎𝑡ℎ = (1)
𝐼

Where,

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1. m is in Nmm, is the moment about strain gauge.

2. y(mm), is the distance from the neutral axis.
3. I(mm^4), is the moment of inertia.
𝑁
4. 𝜎𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑀2 , is theoretical bending stress.

L is the distance of load applied from the free end and it is also the distance from where the
strain gauge is mounted.
ℎ
𝑦= (2)
2
The above equation gives us the distance of the middle fiber of the beam that we are using
as a prop.it is calculated from the outermost layer of the beam which is longitudinal with
respect to the major axis up to the middle fiber. This value of fiber distance is fixed for each
individual uniform cross-section beam. Here its value is half of the height of the beam.
𝑚 = 𝑤(𝑙) (3)
The above equation is the amount of weight that is applied at the free end of the cantilever
beam. Its unit is N-mm.
𝑏×ℎ 3
𝐼= (4)
12
The moment of inertia is the quantity expressed by the body resisting angular acceleration
which is the sum of the product of the mass of every particle with its square of a distance
from the axis of rotation. the equation of moment of inertia varies with every cross-section
type and its uniformity across its length. The above equation is the generalized equation of
moment of inertia for a rectangular cross-section, having a uniform cross-sectional area
across its length.
on substituting the values of y, m, and I from equations 2,3,4, in equation (1) we get,

𝑤×𝑙×ℎ×12
𝜎𝑡ℎ =
2×𝑏× ℎ3
𝑤×𝑙×6
𝜎𝑡ℎ = (5)
𝑏× ℎ2

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Thus, the above equation (5) gives us the theoretical values of stress. these calculated values
help us to cross examine the values we obtained from the simulation and experimental data.
Theoretical stress calculation example:

Specifications/ Given Data: -

1. Beam type - cantilever beam.

2. Young’s modulus - 70 G Pa.
3. Total beam length – 130 mm.
4. Distance between applied load and strain gauge(l) – 65 mm.
5. Breadth of cross-section – 26 mm.
6. Height of cross-section – 22 mm.

To Find: -

Bending stress for the beam, when a point load of 1000Gms/ (9.81N) is applied at the
free end of a cantilever beam.

Solution: -

step:1

Weight(f) = 9.81N

Step:2

moment of strain gauge/beam,

𝑚 =𝑙×𝑓 (a)

= 65× 9.81

= 637.65 N-mm

Step:3

Moment of inertia (I)

𝑏×ℎ3
𝐼= (b)
12

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26×223
=
12

= 23070.23 𝑚𝑚4

Step:4

Maximum fibre distance,

ℎ
𝑦= (c)
2

22
=
2

= 11 mm

Step:5

Bending stress induced in the beam,

𝜎𝑡ℎ 𝑚
= (d)
𝑦 𝐼

Put the values obtained from the equation a, b, c in the equation d

𝜎𝑡ℎ 637.65
=
11 23070

𝜎𝑡ℎ = 0.304037 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .

Therefore, for the point of 9.81N we got the stress values as 𝜎𝑡ℎ = 0.304037 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 .

4.2 Theoretical Strain Calculation

Strain is defined as the change in length of a stressed structural element divided by the
original length of the unstressed element. Bending strain refers to the change in length of a
structural element as a result of bending that occurs due to stress. Here we have considered
a strain gauge as a cantilever beam when the load is applied on the free end of the cantilever
beam which is point load, the beam will deflect and will show sagging which results in a
change in the length of the beam to some extent. This is the outcome of strain which is

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developed in the beam due to the application of load. We calculate the theoretical strain
which will be induced after point load application. Here we take output voltage from the
setup we developed because we need output voltage in calculating the strain value of the
beam. We calculated the output voltage with the help of a multimeter. We have provided a
socket on the setup itself, which is attached to determine the output voltage as well as the
input voltage of the strain gauge to measure the strain developed in the beam.

Parameters required to calculate strain:

• Input voltage
• Output voltage
• Poisson’s ratio
• Gauge factor

Here,

• input voltage is fixed and has a constant value of 6V.

