The heart is enclosed by a double-walled sac
-pericardium
The loosely fitting superficial part of this sac   The circulation just described, from the right side of
-fibrous pericardium
helps protect the heart and anchors it to surrounding
structures, such as the diaphragm and sternum
--fibrous pericardium
Deep to the fibrous pericardium is the slippery, two-
layer
-serous pericardium
This fluid allows the heart to beat easily in a relatively
frictionless environment as the serous pericardial
layers slide smoothly across each other.
-serous fluid
often results in a decrease in the serous fluid,
-pericarditis 
This causes the pericardial layers to bind and stick to
each other, forming painful adhesions that interfere
with heart movements. 
--pericarditis 
It is the layer that actually contracts
-myocardium
It is continuous with the linings of the blood vessels
leaving and entering the heart.
-endocardium 
is a thin, glistening sheet of endothelium that lines the
heart chambers
--endocardium  relaxation and are forced open when the ventricles
Chambers and Associated Great Vessels
 helps blood flow smoothly through the heart
-endocardium
hey are not important in the pumping activity of the
heart
- superior atria
actual pumps of the heart
-inferior, thick-walled ventricles
*the right ventricle forms most of the heart’s anterior
surface; the left ventricle forms its apex.
The septum that divides the heart longitudinally
- interatrial septum
the heart to the lungs and back to the left side of the
heart
- pulmonary circulation
 Its only function is to carry blood to the lungs for gas
exchange and then return it to the heart.
-- pulmonary circulation
 left side of the heart is the systemic pump
right side is the pulmonary circuit pump. (
econd circuit, from the left side of the heart through
the body tissues and back to the right side of the hear
-systemic circulation
allow blood to flow in only one direction through the
heart chambers—from the atria through the ventricles
and out the great arteries leaving the heart
-valves
These valves prevent backflow into the atria when the
ventricles contract
-AV valves
guards the bases of the two large arteries leaving the
ventricular chambers
-semilunar valves
*AV valves are open during heart relaxation and
closed when the ventricles are contracting
*The semilunar valves are closed during heart
contract.
the valve flaps become stiff, often because of reated
bacterial infection of the endocardium 
-valvular stenosis,
orces the heart to pump and repump the same blood
because the valve does not close properly and blood
backflows.
-incompetent valve 
Cardiac Circulation
myocardium is drained by several cardiac veins
coronary sinus, in turn, empties into the right atrium.
Situations in which the myocardium is deprived of
oxygen often result in crushing chest pain  own rate, which is much slower
-angina pectoris  -haert block
esulting myocardial infarction (in-fark′shun) is
commonly called
-heart attack” or “coronary.
Intrinsic Conduction System of the
Heart: Setting the Basic Rhythm
act like brakes and accelerators to decrease or
increase the heart rate depending on which division is
activated.
-nerves of the autonomic nervous system
This system causes heart muscle depolarization in
only one direction—from the atria to the ventricles.
-intrinsic conduction system
 it enforces a contraction rate of approximately 75
beats per minute on the heart; thus, the heart beats
as a coordinated unit.
- intrinsic conduction system
 a crescent-shaped node of tissue
-  sinoatrial (SA) node,
 most important parts of the intrinsic conduction
system
-sinoatrial (SA) node,
parts of the intrinsic conduction system
-SA node
-AV node
-AV bundle
-Purkinjie fibers
is a tiny cell mass with a mammoth job, called
pacemaker
-SA node
* From the SA node, the impulse spreads through the
atria to the AV node, and then the atria contract
*  At the AV node, the impulse is delayed briefly to
give the atria time to finish contracting. It then passes
rapidly through the AV bundle, the bundle branches,
and the Purkinje fibers, resulting in a “wringing”
contraction of the ventricles that begins at the heart
apex and moves toward the atria
the ventricles (thus the heart) begin to beat at their
lack of an adequate blood supply to the heart muscle
that may lead to fibrillation
-  Ischemia
a rapid, uncoordinated shuddering of the heart muscle
(it looks like a bag of worms)
-  fibrillation
makes the heart totally useless as a pump and is a
major cause of death from heart attacks in adults. 
--  fibrillation
is a rapid heart rate (over 100 beats per minute)
- Tachycardia
is a heart rate that is substantially slower than normal
(less than 60 beats per minute)
-Bradycardia
Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds
refers to the events of one complete heartbeat, during
which both atria and ventricles contract and then relax
-cardiac cycle
cardiac cycle in terms of events occurring during three
periods—mid-to-late diastole, ventricular
systole, and early diastole
1. Mid-to-late diastole.  Our discussion begins
with the heart in complete relaxation. At this
point, the pressure in the heart is low, and blood
is flowing passively into and through the atria
into the ventricles from the pulmonary and
systemic circulations. The semilunar valves are
closed, and the AV valves are open. Then the
atria contract and force the blood remaining in
their chambers into the ventricles.
2. Ventricular systole.  Shortly after, ventricular
contraction (systole) begins, and the pressure
within the ventricles increases rapidly, closing
the AV valves. When the intraventricular
pressure (pressure in the ventricles) is higher
than the pressure in the large arteries leaving
the heart, the semilunar valves are forced open,
and blood rushes through them out of the
ventricles. During ventricular systole, the atria
are relaxed, and their chambers are again filling
with blood.
3. Early diastole.  At the end of systole, the
ventricles relax, the semilunar valves snap shut
 (preventing backflow), and for a moment the
ventricles are completely closed chambers.
During early diastole, the intraventricular
pressure drops. When it drops below the
pressure in the atria (which has been increasing
as blood has been filling their chambers), the AV
valves are forced open, and the ventricles again
begin to refill rapidly with blood, completing the
cycle.
 first heart sound is caused by the closing of the AV
valves
re common in people who stand for long periods of
time (for example, dentists and hairdressers) and in
obese (or pregnant) individuals. T
-Varicose veins 
A serious complication of varicose veins
-thrombophlebitis
 is the largest artery of the body, and it is a truly
splendid vessel.

-(lub) - aorta

second heart sound (dup) occurs when the semilunar supply the muscles of the thorax wall
valves close at the end of systole
-intercostal arteries
-dup
 supply the lungs 
Abnormal or unusual heart sound
- thoracic aorta
-murmurs

*The normal adult blood volume is about 6000 ml

 the amount of blood entering the heart and distending

its ventricles

-venous return

*Anything that increases the volume or speed of

venous return also increases stroke volume and force
of contraction

The enhanced squeezing action of active skeletal

muscles on the veins returning blood to the heart

-muscular pump

 primarily the vagus nerves, slow and steady the

heart, giving it more time to rest during noncrisis times

-Parasympathetic nerves,

mimics the effect of the sympathy

-Epinephrine,

when the pumping efficiency of the heart is depressed

so that circulation is inadequate to meet tissue needs

-congestive heart failure (CHF) 

is usually a progressive condition that reflects

weakening of the heart by coronary atherosclerosis ,

--congestive heart failure (CHF) 

*If the left heart fails, pulmonary congestion occurs.

* If the right side of the heart fails, peripheral

congestion occurs