• the Poisson’s ratio for the given beam is 0.3.
• the gauge factor for the given beam is 2.
• The strain is indicated by 𝜀.

(1 + 𝜗) × 𝐺. 𝐹 × 𝜀 × 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜 =
4

Rearranging the above equation, we get

4 × 𝑉𝑜
𝜀=
(1 + 𝜗) × 𝐺. 𝐹 × 𝑉𝑖

By putting the known values of input voltage, poisson’s ratio, gauge factor in the above
equation, we get

4 × 𝑉𝑜
𝜀=
(1 + 0.3) × 2 × 6

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4 × 𝑉𝑜
𝜀=
1.3 × 2 × 6

𝜀 = 0.2564𝑉𝑜

Hence, we obtained the theoretical strain equation.

Theoretical strain calculation example:

Given data: -

1. Input voltage Vi = 6V
2. Output voltage Vo = 1× 10−6 V
3. Gauge factor G.F = 2
4. Poisson’s ratio 𝜗 = 0.3

To Find: -

Strain calculation for the point loading condition, having load of 1000GMS/ 9.81N.

Solution: -

We know that,

(1 + 𝜗) × 𝐺. 𝐹 × 𝜀 × 𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑜 =
4

4 × 𝑉𝑜
𝜀=
(1 + 𝜗) × 𝐺. 𝐹 × 𝑉𝑖

Therefore, putting the known values in the above equation, we get

4 × 1 × 10−6
𝜀=
(1 + 0.3) × 2 × 6

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𝜀 = 2.5641 × 10−7 .

Hence, we successfully calculated the strain value for the load condition of 9.81N.

Table No. 4.1 Theoretical Stress and Theoretical Strain

Sr. No. Mass(kg) Weight(N) Bending stress developed Strain developed

theoretical (N/mm^2) theoretical

1 0.05 0.4905 0.0152 2.564*10^-7

2 0.1 0.981 0.0304 4.61*10^-7

3 0.25 2.4525 0.07601 1.12*10^-6

4 0.5 4.905 0.15202 2.20*10^-6

5 1 9.81 0.30403 4.43*10^-6

6 2 19.62 0.60807 8.90*10^-6

7 4 39.24 1.21615 1.75*10^-5

8 8 78.48 2.43230 3.49*10^-5

9 9 88.29 2.73633 3.94*10^-5

10 10 98.1 3.04037 4.38*10^-5

The above table shows the numerous samples of loads that were used to carry out the
experiment. It shows the stress values and strain values, which we get from theoretical
calculation. These values we will required to cross verify the outputs from experiment
values as well as simulation values. It was found that stress and strain calculated from all
these three methods were almost same with very minor variation in strain values.

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5. SIMULATION-BASED STRESS AND STRAIN CALCULATION

5.1 Introduction to Simulation (Fusion 360)

Fusion 360 helps students and educators prepare for the future of design. It's the first 3D
cad, cam, and cae tool of its kind, connecting your entire product development process into
one cloud-based platform. Fusion 360 is the only tool that connects the entire product
development process into a single cad/cam/cae cloud-based platform. It provides all the
support you need as you guide your students in advancing their engineering and
manufacturing skills.

Fusion 360 is a cloud-based 3D modelling, CAD, CAM, CAE, and PCB software platform
for product design and manufacturing.

•Design and engineer products to ensure aesthetics, form, fit, and function.

•Reduce the impact of design, engineering, and PCB changes and ensure manufacturability
with simulation and generative design tools.

•Directly edit existing features or model fixtures with the only truly integrated CAD + CAM
software tool.

When prototype’s weight isn’t distributed equally and the loads can have a negative impact
on the final product, that’s when you should create a simulation and check for critical spots.
Here, you can make a study of different load types or stresses and understand how your
product performs in real life. Multiple variables can be manipulated, including static stress,
modal frequencies, temperatures, thermal stress, structural buckling, and nonlinear static
stress. If your prototype should withstand a lot of pressure, this is definitely a useful
environment, and it’s usually used by experienced engineers.

5.2 Simulated Models for Stress and Strain for Different Load Conditions

We have simulated various loads on aluminium beam, which is fixed at one end. Load is
applied at the free end. We got satisfactory values of stress and strain.

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5.2.1 Stress and Strain Analysis for Weight=9.81N

Fig. 5.1 Stress Developed

Fig. 5.1 shows the stress developed in cantilever beam when applied to load of 1kg or
9.81N. The bending stress developed is 0.3041Mpa, which is also same as the value
obtained by formula-based value which is also 0.30404Mpa.

Fig. 5.2 Strain Developed

Fig. 5.2 shows the strain developed in the beam is 3.975*10-6, strain is unit less parameter.
This value of strain is in close agreement with theoretical strain and experimental strain.

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5.2.2 Stress and Strain Analysis for Weight=19.62N

Fig. 5.3 Stress Developed

Fig. 5.3 shows the stress developed in cantilever beam when applied to load of 2kg or
19.62N. The bending stress developed is 0.6081Mpa, which is also same as the value
obtained by formula-based value which is also 0.60808Mpa.

Fig. 5.4 Strain Developed

Fig. 5.4 shows the strain developed in the beam is 8.97436*10-6, strain is unit less
parameter. This value of strain is in close agreement with theoretical strain and experimental
strain.

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5.2.3 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight= 39.24N

Fig. 5.5 Stress Developed

Fig. 5.5 shows the stress developed in cantilever beam when applied to load of 4kg or
39.24N. The bending stress developed is 1.216Mpa, which is also same as the value
obtained by formula-based value which is also 1.21615Mpa

Fig. 5.6 Strain Developed

Fig. 5.6 shows the strain developed in the beam is 1.74359*10-5, strain is unit less
parameter. This value of strain is in close agreement with theoretical strain and experimental
strain.

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5.2.4 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight= 78.48N

Fig. 5.7 Stress Developed

Fig. 5.7 shows the stress developed in cantilever beam when applied to load of 8kg or
78.48N. The bending stress developed is 2.4Mpa, which is also same as the value obtained
by formula-based value which is also 2.4323Mpa.

Fig. 5.8 Strain Developed

Fig. 5.8 shows the strain developed in the beam is 3.48718*10-5, strain is unit less
parameter. This value of strain is in close agreement with theoretical strain and experimental
strain.

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5.2.5 Stress & Strain Analysis for Weight =98.1N

Fig. 5.9 Stress Developed

Fig. 5.9 shows the stress developed in cantilever beam when applied to load of 10kg or
83.385N. The bending stress developed is 3Mpa, which is also same as the value obtained
by formula-based value which is also 3.04038Mpa.

Fig. 5.10 Strain Developed

Fig. 5.10 shows the strain developed in the beam is 4.38462*10-5, strain is unit less
parameter. This value of strain is in close agreement with theoretical strain and experimental
strain.

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6. EXPERIMENTAL STRESS AND STRAIN CALCULATION

6.1 Experimental Stress Calculation

When a beam is loaded with external loads, all the sections of the beam will experience
bending moments and shear forces. The major stresses induced due to bending are normal
stresses of tension and compression. But the state of stress within the beam includes shear
stresses due to the shear force in addition to the major normal stresses due to bending
although the former is generally of a smaller order. A beam or a part of it is said to be in a
state of pure bending when it bends under the action of a uniform/constant bending moment,
without any shear force.

Procedure: -

1. Carefully set up the instrument on a stable platform, table, or floor.

2. Take the sample weight bags.
3. Attach the adaptor to the setup and plug it into the power board.
4. Run the mobile application on android mobile and connect this application with
mobile via Bluetooth.
5. Start applying different weight combinations on the free end on the cantilever beam
setup mounted on the rigid frame.
6. The combinations can be made from 50GMS to 10000GMS. Almost 200
combinations form. One can take 200 readings.
7. After applying different loads, the setup will show on LCD as well as the mobile
application the values of stress, strain, and weight(N).
8. These will be the stresses and strains developed in the mounted beam.

6.2 Experimental Stress and Strain Determination Examples

We have made load bags containing sand, ranging from 50 grams up to 10,000 grams. We
performed the experiment by applying the load bags at the free end of cantilever beam. The
setup is connected through Bluetooth gateway to mobile application which shows mass,
strain, stress values.

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Fig. 6.1 Visual of Experimental Stress and Strain for 1.250 Kg.

Fig. 6.1 gives us a visual of how experimental stress, strain, and load are measured. Here
we have applied a load with a combination of 1Kg+250Gms. A total of 1250Gms point load
has been applied on the free end of a cantilever beam. Hence with the load of 1250gms, we
have obtained the stress value as 0.38MPa and we got the strain value to be 5.51×10^-6.

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Fig. 6.2 Visual of Experimental Stress and Strain for 2.00 Kg.

Fig. 6.2 gives us a visual of how experimental stress, strain, and load are measured. Here
we have applied a load with a combination of 2Kg. A total of 2000Gms point load has been
applied on the free end of a cantilever beam. Hence with the load of 2000gms, we have
obtained the stress value as 0.61MPa and we got the strain value to be 8.87×10^-6.

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Fig. 6.3 Visual of Experimental Stress and Strain for 3.00 Kg

Fig. 6.3 gives us a visual of how experimental stress, strain, and load are measured. Here
we have applied a load with a combination of 3.00Kg. A total of 3000Gms point load has
been applied on the free end of a cantilever beam. Hence with the load of 3000gms, we
have obtained the stress value as 0.92MPa and we got the strain value to be 13.31×10^-6.

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7. OBSERVATIONS

7.1 Theoretical Stress and Strain V/S Simulation Stress and Strain

Table No. 7.1 Theoretical Stress and Strain V/S Simulation Stress and Strain

Sr. Mass Weight(N Bending stress Bending stress Strain Strain

No. (kg) ) developed developed developed developed
theoretical simulation theoretical simulation
𝑁 𝑁
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2

1 0.05 0.4905 0.0152 0.0152 2.564*10^-7 1.99*10^-7

2 0.1 0.981 0.0304 0.0304 4.61*10^-7 3.98*10^-7

3 0.25 2.4525 0.07601 0.07601 1.12*10^-6 3.659*10^-6

4 0.5 4.905 0.15202 0.1520 2.20*10^-6 1.99*10^-6

5 1 9.81 0.30403 0.3040 4.43*10^-6 3.98*10^-6

6 2 19.62 0.60807 0.6080 8.90*10^-6 7.95*10^-6

7 4 39.24 1.21615 1.2161 1.75*10^-5 1.59*10^-5

8 8 78.48 2.43230 2.4323 3.49*10^-5 3.18*10^-5

9 9 88.29 2.73633 2.7363 3.94*10^-5 3.58*10^-5

10 10 98.1 3.04037 3.0403 4.38*10^-5 3.98*10^-5

The above data shows the bending stress developed in the beam after different point load
conditions. We have compared the theoretical stresses and simulation stress for numerous
values of loads. we also compared the theoretical and simulation strain values for numerous

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values of loads. It is observed that the stress is in close agreement with each other. Their
error is very less or negligible. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are in
close agreement with each other and have a very negligible error in their values as compared
with each other.

7.2 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain

Table No. 7.2 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain

Sr. Mass(kg) Weight(N) Bending Bending stress Strain Strain

No. stress developed developed developed
developed experimental theoretical experimental
theoretical
𝑁
𝑁 𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚2
1 0.05 0.4905 0.0152 0.02 2.564*10^-7 2.60*10^-7

2 0.1 0.981 0.0304 0.03 4.61*10^-7 4.60*10^-7

3 0.25 2.4525 0.07601 0.08 1.12*10^-6 1.12*10^-6

4 0.5 4.905 0.15202 0.15 2.20*10^-6 2.20*10^-6

5 1 9.81 0.30403 0.3 4.43*10^-6 4.43*10^-6

6 2 19.62 0.60807 0.6 8.90*10^-6 8.90*10^-6

7 4 39.24 1.21615 1.2 1.75*10^-5 1.75*10^-5

8 8 78.48 2.43230 2.4 3.49*10^-5 3.49*10^-5

9 9 88.29 2.73633 2.7 3.94*10^-5 3.94*10^-5

10 10 98.1 3.04037 3 4.38*10^-5 4.38*10^-5

The above data shows the bending stress developed in the beam after different point load
conditions. We have compared the theoretical stresses and experimental stress for numerous
values of loads. we also compared the theoretical and experimental strain values for

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numerous values of loads. It is observed that the stress is in close agreement with each other.
Their error is very less or negligible. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are
in close agreement with each other and have a very negligible error in their values as
compared with each other.

7.3 Simulation Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain

Table No. 7.3 Simulation Stress and Strain Vs Experimental Stress and Strain

Sr. Mass(kg) Weight(N) Bending Bending Strain Strain

No. stress stress developed developed
developed developed simulation experimental
simulation experimental

𝑁 𝑁
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
1 0.05 0.4905 0.0152 0.02 1.99*10^-7 2.60*10^-7

2 0.1 0.981 0.0304 0.03 3.98*10^-7 4.60*10^-7

3 0.25 2.4525 0.0760 0.08 3.65*10^-6 1.12*10^-6

4 0.5 4.905 0.152 0.15 1.99*10^-6 2.20*10^-6

5 1 9.81 0.3041 0.3 3.98*10^-6 4.43*10^-6

6 2 19.62 0.6081 0.6 7.95*10^-6 8.90*10^-6

7 4 39.24 1.216 1.2 1.59*10^-5 1.75*10^-5

8 8 78.48 2.433 2.4 3.18*10^-5 3.49*10^-5

9 9 88.29 2.737 2.7 3.58*10^-5 3.94*10^-5

10 10 98.1 3.041 3 3.98*10^-5 4.38*10^-5

The above data shows the bending stress developed in the beam after different point load
conditions. We have compared the simulation stresses and experimental stresses for
numerous values of loads. we also compared the simulation and experimental strain values

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

for numerous values of loads. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are in close
agreement with each other and have a very negligible error in their values as compared with
each other. This is because the beam we have considered for the experimental purpose is
an industrial-made strain gauge load cell. It has a certain amount of volume removed from
the beam, which also affects the stress values.

7.4 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Simulation Stress and Strain Vs Experimental
Stress and Strain

Table No. 7.4 Theoretical Stress and Strain Vs Simulation Stress and Strain Vs
Experimental Stress and Strain

Sr. Mass Bending Bendin Bending Strain Strain Strain

No (kg) stress g stress stress developed develop develops
. develope develop develops theo. sim.
d theo. exp.
s sim. exp.
𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
𝑚𝑚2
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2

1 0.05 0.0152 0.0152 0.02 2.564*10^-7 1.99*10^-7 2.60*10^-7

2 0.1 0.0304 0.0304 0.03 4.61*10^-7 3.98*10^-7 4.60*10^-7

3 0.25 0.07601 0.0760 0.08 1.12*10^-6 3.65*10^-6 1.12*10^-6

4 0.5 0.15202 0.152 0.15 2.20*10^-6 1.99*10^-6 2.20*10^-6

5 1 0.30403 0.3041 0.3 4.43*10^-6 3.98*10^-6 4.43*10^-6

6 2 0.60807 0.6081 0.6 8.90*10^-6 7.95*10^-6 8.90*10^-6

7 4 1.21615 1.216 1.2 1.75*10^-5 1.59*10^-5 1.75*10^-5

8 8 2.43230 2.433 2.4 3.49*10^-5 3.18*10^-5 3.49*10^-5

9 9 2.73633 2.737 2.7 3.94*10^-5 3.58*10^-5 3.94*10^-5

10 10 3.04037 3.041 3 4.38*10^-5 3.98*10^-5 4.38*10^-5

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

The above table shows the variation of theoretical, simulation, and experimental stresses
and strains for various loading conditions.

The bending stress developed in the beam after different point load conditions. We have
compared the theoretical stresses and simulation stress for numerous values of loads. we
also compared the theoretical and simulation strain values for numerous values of loads. It
is observed that the stress is in close agreement with each other. Their error is very less or
negligible. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are in close agreement with
each other and have a very negligible error in their values as compared with each other. the
bending stress developed in the beam after different point load conditions. We have
compared the theoretical stresses and experimental stress for numerous values of loads. we
also compared the theoretical and experimental strain values for numerous values of loads.
It is observed that the stress is in close agreement with each other. Their error is very less
or negligible. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are in close agreement with
each other and have a very negligible error in their values as compared with each other.

The bending stress developed in the beam after different point load conditions. We have
compared the simulation stresses and experimental stresses for numerous values of loads.
we also compared the simulation and experimental strain values for numerous values of
loads. It is observed that the stress is in close agreement with each other. Their error is very
less or negligible. same in the case of strains, it is observed that they are in close agreement
with each other and have a very negligible error in their values as compared with each other.
here a bit more strain and stress difference may be observed in the values. This is because
the beam we have considered for the experimental purpose is an industrial-made strain
gauge load cell. It has a certain amount of volume removed from the beam, which also
affects the stress values.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

8. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

8.1 Stress Representation:

8.1.1 Graphical Representation of Experimental Stress and Simulated Stress

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS, SIMULATED STRESS vs LOAD

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
22

82
1
4
7
10
13
16
19

25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79

85
88
91
94
97
100

EXP. Stress(Mpa) SIM. Stress( Mpa)

Fig. 8.1 Variation of Experimental Stress and Simulated Stress

The above graph is plotted between experimental stress and simulation stress. The above
graph shows us the variation of stress along the x-axis, and along the y-axis, it shows the
variation of weights in Kg. the graph represents the stress variation as we increase the
weight on the cantilever beam. As already known that stress is directly proportional to
weight, here we can see and validate the same by observation of the graph.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

8.1.2 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress and Simulated Stress

SIMULATION STRESS, THEORETICAL STRESS vs LOAD

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
22

82
1
4
7
10
13
16
19

25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79

85
88
91
94
97
100
SIM. Stress( Mpa) THEO. STRESS(Mpa)

Fig. 8.2 Variation of Theoretical Stress and Simulated Stress

The above graph is plotted between the simulation stress and theoretical stress. The above
graph shows us the variation of stress along the x-axis, and along the y-axis, it shows the
variation of weights in Kg. the graph represents the stress variation as we increase the
weight on the cantilever beam. As already known that stress is directly proportional to
weight, here we can see and validate the same by observation of the graph.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

8.1.3 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress and Experimental Stress

EXPERIMENTAL STRESS, THEORETICAL STRESS vs LOAD

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
7

70
73
1
4

10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67

76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100 EXP. Stress(Mpa) THEO. STRESS(Mpa)

Fig. 8.3 Variation of Theoretical Stress and Experimental Stress

The above graph is plotted between the experimental stress and theoretical stress. The above
graph shows us the variation of stress along the x-axis, and along the y-axis, it shows the
variation of weights in Kg. the graph represents the stress variation as we increase the
weight on the cantilever beam. As already known that stress is directly proportional to
weight, here we can see and validate the same by observation of the graph.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

8.1.4 Graphical Representation of Theoretical Stress, Experimental Stress, and

Simulated Stress

EXPERIMENTAL, SIMULATED, THEORETICAL vs LOAD

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
46

55
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43

49
52

58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100

EXP. Stress(Mpa) SIM. Stress( Mpa) THEO. STRESS(Mpa)

Fig. 8.4 Variation of Theoretical Stress, Experimental Stress and Simulated Stress

The above graph is plotted between the experimental stress, simulated stress, and theoretical
stress. The above graph shows us the variation of stress along the x-axis, and along the y-
axis, it shows the variation of weights in Kg. the graph represents the stress variation as we
increase the weight on the cantilever beam. As already known that stress is directly

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

proportional to weight, here we can see and validate the same by observation of the graph.it
gives the overall comparison of all three methods of validation that we have used above.

8.2 Strain Representation:

8.2.1 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and Simulated Strain

EXPERIMENTAL STRAIN, SIMULATION STRAIN vs LOAD

5.00E-05

4.50E-05

4.00E-05

3.50E-05

3.00E-05

2.50E-05

2.00E-05

1.50E-05

1.00E-05

5.00E-06

0.00E+00
16

37

58
1
4
7
10
13

19
22
25
28
31
34

40
43
46
49
52
55

61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100

EXP. Strain SIM. Strain

Fig. 8.5 Variation of Experimental Strain and Simulated Strain

The above graph represents the comparison of variation in experimental and simulation
strain. the little deviation in the simulation concerning the experimental path is due to the

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

hollow section presents in the load cell of the experiment. And in simulation, we have
simulated using the complete uniform cross-section with no hollow section present.

8.2.2 Graphical Representation of Simulated Strain and Theoretical Strain

SIMULATION STRAIN, THEORETICAL STRAIN vs LOAD

5.00E-05

4.50E-05

4.00E-05

3.50E-05

3.00E-05

2.50E-05

2.00E-05

1.50E-05

1.00E-05

5.00E-06

0.00E+00
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 53 57 61 65 69 73 77 81 85 89 93 97 101

SIM. Strain THEO. Strain

Fig. 8.6 Variation of Simulated Strain and Theoretical Strain

The above graph represents the comparison of variation in theoretical strain and simulation
strain concerning load.

8.2.3 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and Theoretical Strain

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

EXPERIMENTAL STRAIN, THEORETICAL STRAIN vs LOAD

5.00E-05

4.50E-05

4.00E-05

3.50E-05

3.00E-05

2.50E-05

2.00E-05

1.50E-05

1.00E-05

5.00E-06

0.00E+00
1

19
4
7
10
13
16

22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
EXP. Strain THEO. Strain

Fig. 8.7 Variation of Simulated Strain and Theoretical Strain

The above graph represents the comparison of variation in experimental strain and
simulation strain concerning load. here there is very very less deviation of theoretical strain
concerning experimental strain because in theoretical calculation we took the output voltage
from the setup. It was needed to take the output voltage values from the setup itself because
theoretical strain requires output voltage parameters, without which it is not possible to
calculate the theoretical strain values.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

8.2.4 Graphical Representation of Experimental Strain and Theoretical Strain

EXPERIMENTAL, SIMULATION, THEORETICAL vs LOAD

5.00E-05

4.50E-05

4.00E-05

3.50E-05

3.00E-05

2.50E-05

2.00E-05

1.50E-05

1.00E-05

5.00E-06

0.00E+00
13
16
19
1
4
7
10

22
25
28
31
34
37
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
67
70
73
76
79
82
85
88
91
94
97
100
EXP. Strain SIM. Strain THEO. Strain

Fig. 8.8 Variation of Experimental Strain, Theoretical Strain and Simulated Strain

The above graph represents the overall strain variation of experimental, simulation, and
theoretical strain for the given numerous values of loads. It is observed that as we increase
load and stress increase but along with that strain also increases. Hence, we can conclude
that with increased load the strain in the cantilever beam also increases. the above graphs
help us to understand the trend in the deviation of different parameters such as stress, strain,
and deflection in the beam. It helps to determine the safe load and ultimate load of the beam.
So that it can be applied in real life for design purposes in different sectors.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

9. CONCLUSION

The theoretical, analytical and experimental values of stresses and strains are in close
agreement with each other. There is slight minor deviation in stress and strain values of
experimental readings. This is due to the hollow section present in the load cell/strain gauge
that we have considered for the experiment. As in simulation we have considered the beam
of uniform thickness, width, it is also uniform across its length. Also, in theoretical we have
calculated the stress strain parameters in which we have calculated the moment of inertia
which requires the height and width of cross section. There is no hollow section present in
the beam for theoretical calculation.

We observed that the value of stress increases gradually as we increase the load value. Strain
value is very small and it is increasing as we increase the load values. As the strain values
are very very small, we used amplifier module to amplify the strain, to make it readable.
We have calculated and considered the load values from 50gm to 10000 grams as these load
values are under safety limit, but if the load if beyond the factor of safety of the gauge we
have used, then it will fail and will show incorrect values or even will not show any value.
We have considered a strain gauge of load capacity of up to 40kg; we can apply load safely
up to 40kg. we can apply load up to 120% of the safe load without failure of beam. therefore,
the experiment carried out for only values up to 10kg /98.1N for maximum accuracy.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

10. FUTURE SCOPE

The setup can be integrated with microcontrollers to perform real time experimentation.
The setup will be automated to make it remotely accessible and implemented on IoT
platform. The developed stress and strain on any complex design and material can be
accessed remotely so that design and material health can be determined.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

11. REFERENCES

1. Jingshi Shen, Xiaodong Zeng, Yuxiang Luo, Changqing Cao and Ting Wang, research
on strain measurements of core positions for the Chinese space station, sensors 2018, pp
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2. Anirban C. Mitra, Akshata Jagtap, Sphurti Kachare, development and validation of

experimental setup for flexural formula of cantilever beam using NI-LABVIEW. Materials
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3. Litvan David, Mateckova Pavlina and Smirakova Martina, analysis of model foundation
slab focused on strain gauge measurement, international journal of theoretical and applied
mechanics, volume 1, 2016, pp.292-296.

4. P. Tekriwal j. Mazumder, transient and residual thermal strain-stress analysis of giaw

university of Illinois at urbana-champaign, urbana, July 1991, pp.336/vol.113.

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strain gauges, university of Michigan, school of dentistry, ann arbor, Michigan, 2011 vol.
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6. A. Ajovalasit, department di mechanic (dima) and composite materials research centre

university of palermo, viale delle scienze, Italy 2010.

7. Muhammet Emre Turan, Fatih Aydin, Yavuz Sun, Melik Cetin, residual stress
measurement by strain gauge and x-ray diffraction method in different shaped rails,
engineering failure analysis, 2019, pp.525–529.

8. Hamid Eisazadeh, Daryush K. Aidun, investigation of transient/residual strain and stress

in dissimilar weld, journal of manufacturing processes 2017 pp.372–381.

9. Federico Giubilatoa, Nicola Petronea, stress analysis of bicycle saddles structural

components during different cycling conditions, the 2014 conference of the international
sports engineering association, procedia engineering, 2014, pp.636 – 641.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, GCOERC, Nashik
 Measurement of Stress and Strain using Strain Gauge using IoT platform

10. Piotr Tutak “application of strain gauges in measurements of strain distribution in

complex object”, IT institute, university of social sciences, łódź, Poland, 2014, vol. 6, no.
2, pp.135-145.

11. Brent Maundy, Stephan J. G. Gift, “strain gauge amplifier circuits “, 2013 ieee, pp.0018-
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12. Jelena Manojlović, Predrag Janković, bridge measuring circuits in the strain gauge
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13. Eva LABAŠOVÁ, Determination of modulus of elasticity and shear modulus by the
measurement of relative strains, 2016, Volume 24, Number 39.

14. Ahmed Ibrahim, Yeong Ryu, Mir Saidpour, Stress Analysis of Thin-Walled Pressure
Vessels, Modern Mechanical Engineering, 2015, pp.1-9.

15. Thomas C. Moore, recommended strain gauge application procedures for various
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and Finite Element Model Analysis of an un-cracked and cracked Cantilever beam,ijarset
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17. Diana Šimić, analysis of stress and strain in the reinforced concrete Structure of a sports
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18. Ahmet Erklig and M. Akif Kütük, Experimental Finite Element Approach for Stress
Analysis, Hindawi Publishing Corporation Journal of Engineering Volume 2014.

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